De La Salle University Dasmarias

Dasmarias, Cavite, Philippines

FOREST BIODIVERSITY

An ELGA project
Submitted to Dr. Jonathan Rubio

As a requirement for the finals period

In General Ecology with Advanced Technology Applications Laboratory

By:
Janina Suzette Guillermo
Karl Romney Guingab
Jean Aira Jimenez
Jewel Joie Jumarang
Josef Justo

October 2014

I.

INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

Forests are among the most important repositories of terrestrial biological diversity.
Together, tropical, temperate and boreal forests offer very diverse habitats for plants,
animals and microorganisms. Biological diversity is the basis for a wide array of goods and
services provided by forests. The variety of forest trees and shrubs play a vital role in the daily
life of rural communities in many areas, as sources of wood and non-wood products, as
contributors to soil and water conservation, and as repositories of aesthetic, ethical, cultural
and religious values. Forest animals are a vital source of nutrition and income to many people,
and have vital roles in forest ecology, such as pollination, seed predation, dispersal and
germination, and predation on potential pest species.
Forest biological diversity is one of the seven thematic elements of the concept of
Sustainable Forest Management approved by the General Assembly of the UN in 2007, together
with the Non-Legally Binding Instrument on All Types of Forests. Forest Biological Diversity is a
broad term that refers to all life forms found within forested areas and the ecological roles they
perform. As such, forest biological diversity encompasses not just trees, but the multitude of
plants, animals and microorganisms that inhabit forest areas and their associated genetic
diversity. Forest biological diversity can be considered at different levels, including the
ecosystem, landscapes, species, populations and genetics. Complex interactions can occur
within and amongst these levels. In biologically diverse forests, this complexity allows
organisms to adapt to continually changing environmental conditions and to maintain
ecosystem functions.
Objectives
The Department of Environment and Natural Resources and Kalikasan: Peoples Network
for the Environment-Philippines focuses on how (1) to maximize the potential of forests, trees
and related resources to improve peoples economic, social and environmental conditions while
ensuring that the resource is conserved to meet the needs of future generations.
DENR and different Environmental Organizations works (2) to improve the knowledge
on sustainable forest and wildlife management, and supports the development and
implementation of appropriate policies and practices (3) to ensure forest and wildlife
protection in order to maintain or improve their capacity to produce wood and non-wood
products, (4) to sustain wildlife populations, conserve biodiversity, safeguard wildlife habitat,
mitigate climate change, and protect soils and watershed.

II.

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Sampling methods in forestry and range management

By: Schumacher, F.X ; Chapman R.A

Administrative decisions pertaining to the management of forests often rest upon estimates of
the number or the condition of the trees. Such estimates involve some type of sampling
procedures. This procedure must be such that the error of sampling can be assesed , and the
best estimate can be made that is consistent with the time and funds available. The authors
apply mathematical statistics to the problem. The bulletin will be of interest to all those who
deal with sampling procedures, no matter what their field of research may be.

Empirical estimate of the reliability of the use of the Point-Centered Quarter Method (PCQM)
By: Farid Dahdouh-Guebas, Nico Koedam

This paper reports problems associated to the use of the Point-Centered Quarter Method
(PCQM), as well as their possible solutions. Problematic settings in the application of the PCQM
are amongst others due to the presence of multiple-stemmed trees (MST), to ambiguous
settings for measuring the sampling point to nearest tree distance or the tree diameter, both of
which may result in erroneous estimation of silvimetric variables and parameters. The analysis
is based on a database of effective individual tree records including distances, diameters, and
heights measured in the field in a Sri Lankan mangrove forest between 1997 and 2002, and
randomly compiles a series of records that were used as PCQM sampling points. Various
structural forest parameters were calculated, with particular emphasis on density and basal
area.
After proving that multiple- and single-stemmed trees have different silvimetric characteristics,
we adopted an empirical approach to demonstrate the classical PCQM protocol applied to MST
generates significantly different densities (overestimation) and basal areas (underestimation)
depending on which stems are considered for measurement, and we suggest an adapted

PCQM+ protocol (measurement of central stem instead of nearest stem). We test both
protocols in two mangrove assemblages (one composed of Excoecaria agallocha only, and
an Excoecaria agallocha/Rhizophora apiculata mixed forest) with MST proportions varying
between 0% and 100%, at 5% intervals.

The results indicated that the classical PCQM protocol generates density and basal area results
that are strongly correlated with the MST proportion in the assemblage (p < 0.001), whereas
the PCQM+ protocol shows a robustness with no such correlations for density. For basal area
the results of the PCQM+ protocol showed a weak correlation with the MST proportion, and
regression-ANCOVA results indicated that they were significantly different from those of the
highly sensitive PCQM protocol (p < 0.001).
Finally, we conclude by writing out the entire PCQM+ protocol, elaborating on the solutions to
other common problems related to ambiguous settings for the consideration of stems or the
measurement of their diameter (aerial roots, split trunks, dwarf growth, horizontally developing
stems, boundary of an individual in MST, selectively cut trees or tree parts, very sparse
assemblages, use of PCQM for remote sensing ground-truth), and by nevertheless highlighting
the potential of the PCQM/PCQM+ approach. Although we used a mangrove forest data set,
the PCQ-Method and our suggestions are widely applicable to other forest types.

Tropical forest diversity and dynamism: findings from a large-scale plot network
By: Losos, E. C.;Leigh, E. G.

Tropical forest ecologists coordinated by the center for Tropical Forest Science have been
conducting pioneering research on the structure, dynamics, and functioning of tropical forests
for more than 2 decades, establishing a network of large-scale forest dynamics plots (FDPs) on
which all trees above a minimum threshold size have been measured, mapped, and identified.
Characteristics of the FDP network are described (including basic features of tropical forests,
diversity, species accumulation, floristics) and related to global variation in climate,
biogeographic history, natural disturbances, and soil quality and topography. Detailed analyses

of individual plots are then presented, illustrating the depth and range of information
generated by FDPs on tree diversity, seed dispersal limitation, canopy disturbance, fire
response, canopy mono dominance, pollination-mediated population dynamics, and forest
fragmentation. Most chapters focus on an individual plot; all, however, present methods,
analyses, and findings that can be readily transferred to other sites around the world. Finally,
standardized qualitative and quantitative baseline information for each plot is presented, for
use within this volume and beyond, to provide the framework for assessing and comparing how
biotic, abiotic, and stochastic factors affect the dynamics and diversity of tropical forests
worldwide.

Dispersal probability and forest diversity in a fragmented landscape

By: George P. Malanson, Marc P. Armstrong

The diversity of forest stands may be affected by landscape fragmentation during periods of
climatic change. A modified version of the Jabowa forest model of the dynamic processes of
establishment, growth, and death of forest trees is used in a spatially explicit framework to
elucidate differences in the effects of both spatial structure and spatial processes. In cases with
and without climatic change, the effects of including random or structured fragmentation and
successively lower dispersal probabilities (increased chance of long-distance dispersal) are
examined in simulation experiments. The exclusion of very low dispersal probability (p < 0.001)
has an important effect on species richness. Barriers and random fragmentation also lower
diversity. Climatic change has little effect on diversity alone or in addition to fragmentation;
changes in composition result. These results indicate that rare events, especially of the type
seldom recorded in observations of seed dispersal, are extremely important. The results of our
simulation experiments indicate that model scale must be addressed in more detail.

A manual on sampling techniques for forest surveys

By: Chacko, V. J.

Designed as a working manual for practicing foresters, this book outlines the basic statistical
concepts and sampling procedures in ground surveys (including sampling of natural
regeneration), illustrated by Indian examples. Suggestions are given on choice of methods and
intensity of sampling, and on elementary data processing.

Forest ecology
By: Spurr, S. H.

A textbook designed for use 'in courses in forest ecology, silvics or principles of silviculture, for
foresters, wildlife managers and others interested in the ecology of forest land'. The subject is
treated in three parts: (I) The forest environment [climatic and soil factors, nutrient cycle,
soil/plant water cycle etc.]; (II) The forest community [competition, succession, disturbance
effects, forest description and measurement]; and (III) The forest [brief accounts of historical
development of forests, the American forest since 1600 etc.]. It is written very largely in the
North American context: for the bibliography 'preference has been given to major
Englishlanguage works published since '.

Forest ecology: a foundation for sustainable management.

By: Kimmins, J. P.

The revised edition of the undergraduate textbook is not substantially altered from the 1987
edition, and the major changes are additions concerning environmental issues. The book is in 3
major parts. Part I includes 2 chapters discussing the interactions between humans and forests
and the development of the science of forest ecology. Part II includes 14 chapters in 5 sections
covering ecosystem ecology and function (including biogeochemistry and nutrient cycling),

genetic aspects, the physical environment (solar radiation, temperature, wind, soil, water and
fire), the biotic environment (population and community ecology) and temporal changes in
ecosystem structure and function (including ecosystem classification). The final part comprises
3 chapters discussing application of ecological information to the management of forest
ecosystems, modeling, renewability of natural resources and environmental issues. There is a
general subject index.

Forest ecology
By: Barnes, B. V.; Zak, D. R.; Denton, S. R.; Spurr, S. H.

This text is designed for undergraduates interested in forest ecology, management,

conservation and restoration, and provides a current perspective on the material by
emphasizing forest ecosystems and plant ecology topics of community, succession and biota
using a landscape-ecosystem or geo-ecosystem approach. Topics covered include concepts of
forest ecology, ecosystems at multiple spatial scales, long term ecosystem change, climate,
soils, physiography, carbon balance, nutrient cycling, landscape ecology and biodiversity.
Ecosystem dynamics and the forest environment (light, temperature, fire, climate etc) are
highlighted.

The practice of silviculture: applied forest ecology

By: Smith, D. M.; Larson, B. C.; Kelty, M. J.; Ashton, P. M. S.

The book is intended as a collection of ideas about silviculture and analytical approaches to its
practice, and is written primarily for use in North America. There are 21 chapters in 5 sections:
Introduction to silviculture (including stand dynamics); Tending and intermediate cutting
(covering thinning, pruning, release with herbicides); Regeneration (including site preparation
and choice of species); Stand development and structure (of various silvicultural systems); and
Silvicultural management objectives (timber, water, wildlife habitat, control of damage,
agroforestry).

Assessing and monitoring forest biodiversity: A suggested framework and indicators

By: Reed F. Noss

Enlightened forest management requires reliable information on the status and condition of
each forest interpreted from a broad context and of change in forest conditions over time.
The process of forest planning must begin with a clear statement of goals, from which detailed
objectives and management plans follow. Goals and objectives for forest management should
reflect the conservation value of a forest relative to other forests of the same general type. This
paper reviews some recent assessments (with emphasis on North America), presents a
framework for forest assessment and monitoring, and suggests some indicators of biodiversity
in forests. Among the broad assessments of forest status and conservation value are a global
`forest frontiers' assessment by the World Resources Institute, gap analysis projects that assess
the level of representation of forests and other communities in protected areas, and eco
region-based conservation assessments conducted by the World Wildlife Fund. Also important
is information on change in forest area and condition over time. Among the common changes
in forests over the past two centuries are loss of old forests, simplification of forest structure,
decreasing size of forest patches, increasing isolation of patches, disruption of natural fire
regimes, and increased road building, all of which have had negative effects on native
biodiversity. These trends can be reversed, or at least slowed, through better management.
Progress toward forest recovery can be measured through the use of ecological indicators that
correspond to the specific conditions and trends of concern. Although there is a wealth of
indicators to choose from, most have been poorly tested and require rigorous validation in
order to be interpreted with confidence.

III.

METHODOLOGY
Forest Assessment

Point Centered Quadrant Method Sampling (PCQMS)

Materials
100 meter field tape
Measuring tape
11 pegs

Calculator
Field slate
Pencil

Objectives

Determine the relative importance of the trees in the forest by determining the
species of trees that is covered by the vegetation of Mt. Palay Palay.

Procedures

Use the 100-meter Field tape and make a 10-point transect line to perform the
assessment of trees.
Note: If the species of tree is unknown take a picture of the tree.
In determining the points identify the nearest tree present in the four quadrats.
Then measure the distance from the point to the nearest tree found inside the quadrat.
Measure the Diameter Breast Height (DBH) of the tree by getting circumference of the
tree. Repeat the same procedure from the remaining quadrats. Then identify the
species of the tree to fill out the Table 3.

 Soil moisture

Materials

Aluminum Foils
Pails
Oven drier

Soil samples
Triple beam balance
Oven
Evaporating dish

Objectives
Water is important part of the soil and it is trapped in the soil pores. Measure the
soil moisture by over drying the soil samples.

Procedures
Collect 1kg of soil samples scoop from the 10 points of the transect line then mix the
samples and pack 3 samples of soil by weighing 150g of soils. Place the soil samples
in an aluminum foil in the oven for 24 hours then determine the soil moisture and
texture after incubating the soil samples under 100C.
To determine the soil moisture: first measures the weight of a dry evaporating dish.
Then take at least 30g of soil then place it in the container then weight the contents
to the nearest 10th. Over dry it by 105-110C. Measure the weight of the dry soil.
Compute the moisture content using the formula:

Soil texture

Materials

Soil sample
Soil trowel
Aluminum foils
Sieve Plates

Soil Texture Triangle

Oven Drier
Pail
Mortar and Pestle

Objectives
To determine the soil texture using the percentage soil particles.

Procedures
Collect 1kg of soil samples scoop from the 10 points of the transect line then mix the
samples and pack 3 samples of soil by weighing 150g of soils. Place the soil samples
in an aluminum foil in the oven for 24 hours then determine the soil moisture and
texture after incubating the soil samples under 100C. Weight 150g oven dry soils
and pass through the sieve using a paint brush. The sieve below traps silt. Weight
the silt particles. The bottoms most sieve plate and the paper below trap are clay
particles. Get the percentage of the sand, soil and silt. Use the soil texture triangle
for soil particle classification.

Soil and Air Temperature

Materials
Soil Thermometer
Laboratory Thermometer

String
Meter Stick

Objectives
Measure the temperature present in the air and ground to determine the factors
affecting temperature of the surrounding.

Procedures
Use a string to hang the laboratory thermometer under a tree that should be 1
meter above the ground. Record the initial temperature and red the temperature 3x
with the interval of 5 minutes.
Use the soil thermometer to insert to the ground then record the initial
temperature. Read temperature three times with interval of 5 minutes.

Amount of light

Materials
Light meter

Objectives
To measure the amount of light in direct, reflected and dispersed light.

Procedures
Turn on the light meter the expose it directly under the sun for the direct light. Then
start with the lowest intensity (x1) then shift to next intensity (x10) if the display
resulted to 1, which means it reaches its maximum. Then shift it to the next higher
intensity, which is (100X). Determine measurement of direct light by facing censor
facing the sun. Determine the reflected light by facing sensor to the ground.
Measure dispersed light by facing the sensor under the shaded area. Then measure
light intensity 3x with 5 minutes interval.

Soil pH and mineral content

Materials
Soil sample
Soil test kit

Test tubes

Objectives
To determine the presence of Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium from the soil.

Procedures

Use the soil kit to determine the presence of the Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium
from the soil sample by following the instructions present in the soil test kit.

Soil organic materials

Materials
10 ml beaker
Stirring rod

Triple Beam balance

pH meter

Objectives
To measure the organic matter present in the soil.

Procedures

Make 3 samples of 5 g of soil from the oven dried soil and put each in three crucibles.
Then record the weight of the crucibles and soil then place it inside the furnace with the
temperature of 5000 C then allows the soil to burn. Allow the soil to cool after 3 hours
then weight the soil and crucible then compute the organic matter by the formula.
( )

Humidity

Materials
Sling psychrometer

Objectives
To measure the amount of the moisture present in the air by determining the
relative humidity.

Procedures
Put some water on the wet bulb to moisten it then close the container. Proceed to
the lighted area then rotate sling psychrometer above the head for 3 minutes. Then
match temperature of the wet bulb and dry bulb in psychrometer then look for the
arrow that will give the percent relative humidity. Repeat procedure for 3x within 15
minutes then do the same procedure inside the room or under the shaded area.

Wind speed and pressure

Materials
Wind meter
barometer
GPS

Objectives
To measure the speed of air and wind pressure that will determine the factors
affecting the wind speed and air pressure.

Procedure
Proceed to an elevated place then measure wind speed using the wind meter. Set
the wind propeller to move then record the three highest wind speed then get the
average. Using a barometer or a GPS measure the atmospheric pressure 3x with
interval of 5 mins. Then proceed to the ground then repeat the same procedure.

IV.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

t. Palay-Palay is found in Tarnate, avite with a latitude of 1 1 .9 and longitude of E 1

39. 63 and 1 m elevation. The forest assessment was held at 11: am on 19th of August
2014, Tuesday.
Point Centered Quadrat Method (PCQM)
Point Centered Quadrant Method (PCQM) was used in determining the richness and
abundance of species specifically trees in Mt. Palay-Palay. It involves selecting a point to be
studied randomly and dividing the point into four quadrants by using poles or pegs that are laid
perpendicular to each other forming 90 degrees angle. The closest tree to the center point in
each of the four quadrants is sampled and the distance from the center to the tree is recorded
same with the diameter breast height (DBH), name of the species, circumference, and the
ground cover .It is through knowing how important the trees covered in the vegetation of the
forest. In Table 1 presented the results through PCQM.
Table 1: Point Centered Quadrant Method
Points
1

Quadrants

Circumference

DBH

Alstonia batino
Blanco (Batino)

0.7 cm

0.22

Alstonia batino
Blanco (Batino)
Alstonia batino
Blanco (Batino)
Alstonia batino
Blanco (Batino)
Alstonia batino
Blanco (Batino)
Muntingia calabura
(Alatiris)

0.5 cm

0.16

0.02

0.9 m

0.6 cm

0.19

0.03

0.3 m

0.7 cm

0.22

0.04

0.6 m

0.5 cm

0.16

0.02

0.8 m

3
4

Species

Basal Area
0.04

Distance
2.0 m

2
3
4
3

1
2
3
4

1
2
3
4

1
2
3
4

1
2
3
4

1
2
3
4

1
2
3

Alstonia batino
Blanco (Batino)
Muntingia calabura
(Alatiris)
Muntingia calabura
(Alatiris)

0.7 cm

0.22

0.04

0.9 m

0.6 cm

0.19

0.03

0.5 m

0.5 cm

0.16

0.02

1.4 m

Muntingia calabura
(Alatiris)
Muntingia calabura
(Alatiris)
Polyscias nodosa
(Malapapaya)
Muntingia calabura
(Alatiris)

0.4 cm

0.13

0.01

2.0 m

0.7 cm

0.22

0.04

1.3 m

0.7 cm

0.54

0.23

1.4 m

0.5 cm

0.16

0.02

1.7 m

Alstonia batino
Blanco (Batino)
Alstonia batino
Blanco (Batino)
Alstonia batino
Blanco (Batino)
Psidium guajava
(guava)

0.6 cm

0.19

0.03

1.5 m

0.7 cm

0.22

0.04

1.8 m

0.7 cm

0.22

0.04

2.0 m

0.5 cm

0.16

0.02

0.6 m

Muntingia calabura
(Alatiris)
Psidium guajava
(guava)
Alstonia batino
Blanco (Batino)
Polyscias nodosa
(Malapapaya)

0.6 cm

0.19

0.03

0.8 m

0.5 cm

0.16

0.02

1.9 m

0.7 cm

0.22

0.04

0.4 m

2.0 cm

0.64

0.32

2.4 m

Alstonia batino
Blanco (Batino)
Psidium guajava
(guava)
Alstonia batino
Blanco (Batino)
Psidium guajava
(guava)

0.6 cm

0.19

0.03

1.6 m

0.5 cm

0.16

0.02

2.0 m

0.7 cm

0.22

0.04

1.4 m

0.5 cm

0.16

0.02

1.7 m

Muntingia calabura
(Alatiris)
Psidium guajava
(guava)
Alstonia batino
Blanco (Batino)
Alstonia batino
Blanco (Batino)

0.2 cm

0.06

0.003

2.8 m

1 cm

0.32

0.08

2.4 m

0.6 cm

0.19

0.03

4.6 m

0.1 cm

0.03

0.0007

3m

Psidium guajava
(guava)
Alstonia batino
Blanco (Batino)
Psidium guajava
(guava)

0.2 cm

0.02

0.003

1.1 m

1 cm

0.32

0.08

1.8 m

0.6 cm

0.19

0.03

2.3 m

Alstonia batino
Blanco (Batino)

1
2
3
4

10

1
2
3
4

Total

0.3 cm

0.10

0.008

6.0 m

Muntingia calabura
(Alatiris)
Muntingia calabura
(Alatiris)
Alstonia batino
Blanco (Batino)
Muntingia calabura
(Alatiris)

0.04 cm

0.012

0.0001

3.3 m

0.3 cm

0.10

0.008

3.4 m

0.3 cm

0.10

0.008

4.8 m

0.9 cm

0.29

0.07

9m

Alstonia batino
Blanco (Batino)
Alstonia batino
Blanco (Batino)
Alstonia batino
Blanco (Batino)
Alstonia batino
Blanco (Batino)

0.02 cm

0.006

0.00003

2.4 m

0.3 cm

0.10

0.008

1.8 m

0.5 cm

0.16

0.02

1.8 m

0.6 cm

0.19

0.03

3.5 m

40

85.8

Each sample was taken at random location in the area. The area near the random point
was divided into four imaginary quadrants and from the center point to the nearest species, the
distance was taken. For the trees the basal area was calculated through the circumference or
diameter at 4 feet above the ground, called as DBH, diameter at breast height). With the
following results, the density, frequency, dominance and importance value can be determined.

Calculations
Habitat: Tropical Rainforest
Total points: 10 10K: 100 total point to plant distance
Species, I
Alstonia
batino Blanco
(Batino)
Muntingia
calabura
(Alatiris)
Psidium
guajava
(guava)
Polyscias
nodosa
(Malapapaya)

Total

ni

AD

RD

ji

RF

RC

IV

Rank

20

14.71

50

90

45

0.022

27.5

122.5

11

8.09

27

40

25

0.017

21.25

73.25

5.15

17.5

50

20

0.021

26.25

63.25

1.47

4.99

20

10

0.020

25

39.99

29.42

100

200

100

0.08

100

Soil Moisture
Soil moisture has an important role in the environment and climate system. It influences
the hydrological and agricultural processes, runoff generation, drought development and other
processes. It is a source of water for evapotranspiration over continents involving water and
energy cycles. Soil moisture is a key variable in controlling the exchange of water and heat
energy between the land surface and the atmosphere through evaporation and plant
transpiration. As a result, soil moisture plays an important role in the development of weather
patterns and the production of precipitation. In Table 2 shown the result of the soil moisture.
Table 2: Soil Moisture
Readings/ Samples

Moisture

16%

13%

13%

Average

14%

Soil Texture
It has an important role in nutrient management or it influences the nutrient retention.
For example, finer textured soils tend to have greater ability to store soil nutrient. It is the
relative proportion of sand, silt, or clay in a soil. Soils with finest texture are called clay soils
while the ones with the coarsest texture are called sand. However, a soil that has a relatively
even mixture of sand, silt, and clay and exhibits the properties from each separate is called a
loam. In determining whether a soil is sand, silt or clay, a textural triangle was used shown in
Figure 1 while the result of the experiment is shown in Table 3.
Figure 1: Textural Triangle

Table 3: Soil Texture

Readings/ Samples

Texture

Loam

Sandy loam

Sandy loam

Average

Sandy loam

Soil and Air Temperature

Soil temperature is a necessary component for estimating below-ground processes for
continental and carbon global budgets. Air temperature correlates with soil temperature for
both determine the balance of energy at ground surface. Table 4 presents the data taken from
Mt. Palay-Palay.

Table 4: Soil and Air Temperature

Readings/ Samples

Soil Temperature

Air Temperature

3 .6

31

3 .

3 .8

Average

Amount of Light
Through getting the amount of light, the light that is being absorbed by an object, light
being dispersed and being reflected could be determined. Light can be a good source of energy.
The amount of light is presented in Table 5.
Table 5: Amount of Light
Readings/ Samples

Direct Light

Reflected Light

Diffused Light

1250 lux

668 lux

380 lux

1342 lux

611 lux

200 lux

1413 lux

598 lux

277 lux

Average

1668.33 lux

625.67 lux

285.67 lux

Soil pH and Mineral Content

The soil pH is the indicator of the alkalinity or acidity of soil. It is important for it
influences how easily plants can uptake nutrients from the soil. The primary nutrients are
nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K). Nitrogen is a part of all living cells and is a
necessary part of all proteins, enzymes and metabolic processes involved in the synthesis and
transfer of energy. It helps plants with rapid growth, increasing seed and fruit production and
improving the quality of leaf and forage crops. Phosphorus (P) is an essential part of the process
of photosynthesis. It helps with the transformation of solar energy into chemical energy; proper
plant maturation; withstanding stress. It also affects the rapid growth. Lastly, potassium helps
in the building of protein, photosynthesis, fruit quality and reduction of diseases. Under Table 6
shown the results in the experiment.
Table 6: Soil pH and Mineral Contents
Readings/ Samples

pH

1
2

High
High

None
None

High
High

7.2
7.2

High

None

High

7.2

Average

High

None

High

7.2

Soil Organic Materials

The organic matter serves as the reservoir of water and nutrients in the soil, aids
in reducing the compaction and surface crusting, and increases water infiltration in to the soil.
The results were presented in Table 7.
Table 7: Soil Organic Materials
Readings/ Samples

Organic

1
2

13.63%
11.31%

14.86%

Average

13.33%

Humidity
Absolute humidity is the mass of water vapor divided by the mass of dry air in a volume
of air at a given temperature. The hotter the air is, the more water it can contain. Relative
humidity is the ratio of the current absolute humidity to the highest possible absolute humidity
(which depends on the current air temperature). The relative humidity is shown in Table 8.
Table 8: Humidity
Readings/ Samples

Relative Humidity

1
2

86%
80%

86%

Average

84%

Wind and Pressure

Wind is the movement of air across the Earths surface and is produced by differences in
air pressure between one place to another. Wind strength can vary from a light breeze to
hurricane force. Wind speed is measured with an anemometer and its direction is determined
with a wind vane. Air pressure is created by the motion, size, and number of gas molecules
present in the air. This varies based on the temperature and density of the air mass. These were
shown in Table 9.
Table 9: Wind and Pressure
Readings/ Samples

Air Temperature

Wind Speed

Atmospheric
Pressure

3 .6

0.13 m/s

1008 mb

3 .

0.17 m/s

1008 mb

3 .8

0.12 m/s

1008 mb

30.63 C

0.14 m/s

1008 mb

Average

V.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

Forest biodiversity is threatened by rapid deforestation, forest fragmentation

and degradation, hunting and the arrival of invasive species from other habitats. We are losing
12 million hectares of forest a year, much of it tropical rainforest with its unique and rich
biodiversity.
One of the best ways to conserve forest biodiversity is to establish protected forest areas.
But these areas must be of a certain size, or consist of a well-designed network of forest areas,
to allow the local forest ecosystems to continue operating effectively. The forest surrounding
the protected area must then be carefully managed so that it serves as a buffer zone. These
surrounding forests also allow local communities to earn a livelihood without infringing on the
protected forest.
There have been numerous efforts aimed at safeguarding the world's biodiversity
by protecting species in areas outside their original habitats. For example, seeds of some of the
most economically important trees are being conserved in seed centers and gene-banks as a
way of protecting their genetic diversity. But a large number of forest species have seed that do
not survive storage, and many species of animals and plant-life are hard to protect once
removed from their ecosystems.
Biodiversity will continue to change and it is impossible to protect everything, so we
need to decide which species are critically important and how they can best be maintained. The
challenge is to ensure that we do not focus only on the needs of developed nations and the
world's economic elite. We must also recognize and examine the priorities of local people who
depend on forests, especially in developing nations.
Before raising any awareness act, we have to consider first the question? Why is there
a need to restore and preserve our biodiversity most especially in terms of our forest cover.

VI.

Philippine set of Criteria and indicators for sustainable forest management (Forest
Management Bureau Department of Environment and Natural Resources)

INTRODUCTION
The Philippines has embraced the concept of Sustainable Forest Management as the main
policy thrust in order to guarantee the long-term stability of its forest resources. The policy to
SFM is largely attributable to the implementation of measures embodied in the 1987
Constitution; the Philippine Strategy for Sustainable Development and Philippine Agenda 21;
the Master Plan for Forestry Development; and the adoption of the community-based forest
management and watershed/ecosystem approaches as the main strategies for SFM. These key
measures were supported by various policy and institutional reforms embodied in the major
forestry programs and project supported by multi-lateral and bilateral funding institutions.
To measure the progress towards SFM, the DENR formulated a proposed criteria and indicators
for SFM. Initially, the Environmental Performance Monitoring (EPM) System was developed
under Natural Resources Management Program (NRMP). Apart from the EPM, the Model Forest
Project assisted by FAO and Japan has also designed a model forest level measurement of
indicators. However, similar to EPM, the tool is specifically designed for a particular forest
management unit managed by organized forest-dependent communities.
To assess the current state of SFM in the Philippines, it is necessary to have a full understanding
of the various components of SFM and their impacts on forest resources and ecosystems. These
require a system of criteria and measurable indicators to evaluate the changes and conditions
and management systems at national and forest management unit levels like timber
concessions, industrial forest management areas, and community based forest management
areas. In this context, the DE R through the F B implemented the Project PD
/ 3 Rev. 1
(F).
This project is intended to address the need for a system for tracking the progress towards the
achievement of SFM in the Philippines. It also seeks to harmonize and/or consolidate previous
and ongoing efforts within the DENR, which oftentimes are too focused or configured mainly
for a particular forest management unit. Efforts under the project will also lead to the
determination of the level or degree upon which various stakeholders have gone in the
development of their areas. It would also lead into the assessment of the state-of-knowledge
vis- -vis SFM requirements and the present capabilities of the Philippine forest managers.
The C and I for SFM will provide a common yardstick by which the various stakeholders can
determine the state of the countrys forest resources at any given time at any particular
location. With the adoption of mutually agreed upon yardstick, the contentious debates that
characterized discussions on Philippine forestry will be minimized.
It will also lead to a common understanding of how to achieve SFM in the country by
highlighting activities or gaps that constrain or veer away from SFM. Remedial measures by

means of key management interventions can be applied to put back on track the countrys
efforts towards SFM.
The project was implemented with the basic philosophy of applying C and I as management
tools for reporting progress towards SF and enhancing capability of F Us in managing their
forest resources on a sustainable basis.
The Philippine C and I was pre-tested in selected FMUs in the country and were presented in a
series of consultations and discussions with forest managers, non-governmental organizations,
academic institutions, peoples organizations, other government agencies, and other civic
society groups.
Presently, the DENR is developing an appropriate audit system for the Philippine C and I. Similar
to the C and I framework, the audit systems will be pilot-tested in selected FMUs and will be
presented to concerned stakeholders. Alongside the development of Philippine C and I and the
appropriate auditing system is a comprehensive analysis of the existing regulations governing
the implementation of various modalities of forest land and/or resource access and other forest
management schemes. The analysis is aimed at determining the gaps vis- -vis SFM
requirements and existing forest management strategies.
The development of a user-friendly database and management information system for the
Philippine C and I is also being developed to facilitate information management, analysis, and
retrieval.
Purpose of Criteria and Indicators
The Purpose of the Philippine Set of Criteria and Indicators is to provide Forest Managers within
the country an improved tool for assessing changes and trends in forest conditions and forest
management systems. The criteria and indicators will also provide means of assessing progress
towards the attainment of the objective set under Executive Order 318 otherwise known as
Promoting Sustainable Forest anagement in the Philippines and towards to the
commitment to ITTO Year 2000 Objective.
Using the criteria and indicators as management tools will provide the forest managers a
framework for understanding, planning and implementing improved forest management
technique. They will have or enhanced capacity to comprehensively assess the situations of
their forest management units whether they are moving towards or away sustainable forest
management. This will also help policy and decision makers in developing policies and
necessary actions to further strengthen SFM, focusing on aspects where knowledge is still
deficient, and in identifying those areas which are in need of assistance.
By the time that the indicators are made operational and appropriate prescriptions and
standards are set, a sound basis would be created for measuring sustainable forest
management. The indicators identified in this publication were thoroughly assessed through a

series of consultations with different stakeholders and forest managers to see to it that the
identified indicators fit the forestry situation in the Philippines.
The Criteria and Indicators identified in this document will be reviewed and refined repeatedly
to benefit from experiences of different stakeholders and to reflect new concepts of
sustainable forest management. The revision should take into account evolving knowledge
about the performance of forest ecosystems, human impacts on the forests whether planned
or unplanned and the changing needs of society for forest goods and services. Moreover, the
capability to measure indicators will increase and knowledge will improve about the nature of
best indicators to assess forest management in the Philippines.
The Criteria
The criteria identified by ITTO were adopted as elements of sustainable forest management in
the Philippines. Every criterion was accompanied with a full meaning and description as to what
this particular criterion pertains.
Criterion 1, Enabling Conditions for Sustainable Forest Management, covers the general
institutional requirements for sustainable forest management to succeed. Criterion 2, Extent
and Condition of Forests, deals with Forest Resource Security relates to the extent to which the
Philippines has a secure and stable forest state to meet the production, protection, and other
social, cultural, economic and environmental needs of the present and future generations.
Criterion 3, Forest Ecosystem Health, relates to the condition of the countrys forests and the
healthy biological functioning of its forest ecosystem and it deals with the forest conditions and
health as affected by a variety of human actions and natural causes. Criterion 4, Forest
Production, deals with the production of wood and non-wood forest products with perceptions
that production can only be sustained in the long-term if it is economically and financially
viable, environmentally sound and socially acceptable. Criterion 5, Biological Diversity, relates
to the conservation and maintenance of biological functioning of the forests. Criterion 6, Soil
and Water Protection, this criterion deals with the protection of soil and water in the forest and
Criterion 7, Economic, Social, and Cultural Aspects, relates to the economic, social, and cultural
function of the forest.
Criterion 1: Enabling Conditions for Sustainable Forest Management
This criterion addresses the general institutional requirements that are necessary to make
sustainable forest management possible. Most of related indicators cover the legal, policy and
institutional frameworks and are mainly descriptive in nature. Taken together, the information
gathered indicates the extent of a countrys political commitment to sustainable forest
management.
Policy, legal and governance framework

To ensure sustainable forest management, it is important that the forest resources, especially
the permanent forest estate, are secured and protected and that they are managed in
accordance with best management practices involving all stakeholders, in particular local
communities who are dependent on the forest.
Indicator 1.1 Existence and implementation of policies, laws and regulations to govern forest
management.
1. (a) national objectives for forest including production, conservation, protection and
investment
2. (b) the establishment and security of the permanent forest estate
3. (c) forest tenure and property rights in relation to forests
4. (d) the participation of local communities and other stakeholders in forest management
5. (e) the control of illegal activities in forest areas
6. (f) the control of forest management
7. (g) the health and safety of forest workers
Indicator 1.2 Forest tenure and ownership
Indicator 1.3 Amount in funding forest management, administration, research and human
resource development
Indicator 1.4 Existence and Implementation of Economic instruments and other incentives to
encourage sustainable development
Indicator 1.5 The structure and staffing of institution responsible for sustainable forest
development
Indicator 1.6 Number of professional and technical personnel at all levels to perform and
support forest management
Indicator 1.7 Existence of communication strategies and feedback mechanism to increase
awareness about SFM
Indicator 1.8 Existence of, and ability to apply, appropriate technology to practise sustainable
forest management and the efficient utilisation and marketing of forest products
Indicator 1.9 Capacity and mechanisms for planning sustainable forest management and for
periodic monitoring, evaluation and feed-back on progress
Indicator 1.10 Public participation in forest management planning, decision making, data
collection, monitoring and assessment
Indicator 1.11 Existence of forest management plans.

Criterion 2: Extent and Condition of Forests

Sustainable forest management is a long-term enterprise and depends critically upon the
stability and security of a nations forest estate. Hence, this criterion lays the basic foundation
for sustainable forest management within production and protection forests. It considers the
extent and percentage of land under natural and planted forests, the needs for the
conservation of biological diversity through the maintenance of a range of forest types and the
integrity and condition of forest resources.
Description of resource base
An overall land-use plan is important to ensure sustainable forest management, especially of
the permanent forest estate, in relation to other sectors of the economy. In this context, the
external boundaries of the permanent forest estate should be clearly demarcated and changes
in their extent should be regularly monitored.
Criterion 3: Forest Ecosystem Health
This criterion relates to healthy biological functioning of forest ecosystems. This can be affected
by a variety of human actions such as encroachment, illegal harvesting, human induced fire and
pollution, grazing, mining, poaching, etc. and natural phenomena such as fire, insect attacks,
diseases and climate change related events such as severe wind and rainfalls, flooding, drought,
etc.
Indicator 3.1 The extent and nature of forest encroachment, degradation, and disturbance
caused by humans and the control procedures applied
Indicator 3.2 The extent and nature of forest degradation, and disturbance due to natural
causes and the control procedures applied.
Criterion 4: Forest Production
This criterion is concerned with forest management for the production of wood and non-wood
forest products. Such production can only be sustained in the long-term if it is economically and
financially viable, environmentally sound and socially acceptable.
Forests earmarked for timber production are able to fulfil a number of other important forest
functions, such as environmental protection, carbon storage and the conservation of species
and ecosystems. These multiple roles of forest should be safeguarded by the application of
sound management practices that maintain the potential of the forest resource to yield the full
range of benefits to society.

Resource Assessment
Forest resource assessments carried out periodically are vital for ensuring the sustainable
production of forest goods and services for society. They provide the necessary information not
only on the level of yield that may be harvested but also the type and quality of forest produce
that may be extracted.
Indicator 4.1 Extent and percentage of forest for which inventory and survey procedures have
been used to define the quantity of the main forest products
Indicator 4.2 Actual and sustainable harvest of wood and non-wood forest products
Indicator 4.3 Composition of harvest
Indicator 4.4 Total amount of carbon stored in forest stands
Indicator 4.5 Existence and implementation of:
(a) Forest harvesting/operational plans (within forest management plans); and
(b)Other harvesting permits (small, medium and large scale permits without forest
management plans).
Indicator 4.6 Extent of compartments/coupes harvested according to: (a)
Harvesting/operational plans; and (b) Anyotherharvesting/cuttingpermit.
Indicator 4.7 Existence of a log tracking system or similar control mechanisms
Indicator 4.8 Long-term projections, strategies and plans for forest production.
Indicator 4.9 Availability of historical records on the extent, nature and management of
forests
Indicator 4.10 Availability and implementation of silvicultural procedures for timber and nonwood forest products
Indicator 4.11 Availability and implementation of harvesting procedures for timber and nonwood forest products
Indicator 4.12 Area over which silvicultural and harvesting procedures are effectively
implemented

Criterion 5: Biological Diversity

This criterion relates to the conservation and maintenance of biological diversity, including
ecosystems, species and genetic diversity. The general principles and definitions used here are
those established by CBD and IUCN.
Ecosystem diversity
The conservation of ecosystem diversity can best be accomplished by the establishment and
management of a system of protected areas (combinations of IUCN Categories I to VI)
containing representative samples of all forest types linked as far as possible by biological
corridors or stepping stones. This can be ensured by effective land-use policies and systems
for choosing, establishing and maintaining the integrity of protected areas in consultation with
and through the involvement of local communities.
Indicator 5.1 Protected areas containing forests
Indicator 5.2 Protected areas connected by biological corridors or stepping stones
Species Diversity
Although the conservation of biological diversity is best assured by preventing species from
becoming rare, threatened or endangered in the first place, it is also important to have national
procedures to monitor and protect such species effectively.
Indicator 5.3 Existence and implementation of procedures to identify and protect
endangered, rare and threatened species of forest flora and fauna
Indicator 5.4 Number of endangered, rare and threatened forest-dependent species
Genetic Diversity
Effective conservation of biological diversity requires the maintenance of the genetic diversity
of all species of fauna and flora. Although this may be difficult to achieve in practice, an
appropriate place to focus limited resources is on species that are rare, threatened or
endangered, as well as species with identified commercial value.
Procedures for biodiversity conservation in production forests
An important contribution to conservation of biological diversity can be made by management
measures in production forests that contribute to forest quality and enable neighbouring
protected areas to be more effective. Detailed guidelines are given in Recommended Actions 817 of the ITTO Policy Development Series No.5 (ITTO Guidelines on the Conservation of
Biological Diversity in Tropical Production Forests).

Indicator 5.6 Existence and implementation of procedures for protection and monitoring of
biodiversity in production forests by:
(a) Retaining undisturbed areas;
(b) Protectingrare,threatenedandendangeredspecies;
(c) Protecting features of special biological interest (e.g. nesting sites, seed trees, niches,
keystone species, etc); and
(d) Assessing recent changes in (a) to (c), above through inventories, monitoring/assessment
programs, and comparison with control areas.
Indicator 5.7 Extent and percentage of production forest which has been set aside for
biodiversity conservation.
Criterion 6: Soil and Water Protection
The importance of this criterion is two-fold. First, it has a bearing on maintaining the
productivity and quality of soil and water within the forest and its related aquatic ecosystems
(and therefore on the health and condition of the forest, Criterion 3); secondly, it also plays a
crucial role outside the forest in maintaining downstream water quality and flow and in
reducing flooding and sedimentation.
Quantitative indicators of the effects of forest management on soil and water are, therefore,
such measures as soil productivity within the forest and data on water quality and average and
peak water flows for streams emerging from the forest. This information is difficult and
expensive to obtain and is seldom available for more than a limited number of sites, as each
site has its own characteristics in this respect (e.g. slope, geological structure and the inherent
erodibility of the soil type).
The protection of soil and water is therefore best ensured by specific guidelines for different
situations; these can only be based on experience and research. Valid national indicators can
only be derived from the aggregation of data from indicators at the forest management unit
level, or from the fact that adequate national guidelines exist and are properly enforced in
conformity with the variation in local conditions.
Criterion7: Economic, Social and Cultural Aspects
This criterion deals with the economic, social and cultural aspects of the forest. A well-managed
forest is a constantly self-renewing resource and it produces a host of benefits, ranging from
high quality timber to satisfying the basic needs of people living in and around the forest. It also
contributes to the well-being and enhances the quality of life of the population in providing
opportunities for recreation and ecotourism, as well as in generating employment and

investment in the processing industries. Hence, if sustainably managed, the forest has the
potential to make an important contribution to the overall sustainable development of the
country.
Socio-economic aspects
The very existence of forest is often dependent on the forest being able to generate sufficient
financial resources to ensure its sustainability, besides providing employment and other social
and environmental benefits to society.

Resource: http://forestry.denr.gov.ph/CnI_Framework.pdf

VII.

LITERATURE CITED

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