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AbstractThis electronic document is a live template and

already defines the components of your paper [title, text, heads,
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Keywordscomponent; formatting; style; styling; insert (key
words)

load flow techniques, used for distribution systems. An

efficient and accurate solution algorithm for the distribution
networks using three fundamental branch flow equations
known as Dist flow equations, proposed by S.F. Mekhmer,
M.A. Moustafa and S.A soliman[] is followed here.

I. INTRODUCTION (HEADING 1)

II. FEEDER RECONFIGURATION

In the past decade or so, with the advances in

communication and data processing technology, electric utility
companies have become very interested in distribution
automation. One important area in which distribution
automation is being applied is the area of network
reconfiguration. Network reconfiguration refers to the closing
and opening of switches in a power distribution system in
order to alter the network topology, and thus the flow of
power from the substation to the customers. There are two
primary reasons to reconfigure a distribution network during
normal operation. Depending on the current loading
conditions, reconfiguration may become necessary in order to
eliminate overloads on specific system components such as
transformers or line sections. In this case it is known as load
balancing. As the loading conditions on the system change it
may also become profitable to reconfigure in order to reduce
the real power losses in the network. This is usually referred to
as network reconfiguration for loss reduction.
Distribution systems consist of groups of interconnected
radial circuits. The configuration may be varied via switching
operations to transfer loads among the feeders. Two types of
switches are used in primary distribution systems. They are
normally closed switches (sectionalizing switches) or
normally open switches (tie switches). Both types are designed
for both protection and configuration management.
Here the network reconfiguration problem is formulated as
a single objective optimization problem where power loss is
minimized subject to security and operational constraints. The
aim is to present an efficient technique for minimization of
real power loss in a radial distribution system. Here we have
adopted feeder reconfiguration technique for reduction of loss
in a radial system using Genetic algorithm. As reconfiguration
problem involve a large no of load flow calculation to find out
the objective function, its efficiency mostly depends on the

The inefficiency in operation of the distribution network is

usually because of its complicated radial configuration,
fluctuating load demand and frequent occurrence of faults.
The optimum and reliable operation of distribution network
increase rewards for distribution companies and satisfaction to
customers. A considerable fraction of losses in power system
is related to the electricity distribution network, also because
of low level of voltage. There are different was to reduce
losses in distribution system. Most of them need installation of
new equipments within the system, which increases
complexity of the network as well as financial burden for
distribution companies.
One of the simple and cheap ways of reducing losses in
distribution network is reconfiguration. Reconfiguration in a
distribution network is achieved by changing the topology of
the system by means of changing the on-off status of the
sectionalizing switches and the tie line switches. The
sectionalizing switches are normally closed and tie line
switches are normally open.
In order to reconfigure a system for finding an optimal
solution computational searching methods are used. These
computational searching methods are classified into three
large groups, Knowledge-based methods, methods based on
evolutionary techniques and mixed methods. [1-4].
A. Knowledge based methods
They are based on the operators' experience in the system
operations. Based on this knowledge, algorithms have been
designed to facilitate searching for the new distribution
network configuration, trying to find an option close to the
optimal. Heuristic methods, linear programming, expert
systems and fuzzy logic are under this category

B. Methods based on evolutionary techniques

They are based on imitation of physical, biological and
neurological processes present in nature. They have as an
important characteristic: the lack of a rigorous mathematical
formulation that allows establishing their operation in each
situation with certainty. Examples of techniques in this
category are: simulated annealing techniques, genetic
algorithms and neural networks. These techniques start from a
solution and improve it.
C. Mixed methods
These methods are in use since 1996 and are combinations
of previous methods to gather their combined strengths; hence
better results are obtained.
In the heuristic approach Merlin and Back [16] developed
a method where the network is treated first with all the
switches closed, which convert it into a mashed network. Then
one by one the tie line switch with the lowest current is
opened until the network become radial. This method is letter
modified by Shirmohammadi and Hong to overcome some of
the weakness present in the initial method.
Another method within the heuristic technique which was
proposed by Civanlar et al [17], considers the closing of one
tie switch and opening of one sectionalizing switch at the
same time, in order to transfer loads from feeder with higher
voltage drop to feeder with lower voltage drop, but still
keeping the network radial. They proposed an equation to
evaluate the reduction in losses when an switching action
takes place.
Goswami and Basu[18] proposed a feeder reconfiguration
algorithm, by using optimal flow pattern. In this case unlike
[16] and [17], only one tie switch at a time is closed and the
radial configuration is restored by opening the same on
another switch depending upon the results of optimal flow.
Although this method gives good results, but its
implementation can very long and therefore difficult to apply
in real time applications. [15] Baran et al. [10] described a
reconfiguration methodology for loss reduction and load
balancing based upon considering branch exchange type
switching. ShirMohammadi et al. [19] described a technique
for the reconfiguration of distribution networks to decrease
their resistive line losses and included results pertaining to
large scale system examples. Lubkeman et al. [20] presented
an expert system using heuristic rules to shrink the search
space for reducing the computation time. However, only a
feasible solution can be obtained for knowledge based
methods. Chiang et al. [22], [23] proposed new solution
methodologies using the simulated annealing algorithm for the
network reconfiguration. Kim et al. [25] proposed a neural
network based method with mapping capability to identify
various network configurations corresponding to different load
levels. Borozan et al. [27] proposed an algorithm for
calculating Zloop matrix using the ordered network elements.
Taleski et al. [26] proposed a method to determine the network
reconfiguration with minimum energy losses for a given
period. Jeon et al. [31] presented the simulated annealing
algorithm with Tabu search for loss reduction. The Tabu

search attempted to determine a better solution in the manner

of a greatest - descent algorithm, but it could not give any
guarantee of the convergence property. Chin et al. [28]
presented a ranking index method to determine the distribution
network reconfiguration problem for loss reduction. Morton et
al. [24] presented a brute force solution for determining a
minimal-loss radial configuration. The graph theory involving
semi sparse transformations of a current sensitivity matrix was
used, which guaranteed a globally optimal solution but needed
an exhaustive search. Kin et al. [29] presented a refined
genetic algorithm (RGA) to reduce losses. In RGA, the
conventional crossover and mutation schemes were refined by
a competition mechanism. [16] K. Nara, A. Shiose, M.
Kitagawa, T. Ishihara [30] presented a genetic algorithm based
approach for determining the network reconfiguration for loss
minimization and load balancing. Prasad et al. [34] presented a
fuzzy mutated genetic algorithm for optimal reconfiguration of
radial distribution systems. This method involves a new
chromosome representation of the network and a fuzzy
mutation control for an effective search of solution space.
Hong et al. [32], and Hung et al. [33] presented a method
based on genetic algorithms (GA) and fuzzy multi objective
programming for determining the network reconfiguration in
distribution systems. A vertex encoding based on Prufer
number was adopted in GA for encoding the chromosomes.
Sivanagaraju et al. [21] presented a method to determine the
voltage stability of radial distribution systems by network
reconfiguration.
In this work Genetic Algorithm is applied for the
reconfiguration problem with real power loss reduction as
main objective while meeting the following constraints.
1. Topological constraints
2. Electrical constraints
3. Operational constraints
4. Load constraints
III. PROBLEM FORMULATION
In order to remain competitive, it is becoming more and
more important for power distribution companies to be able to
meet efficiently the demands of their customers. This means
that one of their goals is to be able to find an operating state
for a large distribution network which minimizes the cost in
terms of loss for the power company supplying the power,
while satisfying the requirements of the customer. This
chapter introduces some useful notation and presents a
formulation of the network reconfiguration problem for loss
reduction. Let u denote the current configuration of a
distribution system whose operating state is specified by
x(switch status). Let be the objective function f(v,x), where v
is the voltage vector of the nodes corresponding to the
configuration u which gives a relative measure of the loss of
operating the system in configuration u and corresponding
state x. In order for a configuration u to be a valid solution to
the problem it must satisfy certain topological constraints. The
corresponding state x must be consistent with Kirchhoffs
current and voltage laws to satisfy the electrical constraints
and must satisfy the operational constraints of the system by

not exceeding the physical limitations of any of the system

components. It must also satisfy the customers real power
demands while maintaining bus voltages within appropriate
bounds. The customer requirements are also called load
constraints. The objective is to find a network configuration u
which minimizes while satisfying all of the above constraints.
This problem can be given in a very general formulation as a
single objective function with equality and inequality
constraints.
Minimize f (v, x)
(1)
us
Where,
v = vector of node voltages
x = vector of the switch status
Subject to
F (v, x) =0
G (v, x) 0
(2)
where S is the set of all possible network configurations, and F
and G are non-linear functions used to express the constraints
mentioned above. Any solution u satisfying the constraints of
(2) is called a feasible configuration.
A. Search space
The search space for this problem is the set of all
possible network configurations. Once the general layout of
the distribution network is specified, the specific topology is
determined by the status of each of the switches in the system.
Switches which are normally open are called tie switches and
normally closed switches are known as sectionalizing
switches. Specifying the open/closed status of each switch
completely characterizes the topology of the network. So if the
total number of tie and sectionalizing switches in the system is
n, the current configuration can be represented as a vector
u = [ u1, u2,u3, .un ], of individual switch states.
where , ui{0.1} 1in
ui= 1 indicates that switch i is closed, and ui= 0 indicates that
it is open.
B. Objective function
The objective function f(v,x) maps the current
configuration u and the corresponding state x into a real
number which gives a relative measure of the objective of that
configuration. In this application the goal is to reduce real
power
losses
in
the
system.
Let f (v, x) be the sum of the real power losses in each line of
a particular configuration, then

to zero ,the real power losses in the system would also be zero,
but a distribution system operated in this state would
obviously cause the utility company to lose customers.
So it is necessary to specify which states are feasible and whic
h ones are not.
1) Topological constraints:The Topology or layout
of the system is constrained to be the radial configuration
which is typical in power distribution networks. This means
that no loops are allowed in the network. The network
configuration is also constrained to be a connected topology
such that each bus is connected via at least one path to the
substation. The combination of these two requirments
classifies the feasible topology as a spanning tree. Fig. 1 shows
a typical feasible radial configuration of a distribution system
with a main feeder and 7 laterals.
2) Electrical Constraints: Being an Electrical circuit,
the state of a power system network must also satisfy
Kirchhoffs voltage and current laws. Since a distribution sys
tem can be quite large involving thousands of buses , the
formulation of these constraints can be rather involved. They
can be expressed as the equality constraint, f(v, x) ,given
in (2).
3) Operational constraints: It is possible that the
network configuration which is theoritically minimizes the
the real power losses in the system might require
one or several of the components in the system to be operated
at a level beyond its physical limitations. This obviously must
be disallowed. Each lin, transformer and switch in the system
has a certain thermal limitation which restricts the maximum
allowable current through that component. In general, thes
e physical limitations can be accounted for by constraining
line
currents,
line
flows
and
bus voltages to lie within appropriate bounds. These operation
al constraints are inequality constraints which can be included
in (2).
4) Load
constraints:
The
power
companys
customers have certain requirements for the electrical power
they receive. The power company must be able to maintain a
certain voltage level at each bus in the system while
supplying
power
demanded
by
each
customer. This inequality constraint is given by
|min Vi| |Vi | |maxVi|
(3)
is also included in the inequality constraint (2), namely,
G(xu) 0
.

(3)
where, Pli represent the real power lost in line i, (n-1)
represents total number of lines and n represents total number
of buses.Then our objective function will be
min f (v, x) for u s.
C. Constraints
Not every configuration u s is a reasonable solution to the
network configuration problem. For example if all of the
switches were put in the open state and all bus voltages set

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[1]

G. Eason, B. Noble, and I.N. Sneddon, On certain integrals of

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Trans. Roy. Soc. London, vol. A247, pp. 529-551, April 1955.
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J. Clerk Maxwell, A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, 3rd ed., vol.

2. Oxford: Clarendon, 1892, pp.68-73.
I.S. Jacobs and C.P. Bean, Fine particles, thin films and exchange
anisotropy, in Magnetism, vol. III, G.T. Rado and H. Suhl, Eds. New
York: Academic, 1963, pp. 271-350.
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Y. Yorozu, M. Hirano, K. Oka, and Y. Tagawa, Electron spectroscopy
studies on magneto-optical media and plastic substrate interface, IEEE
Transl. J. Magn. Japan, vol. 2, pp. 740-741, August 1987 [Digests 9th
Annual Conf. Magnetics Japan, p. 301, 1982].
M. Young, The Technical Writers Handbook. Mill Valley, CA:
University Science, 1989.