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Normal Stresses
Shear Stresses
xy
yz
xz
x yx zx
= ij = xy y zy
xz yz z
The stress state is a second order tensor since it is a quantity associated with two
directions (two subscripts direction of the surface normal and direction of the stress).
Same state of stress is represented by a different set of components if axes are rotated.
There is a special set of components (when axes are rotated) where all the shear
components are zero (principal stresses).
A property of a symmetric tensor is that there exists an orthogonal set of axes 1, 2 and
3 (called principal axes) with respect to which the tensor elements are all zero except
for those in the diagonal.
1 0 0
' = ij' = 0 2 0
Eigen values
0 0 3
x yx zx
= ij = xy y zy
xz yz z
principal stress
Cosine of angle
between X and the
principal stress
Cosine of angle
between Y and the
principal stress
Cosine of angle
between Z and the
principal stress
k1
l1
m1
k2
l2
m2
k3
l3
m3
Plane Stress
State of stress in which two faces of the cubic element are free of stress. For the
illustrated example, the state of stress is defined by
x , y , xy
and
z = zx = zy = 0.
A shear strain in an element is positive when the angle between two positive faces
(or two negative faces) is reduced, and is negative if the angle is increased.
1
2
xx yx
xy yy
0
0
0
0
0
x1x1 y1x1 0
0
y1 y1
x1 y1
0
0
0
1 0
0
2
0 0
0
0
0
y1
x1
x
x1
x1y
1
xy
yx
Equilibrium of forces:
Acting in x1
AO
Sin
Sin
X1
= X cos AO + XY sin AO + Y Sin AO
+ YX cos AO
Cos
Cos
cos
and xy=yx
y1 =
x +y
x1 y1 =
x y
2
x y
2
cos 2 xy sin 2
sin 2 + xy cos 2
These equations are known as the transformation equations for plane stress.
Special Cases
Case 1: Uniaxial stress
y = 0 xy = yx = 0
1 + Cos 2
Sin 2
x1, y1 = x
x1 = x
x =y = 0
x1 = xy Sin 2
x1, y1 = xy Cos 2
x1 =
x + y
x1 y1 =
x y
2
x y
2
cos 2 + xy sin 2
sin 2 + xy cos 2
Case 3: Biaxial stress
xy = 0
x1 =
x + y
x1, y1 =
x y
x y
2
2
Sin 2
Cos 2
x1 =
y1 =
x +y
2
x +y
x1 y1 =
x y
2
x y
2
x y
2
cos 2 + xy sin 2
cos 2 xy sin 2
sin 2 + xy cos 2
Numerical substitution
For x-axis = +450 (ccw)
( )
Cos (2 ) = Cos (90 ) = 0
Sin(2 ) = Sin 900 = 1
0
x +y
2
x y
xy
2
(16000 6000) = 5000 psi
=
2
2
= 4000 psi
Note:
x + y = x1 + y1
A plane stress condition exists at a point on the surface of a loaded structure such as
shown below. Determine the stresses acting on an element that is oriented at a
clockwise (cw) angle of 15o with respect to the original element, the principal
stresses, the maximum shear stress and the angle of inclination for the principal
stresses
Solution: We will use the following transformation equations:
+y x y
+
cos 2 + xy sin 2
x1 = x
2
x1 y 1 =
x y
2
sin 2 + xy cos 2
x +y
( 46 + 12) = 17 MPa
2
2
x y ( 46 12)
=
= 29 MPa
2
2
xy = 19MPa
x + y = x1 + y1
y1 = 1.4 MPa
Solution:
x +y
x y
= 425 psi
= 175 psi
2
2
x1 = 375 psi
x1 y1 = 375 psi
y1 = 25 psi
x + y = x1 + y1
y1 = 25 psi
xy = 0 psi
y
25psi
-375psi
375psi
= 30.96o
5
= 30.960 2 = 61.920
For x-axis tan =
375psi
25psi
= 30.96o
X 1 + Y1 = X + Y
As we change the angle there will be maximum and minimum normal and
shear stresses that are needed for design purposes.
x +y
x y
cos 2 + xy sin 2
x1 =
+
The maximum and minimum normal
2
2
stresses are known as the principal
x1
stresses. These stresses are found by
= ( x y ) sin 2 + 2 xy cos 2 = 0
taking the derivative of x1 with respect
to and setting equal to zero.
xy
tan 2 P =
x y
The subscript p indicates that the angle p defines the orientation of the principal
planes. The angle p has two values that differ by 90o. They are known as the principal
angles. For one of these angles x1 is a maximum principal stress and for the other a
minimum. The principal stresses occur in mutually perpendicular planes.
xy
tan 2 P =
( x y )
2
sin 2 P =
x1 =
x + y
x y x y
xy
R
x + y
cos2 P =
x y
2
2
for the maximum stress = P
But
2R
cos 2 + xy sin 2
+ y x y
+ xy xy = x
1 =
+
+
2
2 2R
2
R
2
2
x + y 1 x y
2
+ ( xy )
1 =
+
R
2
2
x y
+ ( xy )2
R =
2
( x y )
1 =
x + y
2
1
1
+ ( xy )2
R
R
x y
+ ( xy )2
+
2
Principal Stresses
2
x + y
+
1 =
2
x y
+ ( xy )2 = Average + R
2
x + y
2 =
2
x y
+ ( xy )2 = Average R
2
x1 y1 =
x y
2
sin 2 + xy cos 2
x1 y1
= ( x y ) cos 2 2 xy sin 2 = 0
( x y )
2
tan 2 S =
xy
cos 2 s1 =
xy
sin 2 s1 =
( x y )
and s1 = P1 450
2R
R
Therefore, 2s-2p=-90o or s= p +/- 45o
tan 2 S =
( x y )
2 xy
1
= cot 2 P
tan 2 P
(
(
)
)
(
(
sin 2 S
cos 2 P sin 90 o 2 P
sin 2 P 90 o
=
=
=
o
cos 2 S
sin 2 P
cos 90 2 P
cos 2 P 90 o
x y
MAX =
MAX =
+ ( xy ) = R
( 1 2 )
AVER =
+ y )
2
)
)
Equations of a Circle
x +y
General equation
x1 =
Consider
x1 AVER =
Equation (1)
( x1 AVER )2 =
( )
x1 y1
x y
2
x y
2
x1 y1 =
Equation (2)
x y
x y
2
2
cos 2 + xy sin 2
cos 2 + xy sin 2
sin 2 + xy cos 2
x y
cos 2 + xy sin 2
sin 2 + xy cos 2
( x1 AVER )2 + ( x1 y1 )2
x y
x y
cos 2 + xy sin 2 +
sin 2 + xy cos 2
=
2
2
x y
x y
cos 2 + xy sin 2 =
2
2
y
cos 2 2 + ( xy )2 sin 2 2 + 2 x
2
x y
x y
sin 2 + xy cos 2 =
2
2
SUM
x y
=
2
( xy )sin 2 cos 2
y
sin 2 2 + ( xy )2 cos 2 2 2 x
2
+ ( xy )2 = R 2
( x1 AVER )
+ ( x1 y1 ) = R 2
2
( xy )sin 2 cos 2
Mohr Circle
The radius of the Mohr circle is the
magnitude R.
x + y
C
R =
+ (
2P
xy
State of Stresses
AVER =
( x1 AVER )
+ ( xy )2
x y
R =
2
+ ( x1 y1 )
x y
=
2
+ y )
2
2
+ ( xy )2
Average =
+ y ) (90 + 20 )
=
= 55MPa
2
2
2
The radius
is
of the circle
90 20
R =
+ ( xy )
2
+ (0 ) = 35MPa
xy
Average
+y)
2
2
x y
15000 5000
2
2
+ ( xy ) =
R =
+ (4000 ) = 6403 psi
2
Point A, representing the stresses on the x face of the element ( = 0o) has the
coordinates x1 = 15000psi and x1y1 = 4000psi
Point B, representing the stresses on the y face of the element ( = 90o) has the
coordinates y1 = 5000psi and y1x1 = - 4000psi
The circle is now drawn through points A and B with center C and radius R
15000 4000 0
3-D stress state
Psi Transform to
4000
5000
0
0
0
0
0
0
16403
0
Psi
3597
0
0
0
0
principal stress
Cosine of angle
between X and the
principal stress
Cosine of angle
between Y and the
principal stress
Cosine of angle
between Z and the
principal stress
16403.1242
0.94362832
0.331006939
3596.876
-0.33101
0.943628
Average =
+y)
2
2
x y
( 50 ) (10 )
2
2
+ ( xy ) =
R =
+ ( 40 ) = 50 MPa
2
2
2
Point A, representing the stresses on the x face of the element ( = 0o) has the
coordinates x1 = -50MPa and x1y1 = - 40MPa
Point B, representing the stresses on the y face of the element ( = 90o) has the
coordinates y1 = 10MPa and y1x1 = 40MPa
The circle is now drawn through points A and B with center C and radius R.
Stresses on an element
inclined at = 45o
These stresses are given by
the coordinates of point D
(2 = 90o of point A). To
calculate its magnitude we
need to determine the angles
ACP2 and P2CD.
tan ACP2=40/30=4/3
ACP2=53.13o
P2CD = 90o 53.13o = 36.87o
Principal Stresses
They are represented by points P1 and
P2 on Mohrs circle.
1 = Average + R = 20 + 50 = 30 MPa
2 = Average R = 20 50 = 70 MPa
The angle ACP1 is 2P1 = 180o + 53.13o
= 233.13o or P1 = 116.6o
The angle ACP2 is 2P2 = 53.13o or P2
= 26.6o
50 40 0
40 10 0 MPa Transform to
0
0
0
0
0
30
0 70 0 MPa
0
0
0
principal stress
Cosine of angle
between X and the
principal stress
Cosine of angle
between Y and the
principal stress
Cosine of angle
between Z and the
principal stress
30
-0.44721359
0.894427193
-70
0.894427
0.447214
= E
lateral strain
transverse
Poissons ratio: = axial strain =
longitudinal
For pure shear : (G = Shear modulus of elasticity)
= G
x =
y =
z =
x
E
x
E
y
E
+
y
E
XY =
XY
G
x =
x
E
y
E
y =
E y
E x
+
x =
2
1
1 2
) (
y
E
z =
x
E
y
E
E y
E x
+
+
Y =
2
2
(1 ) (1 )
XY =
XY
XY = G XY
These equations are known collectively as Hookes Law for plane stress
These equations contain three material constants (E, G and ) but only two are
independent because of the relationship:
E
G=
2(1 + )
Pure Shear :
y = 0
x =y = 0
x =
x
E
xy = 0
y = z =
Biaxial stress :
x = y = z = 0
xy =
xy
G
xy = 0
y
x
-
x =
E
E
y =
x
E
Volume Change
When a solid object undergoes strains, both its
dimensions and its volume will change.
Consider an object of dimensions a, b, c. The
original volume is Vo = abc and its final volume is
y
E
z =
x
E
y
E
V1 = Vo (1 + x + y + z + xy + xz + yz + xyz)
V1 = Vo (1 + x + y + z )
V = V1 Vo = Vo ( x + y + z )
The unit volume change e, also known as dilatation is defines as:
e = V / Vo = x + y + z
Positive strains are considered for elongations and negative strains for
shortening, i.e. positive values of e for an increase in volume.
x =
x
E
y
E
y =
(
V
1 2 )
e=
= ( x + y )
V
E
x
E
y
E
z =
x
E
y
E
e =x
(1 2 )
E
We can notice that the maximum possible value of Poissons ratio is 0.5, because a
larger value means that the volume decreases when the material is in tension
(contrary to physical behavior).
( x )(bc ) (a )
x
( )(ac ) (b )
abc
( x x + y y )
2
1
Then the strain energy density (strain per unit volume)
u1 = ( x x + y y )
2
U=
1
u2 = xy xy
2
u=
1
( x x + y y + xy xy )
2
u=
u=
X2
2E
u=
x2
2E
xy = 0
or
y = x
2E
X Y
E
2
XY
2G
(
)
E
G 2
2
2
2
+
XY
X
Y
X Y
2
2 1
2
y = 0
Y2
xy = 0
E x2
u=
2
TRIAXIAL STRESS
An element of the material subjected to normal
stresses x, y and z acting in three mutually
perpendicular directions is said to be in a state
of triaxial stress. Since there is no shear in x, y
or z faces then the stresses x, y and z are
the principal stresses in the material.
x = 0
u=
xy2
2G
y = 0
or
y = x = 0
u=
G xy2
2
If an inclined plane parallel to the z-axis is cut through the element, the only stress
of the inclined face are the normal stress and the shear stress , both of which act
parallel to the xy plane.
Because these stresses are independent of the z, we can use
the transformation equations of plane stress, as well as the
Mohrs circle for plane stress, when determining the stresses
and in triaxial stress.
The same general conclusion hold for normal and shear stresses
acting on inclined planes cut through the element parallel to the
x and y axes.
Maximum Shear Stress For a material in triaxial stress, the maximum shear stresses
occur on elements oriented at angles of 45o to the x, y and z
axes.
X Y
( MAX )Z =
for the inclined plane // z-axis
for the inclined plane // x-axis
for the inclined plane // y-axis
( MAX ) X
( MAX )Y
2
Y Z
=
2
X Z
=
2
The absolute maximum of the shear stress is the numerically largest of the above.
E
(1 ) x + y + z
(1 + )(1 2 )
E
=
x + (1 ) y + z
(1 + )(1 2 )
E
=
x + y + (1 ) z
(1 + )(1 2 )
=
e=
x =
x
E
y =
z =
x
E
x
E
y
E
+
y
E
z
E
z
E
V
= X + Y + Z
VO
u=
u=
x2 + y2 + z2 - ( x y + x z + y z )
E
2E
E
(1 ) x2 + y2 + z2 + 2 ( x y + x z + y z )
2(1 + )(1 2 )
Spherical Stress
A special case of triaxial stress, called spherical stress, occurs x = y = z = 0
whenever all three normal stresses are equal:
The Mohrs circle is reduced to a single point. Any plane cut through the element
will be free of shear stress and will be subjected to the same normal stress so and
it is a principal plane.
O
(1 2 ) The volume change
=
K=
E
3(1 2 )
K=
0
e
If = 1/3 then K = E
If = 0 then K = E/3
If = 1/2 then K = infinite (rigid material having no
change in volume)
Element in spherical stress.
PLAIN STRAIN
Strains are measured by strain gages.
A material is said to be in a state of plain strain if the only deformations are those
in the xy plane, i.e. it has only three strain components x, y and xy.
Plain stress is analogous to plane stress, but under ordinary conditions they do
not occur simultaneously
Exception when x = -y and when = 0
In the y direction:
the strain y produces an elongation y dy.
The diagonal increases in length by y dy sin .
The total increase of the diagonal is the sum of the preceding three expressions,
thus:
d = dx(Cos ) + dy (Sin ) + dy (Cos )
x
But
xy
d
dy
dy
dx
= x (Cos ) + y (Sin ) + xy (Cos )
ds
ds
ds
ds
dx
dy
= Cos
= Sin
ds
ds
x1 =
1 = x Sin
dx
= Cos
ds
dy
= Sin
ds
= 1 + 2 3 = ( x y )SinCos xy Sin 2
x1 y1 = + = ( x y )SinCos +
xy
[
Cos Sin ]
2
2
) (
In var iant = x + y = x1 + y1
Average
+y)
2
PRINCIPAL STRAINS
xy
tan 2 P ==
+y)
2
+y)
2
x y
+
2
y)
xy
+
x y
xy
=
x y
xy
Maximum Shear
x y xy
+
2 2
or Max = (1 2 )
For isotropic materials, at a given point in an stressed body, the principal strains
and principal stresses occur in the same directions.
x
x
y
y
xy xy 2
x1 x1
x1 y1 x1 y1
Strain Measurements
An electrical-resistance strain gage is a device for measuring normal strains () on
the surface of a stressed object.
The gages are small (less than inch) made of wires that are bonded to the surface of the object. Each
gage that is stretched or shortened when the object is strained at the point, changes its electrical
resistance. This change in resistance is converted into a measurement of strain.
General Equations
+y)
y)
xy
cos 2 +
sin 2
2
2
2
180
340 + 110 340 110
=
+
Cos 60 +
Sin 60 10 6
2
2
2
x1 = 360 10 6
x1 y 1
2
x1 y 1
2
y)
xy
cos 2
2
2
180
340 110
=
Sin 60 +
Cos 60 10 6 = 55 10 6
2
2
sin 2 +
Average = 225
x + y = x1 + y1
340 + 110 = 360 + y1
y1 = 90
(
=
+y)
2
y
x
2
xy
+
tan 2 P =
P = 19 0
xy
55
=
= 0.7826
x y 340 110
Max
x y
xy
2
2 2
Max = (1 2 ) = 370 80 = 290
Average = 225
Transformation Equations
XY
2 sin cos
2
X 1 = X cos 2 + Y sin 2 +
Y1 =
X 1Y 1
2
X1
X
= [T ]
Y1
Y
X 1Y 1
XY
2
2
X
X1
= [T ]1
Y
Y1
XY
X 1Y 1
2
2
sin
XY
2
+ Y cos
(cos
cos 2
[T ] = sin 2
sin cos
cos
X1
= sin 2
Y1
X 1Y 1 sin cos
2
XY
2 sin cos
2
sin 2 )
sin 2
cos 2
sin cos
sin
2
cos 2
sin cos
2 sin cos
2 sin cos
cos 2 sin 2
2 sin cos X
2 sin cos Y
2
2
cos sin XY
2
2
2
cos 30
sin 30
2 sin 30 cos 30 X
X1
2
= sin 2 30
Y
cos
30
2
sin
30
cos
30
Y1
2
2
0.25
0.876 340
361.3
X 1 0.75
110 = 88.6
= 0.25
0
.
75
0
.
876
Y1
55.8
0.5 90
X 1Y 1 0.438 0.438
2
xx
1
[ ] = xy
2
1
2 xz
1
yx
2
yy
1
yz
2
1
zx
2
1
zy = Strain _ Tensor
2
zz
Example
xx
1
[ ] = xy
2
1
2 xz
1
zx
0
340 180
2
2
1 180
yy
zy = 2 110 0
2
0
0
0
1
yz zz
2
371 0 0
Eigen _ Values 0 79 0
0
0 0
1
yx
2
A 45o strain rosette (rectangular rosette) consists of three electrical-resistance strain gages,
arranged to measure strains in two perpendicular directions and also at a 45o angle (as shown
below). The rosette is bonded to the surface of the structure before it is loaded. Gages A, B and
C measure the normal strains a, b and c in the directions of the lines Oa, Ob and Oc,
respectively.
Explain how to obtain the strains x1, y1 and x1y1, associated with an element oriented at an
angle to the xy axes.
a = x cos 2 + y sin 2 + xy 2 sin cos
2
b = x cos 90 + y sin 90 + xy
2
2
(2 sin 90 cos 90 )
x = a
y = b
xy = 2 b a c
y = 50
xy = 289
b = x cos 2 120 + y sin 2 120 + xy (2 sin 120 cos 120
2
b = x (0 . 25 ) + y (0 . 75 ) + xy ( 0 . 433 )
2
1
zx
750 289
0
2
2
1 289
yy
zy =
50
0
2
2
0
0
0
1
yz zz
2
779 0 0
Eigen _ Values 0 21 0
0
0 0
xx
1
[ ] = xy
2
1
2 xz
1
yx
2
0.1945 0
0.981
Eigen _ Vectors 0.1945 0.981 0
0
0
1
ArcCos(angle)=0.981
Angle =11.2degress
(A) Using the transformation equations define the maximum and minimum
principal strains, maximum shearing strain and principal angles given
X = 3500 ; Y = 700 and XY = -1050
(B) Repeat using the Mohrs circle.
1050
3500
2
[ ] = 1050 2 700
0
0
3595.2
Eigen _ Values 0
0
0
0
604.8 0
0
0
ArcCos(angle)=0.984
Angle =10.28degress
(c) In-Plane Maximum Shear Strain
Max = (1 2 ) = 3595.2 604.8 = 2990.4
0.984 0.178 0
Eigen _ Vectors 0.178 0.984 0
0
0
1
1. Principal Stresses
11.2MPa
56MPa
1, 2
+ y
= x
2
x y
2
+ ( xy ) = Average R
2
56 ( 14 )
2
R=
+ (11.2 ) = 23.8MPa
2
56 + ( 14 )
= 35MPa
2
1 = 0MPa
Average =
2 = 11.2 MPa
3 = 58.8MPa
0
0
0
Eigen _ Values 0 11.2
0 MPa
0
0
58.8
Max = R = 23.8MPa
Max =
1 3
2
0 ( 58.8)
=
= 29.4 MPa
2
xy
( x y )
=
2
11.2
( 56 ( 14))
11.2
(
)
tan
2
=
= 0.533
P
0
21
0 2 P = 28.07 deg
0
0
Eigen _Vectors 0.2425 0.9701
0.9701 0.2425 1
For 1=0
ArcCos(angle)=0.0
Angle =90degress
For 2=-11.2MPa
ArcCos(angle)=0.2425
Angle =76degress
For 3=-58.8MPa
ArcCos(angle)=0.9701
Angle =14degress
x =
x
E
y =
z =
XY =
x
E
x
E
XY
y
E
+
y
E
xy =
xy
z
E
z
E
56
14
= ( 266 . 6 + 20 ) = 246 . 6
(0 . 3 )
210000
210000
56
14
+
= (80 66 . 6 ) = 13 . 4
y = (0 . 3 )
210000
210000
56
14
(0 . 3 )
= (80 + 20 ) = 100
z = (0 . 3 )
210000
210000
x =
11.2
= 139
80770
G
G
E
210
G=
=
= 80.77GPa
2(1 + ) 2(1 + 0.3)
1, 2
1, 2
+y)
x y
x
2
2
= Average R
Average =
xy
+
2
1
zx
0
246.6 139
2
2
2
2
246
.
6
13
.
4
139
1
+
= 147.4
0 R =
yy
zy = 139 2 13.4
2
2
0
0
100
1
yz zz
1 = 30.8
2
2 = 264
0
0
100
0
Eigen _ Values 0 30.8
0
0
264.0
xx
1
[ ] = xy
2
1
2 xz
1
yx
2
Max
2
Max = 294.8
Max
2
(out _ of _ plane ) = 1 3
2
Max = 364
100 ( 264 )
= 182
2
y)
=
2
xy
139
=
= 0.534
x y ( 246 .6 13 .4 )
tan (2 P ) = 0.533
2 P = 28.07 deg
0
0
0
Eigen _Vectors 0.2425 0.9701 0
0.9701 0.2425 1
For 1=100
ArcCos(angle)=0.0
Angle =90degress
For 2=30.8
ArcCos(angle)=0.2425
Angle =76degress
For 3=-264
ArcCos(angle)=0.9701
Angle =14degress