UNVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA,

LOS ANGELES
Henry Samueli School of Engineering and Applied Science
Department of Electrical Engineering

Electrical Engineering 11L

Circuits Measurements Lab

LABORATORY MANUAL

Circuits Laboratory I EE11L

REQUIRED TEXTBOOK
National Instruments MyDAQ Portable Measurement and Instrumentation Device and a laptop to
run the associated software are required.

TOPICS
1. Familiarization with basic electrical laboratory components (e.g., reading resistor values
etc.) and equipment (or MyDAQ)
2. Kirchoffs laws, superposition, Thevenins and Nortons theorems
3. Transient response of first order electrical circuits
4. Transient response of second order electrical circuits
5. Transformers and phasor techniques
The experiments will be grouped into modules that will closely follow the sequence of topics
covered in the lecture course of EE10.

GRADING
Laboratory work will be graded based on lab reports and/or in-lab demonstrations by the student,
and based on student-performance on quizzes.

University of California, Los Angeles

School of Engineering and Applied Science
Department of Electrical Engineering

EE11L/EE111L
Introduction
The EE11L and EE111L courses provide a hands-on laboratory experience to give students a
deeper understanding of the topics covered in lecture in EE10 and EE110. Building, analyzing, and
measuring circuits will give an intuitive understanding of the real-world counterparts to the symbols and
equations found in textbooks. In the laboratory, students will also encounter interesting real-world
limitations of the available equipment and components and their non-idealities, although most circuits
will prove to follow theory very closely. In addition, this laboratory course will provide students the
opportunity to learn how to interpret data and analyze experimental results to draw conclusions.
A brief background on laboratory equipment will first be covered in this introduction as to
familiarize students with the terminology (Some introductory material is courtesy of Professor O.M.
Staffsudd from the EE3L laboratory course manual). This brief summary of laboratory equipment will
begin with a general background and eventually introduce students to the more specific features available
on the National Instruments myDAQ which will be used throughout the course.

Background
Multimeters
The multiple function meter, more commonly referred to as the multi-meter, is the most
basic of electrical measurement devices. These meters occur in two basic types: the analog multi-meter
(AMM) and digital multi-meter (DMM). Although the two types perform similar measurements, their
methods differ and their limitations are quite different.

Analog Multi-Meters (AMMs)

While Analog Multi-Meters will not be used in this laboratory lab course, there is value in understanding
how an Analog Multi-Meter functions and differs from its Digital counterpart.
At the heart of all analog meters is a current measuring device (see Figures 1a and 1b). The meter works
as follows: the current passing through a coil produces a torque due to the magnetic field across the coil.
This torque then acts against a spring and moves an indicator hand. Typical meters require 10-1to 10-5
amperes to deflect the indicator hand to full scale. The mechanism is generally mechanically delicate and
does not like physical shocks, i.e. dropping. The accuracy is in the order of 5-10%. The electrical
equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 2 where the resistance of the coil and its connections are lumped into
Ri (the internal resistance of the meter).

Fig.1a. Analog Multi-Meter

Fig.1b.Analog Multi-Meter Close Up (pointing out Moving Coil Assembly)

Fig.2. Analog Multi-Meter Voltage Reading Circuit

To change the full scale voltage range of the instrument, a multiple position switch places successively
higher resistor values in series with the meter movement.
Vfull scale = I0 (Rex + Rint)
where Rint is the resistance of the coil and Rex is the externally added scale factor resistance. I0 is the full
scale current.
NOTE: most analog meters will indicate the total resistance, i.e. (Rex + Rint) to achieve a given full scale
voltage and is usually given in ohms/volt = 1/I0. The larger this value (ohms/volt), the less the meter will
influence the measurement process. It follows also that this leads to a higher priced device that is more
delicate and more easily damaged.

Figure 3 shows the typical circuit used to measure resistance with an analog meter. To measure a resistor,
one must first short circuit the two measurement terminals or probes. The ohms adjust resistor Rohm is
then adjusted to get a full scale reading of the meter. The resistor to be tested is then placed in the circuit.
The meter reading is then given by:
Meter Fraction of Full Scale = Rint / (Rint + R)

Fig.3. Resistance Measuring Circuit

In principle, resistance can be measured from 0 . Of course, the readings at large values are not very
accurate. The scale is also quite non-linear (see Figure 4 for a typical example). The maximum utility of
the measurement is when R ~ Rint. Therefore, a meter will have multiple values of Rint to be selected.

Fig.4. Analog Meter Scale

An analog meter can also be used to measure current. To do this, the meters terminals are placed in series
with the current to be measured (Figure 5). Note that if one does not wish to perturb the circuit by the
measurement process, then the resistance, Rint, should ideally be 0 ohms. Since this is not possible, one
must consider the effect of the Rint resistance on the circuit. Typically, if Rint << the resistors in the
circuit, there will be a negligent effect on the accuracy of the measurement.

Fig.5. Current Measuring Circuit

Digital Multi-Meters (DMMs)
Digital multi-meters currently dominate the market. Their advantages over analog meters include:
1. Increased accuracy. Analog meters are typically no better than a few percent accurate. Even very
low cost digital meters are 0.1% or better in accuracy.
2. Mechanical ruggedness. Analog meters have delicate mechanical meter movements which tend to
be easily damaged by dropping, etc.
3. Higher input resistance than possible with analog meters. Typical values exceed 107 ohms.
4. Lower cost for better performance.
Digital multi-meters always measure potential differences, i.e. Voltage. Whether they are functioning as
DC voltmeters, AC voltmeters, resistance measuring meters, current meters, etc., the actual measurement
is potential. This is in sharp contrast to analog meters which always measure currents.
In current mode, the measurement terminals (input) of the DMM are shunted with a resistor and the
voltage drop across the resistor is then measured by the meter. The range of the current measurement is
changed by changing the value of the resistor. If, for example, the voltage measuring device has a range
of 0-2 volts, then a shunt resistor of 1 ohm would cause the range to be 0-2 amperes. Increasing the
resistance value to 10 ohms would result in a 0-0.2 ampere range and so on.
Resistance is measured by a DMM by putting a precision constant current source at the measuring
terminals. Then, a resistor connected at the terminals will produce a voltage drop proportional to both the

resistor value in ohms and the current source in amperes. A significant advantage of this method of
resistance measurement over the AMM is that the readout is linear as long as the current source remains
ideal. The 0-2 V measurement meter with a 1 micro-ampere current source becomes a 0-2 mega-ohm
device. By changing the value of the constant current source, the range can be adjusted.
The measurement method employed by DMMs is to compare the voltage to be measured to internally
generated voltages. The internal voltage is changed until a match of sufficient accuracy is achieved.
Because the external voltage to be measured is compared, it is possible to make the effective input
resistance reach extremely large values and therefore not interfere with the accuracy of the measurement.
Typical DMMs in the voltage measurement mode have effective input resistances in the 10 to 400 million
ohm range. This makes them almost ideal voltage measurement devices.
Two basic digital measurement methods are used in most DMMs. They are (1) the integrator method and
(2) the successive approximation method. The integrator method compares the external voltage to be
measured (Vm) with the voltage on a capacitor. A constant current source is connected to the capacitor
and a digital timer is simultaneously started. The voltage on the capacitor Vc = q/c where q is the charge
on the capacitor in coulombs and c is the capacitance in farads. The charge at T=0 is set to zero and the
T

charge at time T is

Idt For a constant current I, the charge at time T is q = IT and therefore the voltage
0

on the capacitor is given as Vc = IT/C. The voltage Vc is a linear function of time. When the comparator
circuit detects that Vc = Vm, the timer is stopped. The digital value of the time represents the voltage that
was measured. In reality, the measurement is a bit more complicated if capacitors are not perfect and
suffer from various problems. To minimize the non-ideal nature of capacitors, the circuit actually
measures the time to charge the capacitor and then to discharge it in order to make the measurement more
accurate. Such circuits easily achieve 1/1000 accuracy,
Successive approximation types of DMMs can achieve higher accuracies and high speeds.
In this type of digital meter, voltages produced by a digital to analog converter (DAC) are compared
sequentially with increasing accuracy. The internal voltage is produced by changing the value of resistors
switched across a constant current source. The internal voltage starts at VMax. If the external voltage to be
measured, Vm is greater than VMax then the instrument displays over range. If the external voltage is
smaller than VMax then the internal voltage is changed to VMax /2.
The voltages, external and internal, are compared again. If the external voltage is smaller than VMax/2 then
the internal voltage is reduced to VMax/4. If the external voltage is greater than VMax/2 then the internal
voltage is increased to VMax . This process is repeated. Each successive comparison doubles the
accuracy to which the external voltage is being approximated by the internal voltage (which is digitally
controlled). Eight successive comparisons yield an accuracy of 1/256 or 0.4%. It should be noted that 12
bit and 16 bit systems (digital to analog converters) are very common. Such devices can be used to
produce DMMs with 1/4096 (0.025%) and 1/65536 (0.0015%) accuracy.

Function Generators
Function generators are time dependent voltage sources. They fall into two distinct types: analog and
digital. You will be using the digital myDAQ Function Generator in this course, but a brief background of
both types will be given here.
Analog function generators of the simplest type produce sinusoidal and square waves, i.e. waves whose
voltage as a function of time are given by V(t) = V0 sin(t) in the case of sine waves or waves that
alternate between V0 with a minimum of rise and fall time. Frequently, triangular wave forms are also
available in analog function generators. A triangular wave rises linearly for V0 to +V0 and the falls
linearly from +V0 to V0 successively.
These wave forms can easily be produced by relatively simple analog circuits. More complex wave forms
such as modulated or gated repetitive sine, square, or triangular wave forms can also be easily produced.
However, for arbitrary functions of time, one should use a digital function generator. Digital function
generators are based on Digital to Analog Converters (DACs) as are some digital multi-meters. A series
of numbers stored in a memory is sent sequentially into a
DAC. The DACs output as a function of time is then determined by the array of numbers stored in the
memory. The series of voltage outputs produced by the DAC can be used to approximate any arbitrary
function limited only by the speed of the DAC and the size of the memory. This series can be repeated to
give a repetitive function or occur as a single occurrence.
The NI myDAQ has such an arbitrary waveform generator included as one of its functions. Each type of
function generator (analog and digital) has its advantages and disadvantages so both systems continue to
be popular and in production.

Power Supplies
Power supplies act almost as perfect voltage sources. That is, they supply output voltage regardless of
current demand up to a pre-set current limit at which point they behave as current sources supplying a
fixed current even into a short circuit zero ohms!

Oscilloscopes
Oscilloscopes allow us to display time dependent wave forms. The original scopes were analog devices.
The signal to be displayed was amplified and the amplified signal was then used to displace an electron
beam vertically. The displacement was usually accomplished electrostatically. The horizontal path of the
beam was determined by a second amplifier circuit. The horizontal position was commonly a linear
function of time. Thus, the beam of electrons was positioned horizontally as a linear function of time and
vertically by the signal. The electron beam struck a front surface of the cathode ray tube where a
phosphor surface was present. The electron impact caused the phosphor to fluoresce (light up brightly).
The wave form as a function of time was displayed.

This method was a major step forward at the time, allowing the engineer to visualize the time dependent
voltage. Analog oscilloscopes were employed from the 1930s through the end of the 20th century.
Digital technology in the form of fast analog to digital converters along with advances in display
technologies led to the digital oscilloscope which has become the dominant technology today.
The typical digital oscilloscope still amplifies and perhaps conditions the signal. The time dependent
signal is then converted to digital information by an analog to digital converter (ADC). The sampling rate
is continuously deposited in a fifo (first in first out) memory.
The memory is a certain number of addresses long (typically 4096 or larger). When new data comes from
the ADC, it is placed into address 1 while data in that address is displaced to address 2, address 2 to
address 3 with the last address 4096 discarded. Therefore, at any instant of time, the data in the
memory represents 4096 measurements sequential in time.
The digital scope can display this data just as a computer displays images on a screen. Because the data is
stored in a memory, a single event can be captured and the process stopped and then displayed as long as
the operator wishes! This is an enormous advantage over analog scopes particularly in analyzing transient
or single events.
The oscilloscopes time base controls change the rate of digitization by the ADC and therefore the
horizontal display (time axis). If the signal (waveform) is repetitive, then it is desirable to always start the
ADC at an equivalent point in the waveform. This is accomplished by the trigger function of the scope.
The trigger section can select a given voltage value and sense (increasing or decreasing) of an input to
position time = 0 i.e. the start of the ADC memory.
The waveform used to trigger the system is usually the waveform being displayed. However, it can also
be from other sources such as power lines or other related waveforms sent to another input channel for the
scope.
Because the data is in digital form, many mathematical operations can be performed such as averaging,
addition, subtraction, division, etc. of two or more different waveforms. The data can also be transferred
to a removable memory allowing the operator to further analyze or archive the data.

Resistors
Resistors are a fundamental circuit element which converts the energy of the electrons which flow
through it into heat. The more heat produced for a given flow of electrons, the higher the resistance.
To read the value of the resistors you will be using, you will need to become familiar with the resistor
color code:
Resistor Color Code
Black 0
Orange - 3

Blue 6

White - 9

Brown 1

Yellow - 4

Violet 7

Gold - -1

Red 2

Green - 5

Gray 8

Silver - -2

Resistor Tolerances
No Band - 20%

Silver - 10%

Gold - 5%

Red - 2%

The bands of color are read in the following way:

R (1st 2nd ) 103 4th

rd

For example:
brown-black-red is: 10 102 1000
red-green-yellow is: 25 10 250,000
The fourth band is called the tolerance and indicates the uncertainty in the resistor value. For
example, a gold (5%) banded 1000 resistor may have an actual resistance ranging from 950
to 1050 . Precision resistors have a 3-digit mantissa and 1-digit exponent. For example, a 1k
precision resistor would be denoted by 1001F on one line denoting 100*101 and a second
line with the text RN60D for 1% or RN55C for 0.5% tolerance. The F following the exponent
may be interpreted as an end of line symbol for the resistance value.
4

Resistors also have Power Ratings. You can determine this by looking at the diameter of the
resistor.
Approximate Diameter

Power Rating

1/16

Watt

1/8

Watt

7/32

1 Watt

5/16

2 Watt

Do not exceed the power rating or the resistor may get extremely hot.

Lab Reports
For each experiment, you will submit a lab report. Your lab report is a demonstration of what
you have learned, inside and outside the laboratory. Each lab report should have the following sections:
1. Title Page
2. Objectives
3. Theory
4. Procedure
5. Data
6. Data Analysis
7. Error Analysis
8. Discussion
9. Conclusions
Objectives
The Objectives section should consist of a concise acknowledgment by you, of what is expected
to be accomplished in the experiment.
Theory
The Theory section should include statements and explanation of concepts, equations, and
formulas which are necessary for analyzing the experimental situation.
Procedure
The Procedure section should specify exactly what you are going to do, which circuits you will
use, and what methods you will use for making the measurements.
Data
All of the data you took which you include in your lab report should be presented in an organized
manner in the Data section. Include all relevant observations, measurements, and screenshots of relevant
oscilloscope data. Include only your own data.
Record actual values for all components and employ these values in your calculations. Take
sufficient data to identify trends and to note peculiarities.
Data Analysis
The Data Analysis section is where you describe what you did the data to get the information
you were looking for. Formulas you used to analyze the data should be included here. Also include
values you derived from your data in this section.
Data Analysis includes Error Analysis to verify whether or not a quantitative measure made falls
within the bounds of error and uncertainty.

% Error

Yexp eriment Ytheory

Ytheory

100%

Be aware of uncertainty as well. Every experimental measurement has an uncertainty. For example,

when measuring distance using a ruler, one reads a distance to the nearest 1mm. The uncertainty in those
measures is 1mm, or half that much, depending on the quality of the ruler you use.
Discussion
The Discussion section is where you state what all the data that you took really means. Did you
prove something, disprove something, or was there too much uncertainty to draw any certain conclusion?
Be methodical about supporting every statement. You may also identify any shortcomings of your
experiment, and what implications those may have. Also, be sure to answer discussion questions posed
within the lab manual.
Conclusion
The Conclusion is a brief summarizing statement of what was accomplished by the experiment.
Mention what was proved, disproved, or could not be proven or disproven. Did you accomplish the
objective? Use data from Error Analysis to support your conclusion.

Introduction to the National Instruments myDAQ

The National Instruments myDAQ allows students to measure and analyze circuits. Before beginning,
install the NI ELVISmx Instrument Launcher software, either by inserting the CD that is included in the
box, or by going online:
http://www.ni.com/white-paper/11431/en#toc4

The specific features of the myDAQ board include the following.

Screw Terminal Connections

+15V : Power Supply (32mA max output current)

-15V : Power Supply (32mA max output current)

AO : Analog Output (+/- 10V, 200 kS/s max update rate, 2mA max output current DAC)

AI : Analog Input (+/- 10V, 200 kS/s max sample rate ADC)

AGND : Analog GND for +/- 15V power supplies, AI, AO.

+5V : Digital Power Supply (4.0~5.2V, 100mA max output current)

DIO : 5V compatible LVTTL input, 3.3V LVTTL output (4mA max output current)

DGND : Digital GND for DIO and 5V power supply.

Interface Connections

USB : Type A to B, direct connect or powered hub only.

DMM Connections

HI [V, ohm, diode] : Voltage, resistance, and diode measurement positive input terminal
(60 VDC, 20Vrms max input voltage)

COM : Common reference for all DMM measurements

HI [A] : Current measurement positive input terminal (1A max input current)
Audio Connections

AUDIO IN : 3.5 mm stereo jack (+/- LINE IN or microphone)

AUDIO OUT : 3.5 mm stereo jack (+/- LINE OUT)

Looking over these specifications, it is important to point out a few that should be noted carefully.
Particularly, the Analog Output (used for generating functions) can only output a maximum current of
2mA. Thus, when constructing circuits using the function generator, students must ensure their circuits
not violate this requirement, and is often the cause for unexpected behavior in circuits involving the
function generator.
A student will thus have access to the following tools through the myDAQ:
1. Digital MultiMeter (DMM)
2. Power Supply
3. Function Generator
4. Digital Oscilloscope
5. Bode Analyzer
6. Arbitrary Waveform Generator

A brief look at how to use the DMM and construct circuits with the myDAQ power supply will now be
given. More specific instructions on how to use other features will be given as needed in laboratory
experiments.
Building a Circuit with the myDAQ and Breadboard
In this course, your circuits will be constructed on breadboards. A typical breadboard has the following
configuration:

Fig.6. Breadboard Connections

The power rails on either side are connected and run straight down the breadboard vertically. The rows in
the middle are connected in groups of 5 horizontally, and the gap in the middle is used in placing DIP
(dual in-line package) IC chips, which you will encounter later in the course.
Below, we see two fairly basic circuits and their equivalents when constructed using the myDAQ and
Breadboard.
680

5V

3.3k

Fig.7a. Circuit with Resistors in Series

The above circuit is constructed with the myDAQ and breadboard as shown in Figure 7b.

Fig.7b. Circuit with Resistors in series

The green wire is connected to the 5V digital source, while the orange wire is connected to the digital
ground. The 680 (blue,gray,brown) resistor is in series with the 3.3k (orange,orange,red) resistor.

5V

680

3.3k

Fig.8a. Circuit with Resistors in Parallel

The above circuit is constructed on the breadboard as follows:

Fig.8b. Circuit with Resistors in Parallel

The two resistors are in parallel. The voltage source is connected in the same way as in the previous case.

If additional help is needed in using the myDAQ, you may find it useful to visit:
http://www.ni.com/white-paper/11420/en

University of California, Los Angeles

School of Engineering and Applied Science
Department of Electrical Engineering

EE11L
Experiment 1: Introductory Laboratory and Kirchoffs
Laws
I.

Topics
i.
Introduction to myDAQ and basic instrumentation
ii.
Equivalent Resistance
iii.
Kirchoffs Laws
iv.
Wheatstone Bridge and Sensors
II.
Objectives
i.
To become familiar with basic circuit construction, as well as operation of the
National Instruments myDAQ device
ii.
To learn how to measure voltage, current, and resistance with the myDAQ DMM
iii.
To experimentally verify equivalent resistance and Kirchoffs Laws
iv.
Understand the operation of the Wheatstone Bridge, and apply to constructing
circuits with sensors
III.
Background
i.
Equivalent Resistance
The equivalent resistance of two or more resistors in series is given as:
= 1 + 2 +
The equivalent resistance of two or more resistors in parallel can be found through:
1
1
1
=
+
+

1 2
ii.

Kirchoffs Laws
Kirchoffs Voltage Law states that the sum of the voltages in a loop of a circuit
must sum to zero.
Kirchoffs Current Law states that the total current going into a node must equal
the total current leaving the node.

iii.

Using myDAQ DMM

Below are instructions on how to set up and use the myDAQ DMM:

Open the NI ELVISmx Instrument Launcher and click the DMM button.

You will see the window pictured above. The bar at the top allows you to change
between measurements settings. They are in order of appearance:
DC Voltage, AC Voltage, DC Current, Analog Current, Resistance (you need not worry
about the remaining buttons). For this laboratory experiment, you will be using DC
Voltage, DC Current, and Resistance measurements on the DMM.
Set the Range option to the minimum value necessary (i.e. if you are measuring a 5V
signal, set the range to 20V instead of 60V) for increased accuracy. You may then set the
DMM test leads to probe values along the circuit.

To measure a voltage or resistance, plug in the DMM probe leads into the myDAQ as
pictured below:

Resistance and Voltages are measured in parallel, as shown in the photo below. In this
picture, the voltage across the 3.3k is being measured.

To measure current, swap the position of the red DMM test lead to the right socket, as seen
below.

In this photo, the current across the 3.3k resistor is being measured. Notice how the DMM is
in series with the resistor, and is connected between the resistor and ground.
IV.

Lab

1. Ohms Law and Measuring Voltage and Current

i.
Retrieve the following resistors: 100 , 470 , and 1000 .

ii.

Measure the resistance of each of the above resistors using the myDAQ Digital
Multimeter and record the values. You will use them for your theoretical
calculations ahead.

iii.

Build the circuit illustrated in Figure 1 on your breadboard using the previously
obtained resistors. Use the myDAQs 5V power supply and digital ground.

iv.

Note that the power supply may vary slightly from 5V depending on the circuit it
is connected to. Be sure to measure the actual voltage being supplied to each
circuit when constructed.

I
5V

Fig.1. Simple Circuit

v.

Using the resistor values listed above, verify Ohms Law by measuring the
voltage, current, and resistance in the circuit.

vi.

To measure voltage, make sure the red test lead probe is inserted into the correct
position in the myDAQ board, and place the two leads in parallel, as seen in the
below figure (measuring a resistance is done in a similar fashion).

Fig.2. Measuring voltage across the resistor

vii.

To measure current, we must first swap the position of the red test lead to the
connection on the right side of the myDAQ. Place the DMM leads in series with
the current you wish to measure. An example is illustrated in the circuit below.

Fig.3. Measuring current along the resistor

viii.

Record your experimental values in the table below.

V[V]

R[]

I[A]

Discussion
1. How did the values of resistance vary from their given values based on color
code? Were they within the given variance?
2. How does Ohms Law hold for your experimental results?
3. Unlike an ideal power supply, real power supplies also have some internal
resistance (investigated further in a future experiment). What issues (specifically
regarding supply current and voltage) do you think this may cause, and do you
see any effects in your experiment that may be due to this?
2. Equivalent Resistance
i.
Build the following resistive network shown in Figure 4. Once again, measure
the values of resistance using the DMM before performing analysis.
470
680

1000

Fig.4. Resistive Network

ii.

Calculate the equivalent resistance as measured across nodes A and B.

iii.

Measure the resistance across A and B using the DMM. Does this agree with
your theoretical equivalent resistance value? If not, why?

iv.

Take a resistor of value 1M or greater. Measure the resistance using the DMM
as before. Now, grip the probes to each lead with your bare fingers as tightly as
you can and read the new value of resistance. In this set-up, your skin
resistance is in parallel with the resistor. From these measurements, calculate
the value of your skin resistance.

Discussion
1. Voltages of about 50V can cause an electric shock (assuming contact with dry
hands, as in this experiment). Based on your experimental results, how much
current would be going through your body with such a voltage?

3. Voltage and Current Dividers

i.
Construct the following voltage divider in Figure 5 with values:
R1 = 22, R2 = 100

R1
5V
R2

Fig.5. Voltage Divider

ii.

Measure the voltage across each resistor and compare with theoretical results.

iii.

Construct the following current divider in Figure 6 with values:

R1 = 22, R2 = 100, R3 = 470

R1
5V
R2

R3

Fig.6. Current Divider

iv.

Measure the current across each resistor and compare with theoretical results.

v.

You are now asked to design a sensor circuit which translates the lighting in the
environment into a voltage value through the use of a photoresistor. A
photoresistors resistance changes based on the amount of light it is exposed to.
The output of the circuit should be approximately 50% of the input voltage (use
the 5V supply as the power source as in previous sections) in standard room
lighting (may vary depending on your rooms lighting), but roughly 0 volts in
darkness. Design this circuit, and measure the output both in normal lighting,
and in darkness.

Discussion
1. How did the voltage and current divider compare with theoretical expectations?

2. How does the resistance of the photoresistor change as you alter the level of light?
4. Kirchoffs Laws Analysis of Circuits
i.
Build the circuit illustrated in Figure 7 with the following resistor values:
R1 = 100, R2 = 470, R3 = 1000, R4 = 680, R5 = 2200, R6 = 100
R3
R2

R5

R1
R4

R6

5V

ii.

iii.

Fig.7. Kirchoffs Laws Analysis

Using Kirchoffs Voltage and Current Laws, find the theoretical values of the
voltage and current across each resistor.
Measure each of the voltages and currents you have calculated and compare the
theoretical and experimental values.
V[V]

R[]

I[A]

R1
R2
R3
R4
R5
R6
Discussion
1. Do your experimental results obey Kirchoffs Laws?
5. Wheatstone Bridge
i.
Derive the output voltage (in terms of the four resistances) of the Wheatstone
Bridge circuit illustrated below using Kirchoffs Laws.

R1

R2
+V -

R3

R4

Fig.8. Wheatstone Bridge

ii.

Use a thermistor in place of one of the resistors in the Wheatstone Bridge. The
thermistor is a sensor that varies in resistance based on temperature. Build a
sensor circuit using the 5V power supply and available resistors such that the
output is roughly 0 volts at room temperature, and a higher voltage (~0.4V) at
body temperature. If you have issues balancing the Wheatstone Bridge voltage,
you may consider using a Potentiometer (variable resistor).

Discussion
1. The light sensing circuit you built earlier was susceptible to input voltage change,
and was also biased away from zero (i.e. output in the light was 0.5V, instead of
zero). Both of these characteristics are not desirable in general. How does the
temperature sensing circuit perform in these regards?

University of California, Los Angeles

School of Engineering and Applied Science
Department of Electrical Engineering

EE11L
Experiment 2: Equivalent Sources and Superposition
I.

II.

III.

Topics
i.
Equivalent Source Transformations
ii.
Principle of Superposition
Objectives
i.
To understand how to apply Thevenin and Norton Equivalence Theorems
ii.
To measure and experimentally verify the Principle of Superposition
Background
i.
Superposition
For a linear circuit, the voltage at any node (or current at any branch) can be
calculated as the algebraic sum of the voltages (or currents) caused by each source
acting alone. One at a time, isolate each source by removing other sources (short
circuit voltage sources and open circuit current sources). The sum of the responses
will give you the same solution as if all sources were active at once. This can
simplify the analysis of circuits containing multiple sources.
ii.
Equivalent Source Transformation
With Ohms Law in mind, a voltage source in series with a resistance R, is
equivalent to a current source with current V/R, in parallel with R. This
equivalency is illustrated below.

V/R

Fig.1. Equivalent Source Transformations

iii.

iv.

v.

Thevenin Equivalent Theorem

Thevenin Equivalent circuits can be used to convert a source circuit network down
to an equivalent circuit containing only a single voltage source and resistor such
that the current and voltage as seen at the load will remain the same.
Norton Equivalent Theorem
Similarly, Norton Equivalent circuits can convert a circuit into an equivalent circuit
consisting of a single current source and a resistance parallel. The procedure for
finding the Norton Equivalent is similar, except instead of measuring the open
circuit voltage, we are interested in the short circuit current (when the load is
replaced by a short circuit). This current is the current of the equivalent current
source when placed in parallel with the Norton resistance (which is the same as the
Thevenin resistance).
Thevenin/Norton Equivalent Circuit Steps
There are a few methods in which one can identify the Thevenin or Norton
Equivalent Circuit:
1. Set all sources to zero (short voltage sources, open current sources).
Determine the equivalent resistance of the circuit with removed sources as
seen from the terminals. This equivalent resistance gives the
Thevenin/Norton resistance. This equivalent resistance may be calculated
directly, measured, or found through applying a test voltage and solving for
the test current (using V/I).
2. With the sources in place, the open circuit voltage (with no load across the
terminals) gives the Thevenin Voltage. Similarly, if we short circuit the
load, the short circuit current is equal to the Norton Current.
3. The third method involves identifying the actual voltage drop across a
known load resistor. Then, either by using the open circuit voltage for
comparison, one can solve for the Thevenin/Norton equivalent circuit as a
voltage divider.
With these values known, one can construct the equivalent circuits as pictures in
Figure 1, with a single source and resistor. These circuits are equivalent to their
originals as seen from the load (same current and voltage for any load).

vi.

Current Source
+15V

+15V

+15V
R3

R1

Vref

Current
Output

R2
-15V

Fig.2. Current Source

Since the myDAQ power supply cannot act as a constant current source, you have
been given a separate board for generating one, for which the schematic is given in
Figure 2. You need not understand exactly how it works, but only how to operate
it to create the desired current. This current source is powered off of the +/-15V
supplies and the output current is adjustable by turning the potentiometer. Adjust
the potentiometer while monitoring the current until the desired current is obtained,
which will then act as a current source.
As the potentiometer is tuned, the ratio of note that the ratio of R1 and R2 will
change (with R1+R2 being a constant of approximately 10k), and hence Vref will
be altered. The output current is given by:

I out

15 Vref
R3

R2
Vref 15

R1 R2

Note that the myDAQ power supply does not necessarily provide exactly 15V, so
the equation above may vary based on the actual supplied voltage. The easiest way
to obtain the desired current is to measure the output current with the DMM while
adjusting the potentiometer.

IV.

Lab

1. Superposition
i.

Build the circuit illustrated in Figure 2. Use the 5V DC source and the provided current
source to build the following circuit. Note that the current source uses the analog ground
of the +/-15V supply, so a common ground should be established with the 5V supply.
680

5V

470

1k

4mA

Fig.2. Superposition Test Circuit

ii.
iii.
iv.
v.

Measure the voltage and current across the middle resistor (R2) with both sources in
place.
Short circuit the 5V source, and once again record the voltage and current across the
middle resistor (470).
Replace the 5V source, and open circuit the 4mA source. Repeat measurements across
the middle resistor.
Compare the theoretical analysis of superposition by analyzing both circuits from Figure
4 and 5, and compare with the acquired experimental data.
Sources
5V only
4mA only
Sum of above
Both

V470[V]

I470 [A]

Discussion
1. How did the theoretical results compare with experimental values?

2. Equivalent Source Transform

i.

ii.

Since the myDAQ Power Supply is incapable of supplying a constant current source, a
separate board has been provided which does the job. In this section of the experiment,
we will verify its functionality as a constant current source while also verifying
equivalent source transforms.
Build the following circuit illustrated in Figure 3 using the myDAQ 5V power supply.
Use values of R = 1000 and RL = 470. Measure and record the current and voltage
across RL, as well as the actual voltage being provided by the power supply (as it may
vary slightly).

RL

5V

Fig.3. Original Circuit

iii.

Transform the 5V source into an equivalent current source such that the expected current
and voltage across the load remains the same. Construct this circuit with the current
source provided and once again measure the voltage and current across RL.

Discussion
1. How did the theoretical results compare with experimental values?

3. Thevenin/Norton Equivalent
i.

ii.

Build the circuit illustrated in Figure 5 with the following resistor values:
R1 = 2.2k, R2 = 470, R3 = 1k, R4 = 10k, R5 = 3.3k
Measure and record the values of resistance of each resistor you use.
For the 3V power supply, we can use the A0 channel and set the function generator to
output a 0V amplitude signal with 3V DC offset (the frequency can be left as is, since
there is no amplitude). While this is not ideal due to the low current limit of the channel,
it works as a variable voltage supply provided we ensure the 2mA current limit is not
violated. Click the Function Generator button of the NI ELVISmx Instrument Launcher
and match the below screenshot to set up the source. The A0 channel now acts as 3V
supply. You will also use this method to build Thevenin Equivalent circuits, since a
variable voltage supply is required.

Fig.4.Setting up a 3V source

R1

R2

R3
5V

RL

R4
3V
R5

Fig.5. Thevenin/Norton Equivalent Analysis Circuit

iii.

Find the Thevenin equivalent voltage, Norton equivalent current, and Thevnin resistance
values using theoretical analysis, and record these values in the second row of the table
below. Also measure the actual values of the open circuit voltage, short circuit current,
and equivalent resistance across the nodes A and B of the circuit using the DMM
function of the myDAQ.

iv.

Choose a load resistance for RL and measure the voltage and current across the load.

v.

Build the Thevenin equivalent circuit (if you do not have a resistor matching the required
value, use a potentiometer and adjust the resistance to the desired value, and be sure to
ground the unused pin of the potentiometer). Use the function generators DC offset
function as a variable power supply for your Thevenin equivalent circuit (set the
amplitude of the signal to 0V, such that the signal is DC only). Verify the equivalency by
measuring the voltage and current across the load resistor, and compare with the results
of the original circuit.

vi.

Repeat the above step with the Norton Equivalent Circuit.

R1 []

R2 []

R4 []

R5 []

VTH [V]

IN[mA]

RTH/N []

VOC[V]

I SC[mA]

Req[]

RL []

VL [V] (Original
Circuit)

IL [mA]
(Original Circuit)

vii.

R3 []

VL [V]
(Thevenin Eq.
Ckt)

IL [mA]
(Thevenin Eq. Ckt)

VL [V]
(Norton Eq.
Ckt)
IL [A]
(Norton Eq. Ckt)

Place a 10k variable potentiometer as the load for the circuit in Figure 5 (the original
circuit). Vary the potentiometer across 5 different resistance values of approximately
0.5RTH, 0.8 RTH, RTH, 1.2RTH, and 1.5RTH. Record the resistance values you use, as well
as the voltage across the load. Compute the power consumption for each resistance value
as well.
RL []

VL []

PL[W]

Discussion
1. How did the voltage and current across the load compare between the original
circuit and Thevenin equivalent circuit?
2. If our goal is to achieve maximum power dissipation across the load resistance,
what load is the best choice? How does this value compare with the Thevenin
equivalent resistance?

4. Black Box Equivalence

Black
Box

i.
ii.

The myDAQ power source is non-ideal. As such, a Thevenin Equivalent circuit may be
constructed as a more accurate model.
Experimentally determine the Thevenin Equivalent Resistance and Thevenin Voltage of
the myDAQ 5V power supply. Verify the accuracy of the Thevenin Equivalent circuit by
measuring the current and voltage across a chosen load resistor. When testing your
Thevenin Equivalent circuit, compare resistors which limit the current to under 2mA,
since you will be using the A0 channel.

Discussion
1. What method did you have to use to evaluate the Thevenin Equivalent? How
does this technique apply to other black boxes?
2. Does the Thevenin Equivalent circuit model every kind of circuit well?

University of California, Los Angeles

School of Engineering and Applied Science
Department of Electrical Engineering

EE11L
Experiment 3: Transient Response of First Order Circuits
I.

II.

III.

Topics
i.
Step Response of First Order Circuits
ii.
Initial conditions and transient response
Objectives
i.
To understand and investigate the natural and step response of first order capacitive and
inductive circuits
ii.
To design a first-order circuit with certain characteristics
iii.
To analyze initial conditions within a circuit containing inductors and capacitors
Background
i.
Capacitors
i. Capacitors store energy in the form of an electrostatic field between the two
plates as current flows through them, and charge accumulates upon the plates.
The charge of a capacitor is given as:
Q=CV
We may rewrite this relation by writing charge as the integration of current over
time:

v (t )

Q(t ) i (t )dt

C
C

And thus, we may also obtain the equation for current across a capacitor:

i (t ) C
ii.

dv (t )
dt

RC Circuits.
i. We may derive the linear differential equation of the RC circuit in Fig.1:
Vi VR VC = iR VC

Vi RC

dVc
+ VC
dt

ii. The step response of interest for the voltage across the capacitor is:

VC (t ) V (1 e

t
RC

R
+
C

VIN

VOUT
Fig.1. RC Circuit

iii.

Inductors.
i. Inductors are a passive circuit element which stores energy within magnetic
fields generated by a change in current. The relationship for the voltage across
an inductor is a function of the change in current given as:

v (t ) L
iv.

di (t )
dt

RL Circuits.
i. The linear differential equation of the RL circuit in Fig.2 is:

v (t ) iR L

di (t )
dt

ii. The step response of interest for the current is given as:

i (t )

R
t
V
(1 e L )
R

L
+

VIN

VOUT
Fig.2. RL Circuit

v.

vi.

Time Constant.
i. The time constant is defined as the time it takes the step response to gain a
value of 1-e-1 (approximately 0.632) of its final value.
ii. For the RC circuit, the time constant =RC, which is easily seen from the
equation above.
iii. For the RL circuit, =L/R
Initial Conditions

i. Looking at a circuit which contains a sudden switch (we can simulate this with
step function), the following properties hold:
1. At steady state, ideal capacitors act as open circuits (zero current), while
ideal inductors act as short circuits (zero voltage).
2. At the instant after switching, voltage across the capacitor is equal to
voltage before switching, while current across the inductor is equal to the
current before switching. In other words, voltage cannot change
instantaneously in a capacitor, and current cannot change instantaneously
in an inductor.

Lab
1. RC Circuit Analysis
i.

Construct an RC circuit as illustrated in Figure 1. Use a 47uF capacitor, and 680 resistor.

ii. Set the myDAQ function generator to output a square wave of 1 Volt (p-p). Set the offset
such that the input voltage ranges from 0-1V. Finally, choose an appropriate frequency with
a period of 5-10 to allow the output voltage to reach steady state.
iii. Connect one channel of the oscilloscope to view the input voltage, and the other channel to
read the output voltage of interest.
iv. Set the oscilloscope to be edge triggered based on the input voltage at 0.5V, which will
enable easier viewing of the waveform.
v. Using the cursors on the digital myDAQ oscilloscope, experimentally measure the time
constant of the RC circuit and compare with the theoretical value you have calculated. This
can be done by setting one cursor at approximately 63.2% of the final voltage value and the
other on the edge at which the input signal changes, and then reading the given dT (time
difference) value. Be aware that the resolution of the myDAQ oscilloscope is limited to 5us,
due to the maximum sampling rate of the ADC being 200k samples/second.
vi. Increase the frequency of the square wave to a value such that the period is much smaller than
(try /4 to start with) and record your observations.
vii. Measure the voltage response of the circuit in Fig.5. as well, using the same values for R and
C and calculate the experimental time constant.

C
+

VIN

VOUT
-

Fig.5. RC Circuit (Output across Resistor)

Discussion
1. How does the experimental time constant compare with the theoretical values?
2. How does the voltage response of the resistor differ from that of the capacitor?
3. Note the sampling rate given by the oscilloscope in the upper right hand corner of the
screen. How does this factor into any potential uncertainty for your measurements?
4. Explain what happened when you increased the frequency of the input.
2. RL Circuit Analysis
i.

Maintaining a similar set-up as in the RC circuit, construct an RL circuit with a 150mH

inductor and 1k resistor.

ii.

Measure and record the resistance of the inductor you are using.

iii.

Obtain an experimental value for the time constant of the RL circuit.

iv.

Measure the voltage response of the inductor as well with the oscilloscope.

Discussion
1. How does the experimental time constant compare with the theoretical value?
2. When calculating the theoretical time constant of the RL circuit, should the resistance of
the inductor be included?
3. How does the current response of the RL circuit compare with the voltage response of the
RC circuit?
3. DC Switching Analysis

i.

Using what we know of the behavior of capacitors and inductors, we may analyze
initial values as well as final values of voltage and current. (i.e. v(0-), v(0+), and
v( )).

ii.

The source in the given circuit below (Figure 7) switches from 3V to 2V at t=0. Find
the theoretical values of the following:
vC1(0-), v C1(0+), v C1( )
vC2(0-), v C2(0+), v C2( )
vR1(0-), v R1(0+), v R1( )
vR2(0-), v R2(0+), v R2( )
vL1(0-), v L1(0+), v L1( )
vL2(0-), v L2(0+), v L2( )
C1

L1

RL1

C2

R2

R1

t(0-)=3V
t(0+)=2V

L2
R3
RL2

Fig.7. DC Switching Analysis

iii.

Construct the circuit on your breadboard. You may set-up the voltage source using a square
wave as before with a low enough frequency such that you may observe the steady-state
response. Set a 1V p-p wave with an appropriate DC offset to achieve the correct input
waveform. Use the following values for components:

R1 = 1k, R2 = 3.3k, R3 = 2.2k, L1 = 150mH, L2 = 150mH, C1 = .22uF, C2 = 1uF

iv.

Using the oscilloscope, experimentally measure the values from part ii.

Discussion
1. What did you observe of the voltage across the elements? Explain any behavior that
strays from the ideal expectations.
4. First Order Circuit Design
i.

Based on the given step response in Fig. 6, design a first-order that matches the response.

Fig.6. Step Response

ii.

Compare the step response of your circuit with the one of Figure 6, and prepare it as part of the
demonstration.

University of California, Los Angeles

School of Engineering and Applied Science
Department of Electrical Engineering

EE11L
Experiment 4: Transient Response of Second Order
Circuits
I.

II.

III.

Topics
i.
Step and Natural Response of Second Order Circuits
ii.
Damping characteristics
Objectives
i.
To understand and investigate the natural and step response of second order
capacitive and inductive circuits
ii.
To analyze different damping effects in second order circuits
iii.
To design a circuit with desired damping characteristics
Background
i.
RLC Circuits.
i. The differential equation of the RLC circuit is of the second order. For
the series RLC circuit (Fig.3):

di
idt v
iR
dt
C
2
d i R di
i

0
2
dt
L dt LC
L

ii. Similarly, the differential equation for the parallel RLC (Fig. 4) circuit is:

d 2v
1 dv
v

0
2
dt
RC dt LC
iii. The general solution to both the series and parallel RLC circuits can be
found through the roots of the characteristic equation:

s 2 2 s 02 0
s1,2 2 02

iv. is defined as the Neper Frequency, given by

RLC, and

R
for a series
2L

1
for a parallel RLC circuit.
2RC

v. 0 is the resonant radian frequency, given by 0

1
LC

VIN

VOUT
Fig.1. Series RLC Circuit

VIN

+
L

VOUT
Fig.2. Parallel RLC Circuit (R in series)
ii.

Damping

i.

The damping coefficient is defined by:

ii.

An overdamped response occurs if 2 02 (or > 1), as

characterized by the response reaching its final value without any
oscillations. The general solution is of the form: A1es1t A2es2t

iii.

An underdamped response occurs if 2 02 (or < 1), as

characterized by the response having oscillations about the final value.
Underdamped responses oscillate at a reduced frequency

d 0 2 2 , and the general solution is of the form:

et ( B1 cos(d t ) B2 sin(d t ))

iv.

A critically damped response occurs if 2 02 (or = 1), and is

characterized by the response being on the verge of oscillation. The
general solution is of the form: C1tet C2et

v.

In the case of an underdamped response, we may define the overshoot

as the ratio of the difference between the peak voltage and the final
voltage:

V peak V final
V final
IV.

1 2

Lab

1. Parallel RLC Circuit Response

VIN

L
RL

VOUT
-

Fig.3. Parallel RLC Circuit (series inductor resistance included)

i.

Using a 1.2k resistor, 150mH inductor, and 0.22uF capacitor, build the
parallel RLC circuit illustrated in Figure 3 (note that we consider the
resistance of the inductor RL, which is non-negligible).

ii.

Let us take a look at the natural response. Assume the initial voltage of the
capacitor is 1V (and at t=0, the source Vin becomes zero). Write the equation
for the voltage Vout.

iii.

Actually construct the circuit and verify the above theoretical results by
generating a square signal using the function generator of the myDAQ which
steps from 0V to 1V and take a screenshot of the response.

Similar to the previous laboratory (first-order circuits), we model the inductor with the
measured series resistance.
Discussion
1. What kind of damping is observed? Verify that the output matches with the
theoretical expectations.

2. Series RLC Circuit Analysis

VIN

RL
+
C

VOUT
Fig.4 Series RLC Circuit (series inductor resistance included)
i.

Using a 3.3k resistor, 150mH inductor, and 0.1uF capacitor, build the series RLC
circuit illustrated in Figure 4 (note that we consider the resistance of the inductor RL,
which is non-negligible).

ii.

Write the equation for vc(t) which describes the voltage across the capacitor as a
function of time.

iii.

Set the function generator to 100Hz (adjustable if desired) and output a square wave
with 1V (p-p) as in part 1 of the laboratory.

iv.

Connect one channel of the oscilloscope to view the input waveform, and another to
measure the output voltage across the capacitor. Record your observations.

Discussion
1. What kind of damping is observed? Verify that this matches with the theoretical
expectation.

3. Underdamped RLC Circuit Design

i.

By changing the value of the resistor from part 1, acquire an underdamped response
that overshoots the final voltage value by approximately 0.25 (take into account
inductor resistance as well). Record the value of the resistor used, as well as the
experimental value of the overshoot now considering the resistance of the inductor
and the internal resistance of the generator.

ii.

Design an underdamped system second-order circuit that has at least 4 visible peaks
in oscillations before settling such that you can measure the period of oscillation.
Compare the experimental value obtained by measuring the period of the oscillations
with the theoretical value.

iii.

Write the equation for vc(t) which describes the voltage across the capacitor as a
function of time for your design.

iv.

What do you expect to see if the resistor is removed and replaced by a short circuit?
Try this and record the results.

Discussion
i.
How did the experimental overshoot and damped frequency compare with that of the
theoretical values?
ii.
What did you witness when you attempted to measure an undamped response (no
resistance)?

4. Critically Damped RLC Circuit

i.

Replace the resistor of the circuit above (Figure 2) again, but this time by a 10k
potentiometer. By using the oscilloscope output as a guide, adjust the resistance until
you think the system is approximately critically damped. Record the output you
obtain, remove the potentiometer, and measure the value of the resistance you used.

Discussion
1. How close was the value of resistance you ended up with when using the
potentiometer to obtain a critically damped response? Consider the effects of
inductor resistance as well.
2. What did you observe in the output waveform as resistance varied?

University of California, Los Angeles

School of Engineering and Applied Science
Department of Electrical Engineering

EE11L
Experiment 5: Phasor Analysis and Transformers
I.

II.

III.

Topics
i.
Phasor Relationships for Circuits
ii.
Impedance
iii.
Transformers
Objectives
i.
To analyze the response of circuit networks to a sinusoidal input function in
terms of phasors
ii.
To analyze transformers and their properties, as well as the differences between
ideal and practical transformers
Background
i.
Phasors and Impedance
i. Phasor notation is used to represent a sinusoidal function: For example,
if given a sinusoidal voltage signal:

v(t ) Vmax sin(t )

The phasor notation would be given as:

V Vmax
We can also write a phasor in rectangular form in terms of the real and
imaginary parts:

V a jb

Vmax a 2 b 2

tan 1
a
Likewise, we can convert from phasor form to rectangular via:

V Vmax (cos j sin )

ii. Under a sinusoidal input, the impedance of resistors, capacitors, and
inductors are:

ZR R

ZC

1
jC

Z L j L
As a reminder, the angular frequency is defined as 2 f
iii. Most methods of circuit analysis for resistive circuits hold true for
analyzing circuits in terms of impedance (Ohms Law, KVL, KCL,
Thevenin Equivalence, and Superposition to name a few).
iv. Phasors can be added directly. Given two voltage phasors in rectangular
form:

V 1 a1 jb1
V 2 a2 jb2
V 1 V 2 (a1 a2 ) j (b1 b2 )
v. To multiply two phasors in their polar form, simply multiply the
magnitudes (M) and add the phases.

V 1 M11
V 2 M 22
V 1V 2 M 1M 21 2

ii.

vi. As an additional note about Amplitude: There are various ways of

defining amplitude. In this laboratory, we will use the convention of
peak voltage (instead of peak-to-peak). Hence, for sinusoidal signals, the
amplitude would be half of the peak-to-peak voltage.
Transformers
i. Transformers operate off magnetic inductance. The magnetic field
produced by the current induces a voltage in the other coil. We take a
quick look at the ideal transformer below:

NP : NS

VP

IP

IS

VS

Fig.1. An Ideal Transformer

ii. In the ideal case, the relationship between the values is given as:

VS I P N S
N
where S is the turns ratio between the primary and

VP I S N P
NP
secondary coils.

iii. Transformers also have the property of impedance reflection. If we

connect a load to the secondary coil, we can make the following
equivalent transformation:

NP : NS

VP

VS
Z1

ZL

Fig. 2. Load Impedance

We may write that the impedance seen on the primary side:

Z1
IV.

ZL
( N S / N P )2

Lab
1. Basic Phasor Analysis
i.

Construct the circuit shown in Figure 3.

22k

30

.1uF

Fig.3
ii. Apply a 6Vp-p (3V peak amplitude) sinusoidal input signal of frequency 100Hz.
iii. Write the equation for VC, the voltage across the capacitor, and VR in terms of .
iv. Set one channel of the myDAQ oscilloscope to view the input waveform, and the
other to record the voltage across the capacitor (set the oscilloscope to be edge
triggered based on the input).
v. Save the waveform you observe, and using cursors, measure phase difference through
the time difference (set one cursor at the zero-crossing of the input signal, and the
other at the zero-crossing of the output voltage). Convert the time difference into a
phase angle. Also record the amplitude of the input and output voltage waveforms.

vi. Set the frequency of the input to 10Hz and 1000Hz and repeat the measurements.
vii. Compare the theoretical amplitude and phase with the experimental values obtained,
and write the output voltages across each element in the time-domain.
Discussion
1. How did the theoretical values compare with experimental values?
2. Looking at the equation you derived for the voltages across the two circuit elements,
what do you expect to happen to the amplitude of the voltage as you increase the frequency of the
input signal?
3. Sketch a phasor diagram including the input signal, as well as VC and VR, for when the
input signal has a frequency of 100Hz. What do you notice?
2. Superposition and Phasor Addition
i.

Construct the circuit shown in Figure 4 with sinusoidal inputs of 1000Hz.

.1uF

2.2k

0.50
150mH

145

Fig.4. Superposition Circuit

ii. While an ideal inductor would not have resistance, a realistic inductors resistance
can be quite significant. Measure the resistance of the inductor. A more accurate
representation of the circuit is given in Figure 4, where RL is the resistance of the
inductor.

.1uF

2.2k

RL
0.50

145

VL
150mH

Fig.5. Superposition Circuit with Inductor Resistance

iii. In order to generate two waveforms at once, we will need to use the Arbitrary
Waveform generator function of the myDAQ. A guide to setting this tool up has
been included.

iv. Using the Principle of Superposition, theoretically analyze the expected output
voltage across the inductor of Figure 5.
v. Now, analyze the circuit with both sources individually, as well as together, and
analyze the voltage across the inductor in all three cases. Record the voltage as a
phasor, and include a screenshot of the voltage on the oscilloscope as well.
Sources

VL (Phasor)

0.50 only
145 only
Sum of the above
Both sources

vi. Change the voltage inputs as shown in Figure 6, and repeat the above experiment.

.1uF

2.2k

RL
0.720

1270

VL
150mH

Fig.6. Superposition Circuit 2

Sources

VL (Phasor)

0.720 only

1270 only
Sum of the above
Both sources
vii. Analyze the circuit once more, except now the two waveforms will have varying
frequencies.

.1uF

2.2k

+
RL

1
sin(2 800t )
2

sin(2 1200t 45)

VL
150mH

Fig.7. Sources with different frequencies

Sources

VL

0.5sin(2 800t ) only

sin(2 1200t 45)
Sum of the above
viii. Using the arbitrary function generator of the myDAQ, you may recreate the
theoretical waveform and view it within the software. Include a screenshot of the
theoretical waveform and compare with the actual experimental output obtained in
part vii.

Discussion
1. Explain what is happening at the output of the circuit in Figure 6.
2. Could you have analyzed the circuits in Figures 5, 6, and 7 without superposition?
Explain why or why not.
3. Transformer Analysis
i.

The transformer you will be using in this lab is the XICON-42TM013.

ii. Begin with a simple open circuit test. Provide a 1000Hz sinusoidal input of 1V p-p
amplitude into the primary side (white side, also marked with the letter P), and
measure the output across the secondary side (black). Based on the voltage
measurement across the two sides, give an experimental value for

Np
Ns

iii. Now build the circuit of Figure 8, with a 10 resistor across the load.

1k

Vin

NP : NS

VP

VS

ZL

Fig.8. Analysis of Load Impedance

iv. Measure both VS and VP using the oscilloscope. Measure the current in both loops
with the multimeter as well to determine the current ratio (the DMM will give a RMS
value for current when measuring AC signals). Finally, determine the impedance
seen at the primary loop of the transformer based on these measurements.
v. Now place a 47uF as the load and repeat the above measurements. How do the
values from these two parts compare with the theoretical reflected impedance?

Discussion
1. How does your experimental value of

Np
Ns

compare with that of the given ratio

11.486:1 provided on the datasheet?

2. If you were to label this transformer using the dot convention, where would you place
the dots?
3. What are the sources of error in assuming an ideal transformer?
4. Explain why transformers are often used for impedance matching for maximum
power dissipation across a load.
4. Circuit Design
i.

You are asked to design a circuit in which the amplitude of the output voltage is
approximately

1
times the amplitude of the input when the input waveform has a
2

frequency of 5000Hz, and decreases as the frequency increases.

ii. Using resistors, capacitors, and/or inductors, build a circuit that satisfies this
specification (you may use a potentiometer if you require a specific resistance).
iii. Include a screenshot of the input and output voltage as given by the oscilloscope in
your report at with an input with frequency of 5000Hz.
iv. Be sure to consider that the maximum current that can be driven by the function
generator is 2mA. If you see the input waveform behaving oddly, be sure to check

that you are not going over this limit (choosing parts with higher impedance can
reduce the current).

Appendix: myDAQ Arbitrary Waveform Generator Setup

1. Click the Waveform editor button:

2. Set the duration to 5ms (fairly arbitrary setting for our particular case) and the sample rate
(resolution setting) to 200kHz (since this is also the sampling rate of the Oscilloscope).
Click the New Component button. Set the function to be a Sine wave of frequency 1000Hz and
0.5V Amplitude (note that this means 1Vp-p).

3. Save this waveform by clicking File->Save.

4. Now click File->New. Click the New Component button and add a Sine wave of frequency
1000Hz and Amplitude 1V (2V p-p). Set the phase to 45.
5. Also save this waveform under a different name.
6. You may close the Waveform Editor.

7. Load the two waveforms you have made and enable both channels. Set the update rate to 200k
to match the sampling rate of the Oscilloscope, as well as that of the signals you made in the steps
above. Once you click Run, AO0 and AO1 will output the signals you have loaded. You may
follow these steps to load and create other waveforms as well.