Content of the Training Program

An introduction to Electronic components

Resistors
Capacitors
Diodes
LEDs
Transistors

Introduction to Basic ICs like Op-amps, Timer Ics

555 Timer
Operational Amplifiers

Robot Control System

Actuator

Sensors
H-Bridge Motor Driver

AVR Microcotroller
Atmega 16
Features
Pin configuration
Interrupt
Timer clock
ADC
Codes

Image Processing
Related terms
Aspects of image processing
Types of images
Morphology

Parallel Port Communication

ELECTRONIC COMPONENT
An electronic component is a basic electronic element usually packaged in a discrete form with two or
more connecting leads or metallic pads. Components are intended to be connected together, usually by
soldering to a printed circuit board, to create an electronic circuit with a particular function (for example an
amplifier, radio receiver, or oscillator). Components may be packaged singly (resistor, capacitor, transistor,
diode etc.) or in more or less complex groups as integrated circuits (operational amplifier, resistor array,
logic gate etc.)
Components may be Passive or Active:

Passive components are those that do not have gain or directionality. [1] In the Electrical industry
they are called Electrical elements or electrical components
Active components are those that have gain or directionality, in contrast to passive components,
which have neither. They include semiconductor devices and vacuum tubes (valves).

RESISTOR
A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component that produces a voltage across its terminals that is
proportional to the electric current through it in accordance with
Ohm's law:
V = IR

CAPACITOR
A capacitor is a passive electronic component that stores energy in the
form of an electrostatic field. In its simplest form, a capacitor consists
of twoconducting plates separated by an insulating material called
thedielectric. The capacitance is directly proportional to the surface
areas of the plates, andi s inversely proportional to the separation
between the plates. Capacitance also depends on the dielectric
constant of the substance separating the plates.
C=

A/D

DIODE

a Diode is a two-terminal device have two active electrodes between which thesignal of interest may flow,
and most are used for their unidirectional electric current property.The unidirectionality most diodes
exhibit is sometimes generically called the rectifying property. The most common function of a diode is to
allow an electric current in one direction (called the forward biased condition) and to block the current in the
opposite direction (the reverse biased condition). Thus, the diode can be thought of as an electronic version
of a check valve.The mostcommon diodes are made from semiconductor materials such as silicon or
germanium.

LIGHT EMITTING DIODES

A light-emitting diode (LED) is an electronic light source.LEDs are
available across the visible, ultraviolet and infra red wavelengths, with
very high brightness.LEDs are based on the semiconductor diode.
When the diode is forward biased (switched on), electrons are able to
recombine with holes and energy is released in theform of light. This
effect is called electroluminescence and the color of the light is
determined by the energy gapof the semiconductor. The LED is
usually small in area(less than 1 mm2) with integrated optical
components to shapeits radiation pattern and assist in reflection.
[2]
LEDs present many advantages over traditional light sources including lower energy consumption, longer
lifetime, improved robustness, smaller size and faster switching. However, they are relatively expensive
and require more precise current and heat management than traditional light sources.

TRANSISTOR
A Transistor is a semiconductor device commonly used to amplify or switch electronic signals. A transistor
is made of a solid piece of a semiconductor material, with at least three terminals for connection to an
external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals changes the current
flowing through another pair of terminals. Because the controlled (output) power can be much larger than
the controlling (input) power, the transistor provides amplification of a signal.
The transistor is the fundamental building block of modern electronic devices, and is used in radio,
telephone, computer and other electronic systems.Some transistors are packaged individually but most are
found in integrated circuits.
Types of transistor
There are two types of standard transistors, NPN and PNP, with different
circuit symbols. The letters refer to the layers of semiconductor material used
to make the transistor. Most transistors used today are NPN because this is
Transistor circuit symbols

the easiest type to make from silicon. If you are new to electronics it is best to start by learning how to use
NPN transistors.
The leads are labelled base (B), collector (C) and emitter (E).
These terms refer to the internal operation of a transistor but they are not much help in understanding how
a transistor is used, so just treat them as labels!
Darlington pair is 2 transistors
connected together to give a very high current gain
Transistor as a switch
Transistors are commonly used as electronic switches, for both
high power applications including switched-mode power supplies
and low power applications such as logic gates.It can be seen from the
graph that once the base voltage reaches a certain level, shown at point
B, the current will no longer increase with increasing V BE and the output
will be held at a fixed voltage.The transistor is then said to be saturated.
Hence, values of input voltage can be chosen such that the output is
either completely off,[9] or completely on. The transistor is acting as a
switch, and this type of operation is common in digital circuits where only "on" and "off" values are
relevant.

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
An operational amplifier, which is often called an op-amp, is a DC-coupled high-gain electronic voltage
amplifier with differential inputs and, usually, a single output.[1] Typically the output of the op-amp is
controlled either by negative feedback, which largely determines the magnitude of its output voltage gain,
or by positive feedback, which facilitates regenerative gain and oscillation. High input impedance at the
input terminals (ideally infinite) and low output impedance (ideally zero) are important typical
characteristics.

555 TIMER
DESCRIPTION
The 555 monolithic timing circuit is a highly stable
controller capable of producing accurate time delays, or
oscillation. In the time delay mode of operation, the time
is precisely controlled by one external resistor and
capacitor. For a stable operation as an oscillator, the free
running frequency and the duty cycle are both accurately
controlled with two external resistors and one capacitor.
The circuit may be triggered and reset on falling
waveforms, and the output structure can source or sink
up to 200 mA.
The 555 has three operating modes:

Monostable mode: in this mode, the 555 functions as a "oneshot". Applications include timers, missing pulse detection, frequency divider, capacitance measurement,
pulse-width modulation (PWM) etc
Astable - free running mode: the 555 can operate as an oscillator. Uses include LED and lamp flashers, pulse
generation, logic clocks, etc.
Bistable mode or Schmitt trigger: the 555 can operate as a flip-flop, if the DIS pin is not connected and no
capacitor is used. Uses include bouncefree latched switches, etc.
FEATURES
Turn-off time less than 2 ms
Max. operating frequency greater than 500 kHz
Timing from microseconds to hours
High output current
Adjustable duty cycle
TTL compatible
Temperature stability of
0.005% per C
APPLICATIONS
Precision timing
Pulse generation
Sequential timing
Time delay generation
Pulse width modulation

ACTUATOR
An actuator typically is a mechanical device that takes energy, usually created by air, electricity, or liquid,
and converts that into some kind of motion. That motion can be anything from blocking to clamping to
ejecting. Actuators are typically used in manufacturing or industrial applications and may be used in
things like motors, pumps,switches,andvalves.
Actuators can create a linear motion, rotary motion, or oscillatory motion. That is, they can create motion in
one direction, in a circular motion, or in opposite directions at regular intervals.

SENSOR
Sensors are electrical or mechanical components that are used to measure a property or behavior of an
object or system. Sensors are used by scientists and engineers during research and testing activities, but
they can also be found in many household objects, such as temperature sensors in an oven to
accelerometers in an automobile airbag system. Sensors are generally categorized by the type of
phenomenon that they measure, rather than the functionality of the sensor itself.
Mechanical Sensors
Mechanical sensors measure a property through mechanical means, although the measurement itself may
be collected electronically.Types of mechanical sensors include:

Pressure sensors

Accelerometers

Potentiometers

Humidity sensors

Electrical
Electrical sensors measure electric and magnetic properties. An example of an electrical sensor is an
ohmmeter, which is used to measure electrical resistance between two points in a circuit.. ther electrical
sensors include:

Voltmeter/Ammeter

RADAR

Magnetometer

Thermal
Although all thermal sensors measure changes in temperature, there are a variety of types of thermal
sensors, each with specific uses, temperature ranges, and accuracies. Some types of thermal sensors
include:

Thermometers

Thermocouples

Thermistors

Chemical
Chemical sensors generally detect the concentration of a substance in the air or in a liquid. Types of
chemical sensors include:

Oxygen sensors

Carbon monoxide detectors

Redox electrodes

Optical
Optical sensors detect the presence of light waves. This could include light in the visible spectrum, or
outside the visible spectrum, in the case of infrared sensors. Some types of optical sensors include:

Photodetectors

Infrared sensors

Fiberoptic sensors

Interferometers

Other Types of Sensors

There are many other types of sensors that don't fall into one of the broad categories described here. Some
of these sensors include:

Radiation sensors, including Geiger counters and dosimeters

Motion sensors, including radar guns and speedometers

H-BRIDGE
An H-bridge is an electronic circuit which enables a voltage to be applied across a load in either direction.
These circuits are often used in robotics and other applications to allow DC motors to run forwards and
backwards. H-bridges are available as integrated circuits, or can be built from discrete components.
The H-Bridge arrangement is generally used to reverse the polarity of the motor, but can also be used to
'brake' the motor, where the motor comes to a sudden stop, as the motor's terminals are shorted, or to let
the motor 'free run' to a stop, as the motor is effectively disconnected from the circuit. The following table
summarises operation.

S1 S2 S3 S4

Result

1 0

Motor moves right

0 1

Motor moves left

0 0

Motor free runs

0 1

Motor brakes

1 0

Motor brakes

The L293 has 2 H-Bridges (actually 4 Half H-Bridges), can

provide about 1 amp to each and occasional peak loads to 2
amps. There are several more commercially designed H-Bridge chips

L293 pin diagram

AVR MICROCONTROLLER

The AVR is a Modified Harvard architecture 8-bit RISC single chip microcontroller (C) which was
developed by Atmel in 1996. The AVR was one of the first microcontroller families to use on-chip flash
memory for program storage, as opposed to One-Time Programmable ROM, EPROM, or EEPROM used by
other microcontrollers at the time.
ATMEGA 16
FEATURES
High-performance, Low-power AVR 8-bit Microcontroller
Advanced RISC Architecture
131 Powerful Instructions Most Single-clock Cycle Execution
32 x 8 General Purpose Working Registers
Fully Static Operation
On-chip 2-cycle Multiplier
Nonvolatile Program and Data Memories
16K Bytes of In-System Self-Programmable Flash
In-System Programming by On-chip Boot Program
T rue Read-While-Write Operation
512 Bytes EEPROM
1K Byte Internal SRAM
Programming Lock for Software Security
JTAG (IEEE std. 1149.1 Compliant) Interface
Boundary-scan Capabilities According to the JTAG Standard
Extensive On-chip Debug Support
Programming of Flash, EEPROM, Fuses, and Lock Bits through the JTAG Interface
Peripheral Features
Two 8-bit Timer/Counters with Separate Prescalers and Compare Modes
One 16-bit Timer/Counter with Separate Prescaler, Compare Mode, and Capture
Mode
Real Time Counter with Separate Oscillator
Four PWM Channels
8-channel, 10-bit ADC
8 Single-ended Channels
2 Differential Channels with Programmable Gain at 1x, 10x, or 200x
Byte-oriented Two-wire Serial Interface
Programmable Serial USART
Master/Slave SPI Serial Interface
Programmable Watchdog Timer with Separate On-chip Oscillator
On-chip Analog Comparator
Special Microcontroller Features
Internal Calibrated RC Oscillator
External and Internal Interrupt Sources
Six Sleep Modes: Idle, ADC Noise Reduction, Power-save, Power-down, Standby
and Extended Standby

10

 I/O and Packages

32 Programmable I/O Lines
Operating Voltages
2.7 - 5.5V for ATmega16L
4.5 - 5.5V for ATmega16
Speed Grades
0 - 8 MHz for ATmega16L
_ 0 - 16 MHz for ATmega16
PIN CONFIGURATION OF ATMEGA-16

Pin Descriptions
VCC
GND

Digital supply voltage.

Ground.

Port A (PA7..PA0)
Port A serves as the analog inputs to the A/D Converter.
Port A also serves as an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port, if the A/D Converter is not used.
Alternate Functions of Port A
Port Pin
Alternate Function
PA7
ADC7 (ADC input channel 7)
PA6
ADC6 (ADC input channel 6)

11

PA5
PA4
PA3
PA2
PA1
PA0

ADC5 (ADC input channel 5)

ADC4 (ADC input channel 4)
ADC3 (ADC input channel 3)
ADC2 (ADC input channel 2)
ADC1 (ADC input channel 1)
ADC0 (ADC input channel 0)

Port B (PB7..PB0)
Port B is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected for each
bit). The Port B output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink
and source capability.
Alternate Functions of Port B
Port Pin
Alternate Functions
PB7
SCK (SPI Bus Serial Clock)
PB6
MISO (SPI Bus Master Input/Slave Output)
PB5
MOSI (SPI Bus Master Output/Slave Input)
PB4
SS (SPI Slave Select Input)
PB3
AIN1 (Analog Comparator Negative Input)
OC0 (Timer/Counter0 Output Compare Match Output)
PB2
AIN0 (Analog Comparator Positive Input)
INT2 (External Interrupt 2 Input)
PB1
T1 (Timer/Counter1 External Counter Input)
PB0
T0 (Timer/Counter0 External Counter Input)
XCK (USART External Clock Input/Output)
Port C (PC7..PC0)
Port C is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected for each
bit). If the JTAG interface is enabled, the pull-up resistors on pins PC5(TDI), PC3(TMS) and PC2(TCK) will
be activated even if a reset occurs.
Alternate Functions of Port C
Port Pin
Alternate Function
PC7
TOSC2 (Timer Oscillator Pin 2)
PC6
TOSC1 (Timer Oscillator Pin 1)
PC5
TDI (JTAG Test Data In)
PC4
TDO (JTAG Test Data Out)
PC3
TMS (JTAG Test Mode Select)
PC2
TCK (JTAG Test Clock)
PC1
SDA (Two-wire Serial Bus Data Input/Output Line)
PC0
SCL (Two-wire Serial Bus Clock Line)
Port D (PD7..PD0)
Port D is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected for each
bit). The Port D output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink
and source capability.
Alternate Functions of PORT D
Port Pin
Alternate Function

12

PD7
PD6
PD5
PD4
PD3
PD2
PD1
PD0

OC2 (Timer/Counter2 Output Compare Match Output)

ICP (Timer/Counter1 Input Capture Pin)
OC1A (Timer/Counter1 Output Compare A Match Output)
OC1B (Timer/Counter1 Output Compare B Match Output)
INT1 (External Interrupt 1 Input)
INT0 (External Interrupt 0 Input)
TXD (USART Output Pin)
RXD (USART Input Pin)

RESET
A low level on this pin for longer than the minimum pulse length will generate
a reset, even if the clock is not running. Shorter pulses are not guaranteed to generate a reset.
XTAL1
Input to the inverting Oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating circuit.
XTAL2
Output from the inverting Oscillator amplifier.
AVCC
AVCC is the supply voltage pin for Port A and the A/D Converter. It should be externally
connected to VCC, even if the ADC is not used. If the ADC is used, it should be connected
to VCC through a low-pass filter.
AREF
AREF is the analog reference pin for the A/D Converter.

External Interrupts
The External Interrupts are triggered by the INT0, INT1, and INT2 pins. if enabled, the interrupts will
trigger even if the INT0..2 pins are configured as outputs. This feature provides a way of generating a
software interrupt. The external interrupts can be triggered by a falling or rising edge or a low level (INT2
is only an edge triggered interrupt).
MCU Control Register MCUCR
The MCU Control Register contains control bits for interrupt sense control and
general MCU functions.
Bit

7
SM2

6
SE

SM1

SM0

2
ISC11

1
ISC10

0
ISC01

ISC00

13

 Bit 3, 2 ISC11, ISC10: Interrupt Sense Control 1 Bit 1 and Bit 0

The External Interrupt 1 is activated by the external pin INT1 if the SREG I-bit and the corresponding
interrupt mask in the GICR are set.
Bit 1, 0 ISC01, ISC00: Interrupt Sense Control 0 Bit 1 and Bit 0
The External Interrupt 0 is activated by the external pin INT0 if the SREG I-flag and the corresponding
interrupt mask are set. he value on the INT0 pin is sampled before detecting edges. If edge or toggle
interrupt is selected, pulses that last longer than one clock period will generate an interrupt.
MCU Control and Status Register MCUCSR
BIT

7
JTD

6
ISC2

5
--

4
JRTF

2
WDRF

1
BORF

0
EXTRF

PORF

Bit 6 ISC2: Interrupt Sense Control 2

The Asynchronous External Interrupt 2 is activated by the external pin INT2 if the SREG I-bit and the
corresponding interrupt mask in GICR are set. If ISC2 is written to zero, a falling edge on INT2 activates
the interrupt. Edges on INT2 are registered asynchronously
Bit 4 JTRF: JTAG Reset Flag
This bit is set if a reset is being caused by a logic one in the JTAG Reset Register
selected .This bit is reset by a Power-on Reset, or by writing a logic zero to the flag.
Bit 3 WDRF: Watchdog Reset Flag
This bit is set if a Watchdog Reset occurs. The bit is reset by a
Power-on Reset, or by writing a logic zero to the flag.
Bit 2 BORF: Brown-out Reset Flag
This bit is set if a Brown-out Reset occurs. The bit is reset by a Power-on Reset, or by writing a logic zero to
the flag.
Bit 1 EXTRF: External Reset Flag
This bit is set if an External Reset occurs. The bit is reset by a Power-on Reset, or by writing a logic zero to
the flag.
Bit 0 PORF: Power-on Reset Flag
This bit is set if a Power-on Reset occurs. The bit is reset only by writing a logic zero to the flag.
General Interrupt Control Register GICR
Bit

7
INT1

6
INT0

5
INT2

3
--

2
--

1
--

0
IVSEL

IVCE

Bit 7 INT1: External Interrupt Request 1 Enable

When the INT1 bit is set (one) and the I-bit in the Status Register (SREG) is set (one), the external pin
interrupt is enabled.
Bit 6 INT0: External Interrupt Request 0 Enable

14

When the INT0 bit is set (one) and the I-bit in the Status Register (SREG) is set (one), the external pin
interrupt is enabled.
Bit 5 INT2: External Interrupt Request 2 Enable
When the INT2 bit is set (one) and the I-bit in the Status Register (SREG) is set (one), the external pin
interrupt is enabled. ISC2 in the MCUCSR defines whether the External Interrupt is activated on rising or
falling edge of the INT2 pin.
Bit 1 IVSEL: Interrupt Vector Select
When the IVSEL bit is cleared (zero), the Interrupt Vectors are placed at the start of the Flash memory.
When this bit is set (one), the interrupt vectors are moved to the beginning
of the Boot Loader section of the Flash.
Bit 0 IVCE: Interrupt Vector Change Enable
The IVCE bit must be written to logic one to enable change of the IVSEL bit. IVCE is cleared by hardware
four cycles after it is written or when IVSEL is written.
General Interrupt Flag Register GIFR
Bit

7
INTF1

6
INTF0

4
INTF2

3
--

2
--

1
--

0
--

--

Bit 7 INTF1: External Interrupt Flag 1

When an edge or logic change on the INT1 pin triggers an interrupt request, INTF1 becomes set (one). If
the I-bit in SREG and the INT1 bit in GICR are set (one), the MCU will jump to the corresponding Interrupt
Vector. This flag is always cleared when INT1 is configured as a level interrupt.
Bit 6 INTF0: External Interrupt Flag 0
When an edge or logic change on the INT0 pin triggers an interrupt request, INTF0 becomes set (one). If
the I-bit in SREG and the INT0 bit in GICR are set (one), the MCU will jump to the corresponding interrupt
vector. The flag is cleared when the interrupt routine is executed.
Bit 5 INTF2: External Interrupt Flag 2
When an event on the INT2 pin triggers an interrupt request, INTF2 becomes set (one). If the I-bit in SREG
and the INT2 bit in GICR are set (one), the MCU will jump to the corresponding Interrupt Vector. The flag
is cleared when the interrupt routine is executed.

TIMERS
8-bit Timer/Counter0 with PWM
Timer/Counter0 is a general purpose, single channel, 8-bit Timer/Counter module.
Registers

15

The Timer/Counter (TCNT0) and Output Compare Register (OCR0) are 8-bit registers. Interrupt request
(abbreviated to Int.Req. in the figure) signals are all visible in the Timer Interrupt Flag Register (TIFR). All
interrupts are individually masked with the Timer Interrupt Mask register (TIMSK).
Timer/Counter Control Register - TCCR0

Bit

FOC0

WGM00

COM01

COM00

WGM01

1
CS02

0
CS01

CS00

Bit 7 FOC0: Force Output Compare

The FOC0 bit is only active when the WGM00 bit specifies a non-PWM mode. However, for ensuring
compatibility with future devices, this bit must be set to zero when TCCR0 is written when operating in
PWM mode. When writing a logical one to the FOC0 bit, an immediate compare match is forced on the
Waveform Generation unit.
The FOC0 bit is always read as zero.
Bit 6, 3 WGM01:0: Waveform Generation Mode
These bits control the counting sequence of the counter, the source for the maximum counter value, and
what type of Waveform Generation to be used.
Waveform Generation Mode Bit Description(1)
Mode WGM01 WGM00
Timer/Counter Mode of Operation
0
0
0
Normal
1
0
1
PWM, Phase Correct
2
1
0
CTC OCR0
3
1
1
Fast PWM
Bit 5:4 COM01:0: Compare Match Output Mode
If one or both of the COM01:0 bits are set, the OC0 output overrides the normal port functionality of the
I/O pin it is connected to. When OC0 is connected to the pin, the function of the COM01:0 bits depends on
the WGM01:0 bit setting.
Compare Output Mode, non-PWM Mode
COM01
COM00
Description
0
0
Normal port operation, OC0 disconnected.
0
1
Toggle OC0 on compare match
1
0
Clear OC0 on compare match
1
1
Set OC0 on compare match

Timer/Counter Register TCNT0

Bit

TCNT0[7:0]

16

The Timer/Counter Register gives direct access, both for read and write operations, to the Timer/Counter
unit 8-bit counter. Writing to the TCNT0 Register blocks (removes) the compare match on the following
timer clock. Modifying the counter (TCNT0) while the counter is running, introduces a risk of missing a
compare match between TCNT0 and the OCR0 Register.

Output Compare Register OCR0

Bit
7
6
5

3
2
1
0
OCR0[7:0]
The Output Compare Register contains an 8-bit value that is continuously compared with counter value
(TCNT0). A match can be used to generate an output compare interrupt,or to generate a waveform output
on the OC0 pin.
Timer/Counter Interrupt Mask Register TIMSK
Bit

7
OCIE2

6
TOIE2

5
TICIE1

4
3
OCIE1A OCIE1
B

2
TOIE1

1
0
OCIE0 TOIE0

Bit 1 OCIE0: Timer/Counter0 Output Compare Match Interrupt Enable

When the OCIE0 bit is written to one, and the I-bit in the Status Register is set (one), the Timer/Counter0
Compare Match interrupt is enabled. The corresponding interrupt is executed if a compare match in
Timer/Counter0 occurs, i.e., when the OCF0 bit is set in the Timer/Counter Interrupt Flag Register
Bit 0 TOIE0: Timer/Counter0 Overflow Interrupt Enable
When the TOIE0 bit is written to one, and the I-bit in the Status Register is set (one), the Timer/Counter0
Overflow interrupt is enabled. The corresponding interrupt is executed if an overflow in Timer/Counter0
occurs, i.e., when the TOV0 bit is set in the Timer/Counter Interrupt Flag Register TIFR.

Timer/Counter Interrupt Flag Register TIFR

Bit

7
OCF2

6
TOV2

5
ICF1

4
3
OCF1A OCF1B

2
1
0
TOV1
OCF0
TOV0

Bit 1 OCF0: Output Compare Flag 0

The OCF0 bit is set (one) when a compare match occurs between the Timer /Counter0 and the data in
OCR0 Output Compare Register0. OCF0 is cleared by hardware when executing the corresponding
interrupt handling vector.
Bit 0 TOV0: Timer/Counter0 Overflow Flag

17

The bit TOV0 is set (one) when an overflow occurs in Timer/Counter0. TOV0 is cleared by hardware when
executing the corresponding interrupt handling vector. Alternatively, TOV0 is cleared by writing a logic
one to the flag.
16-bit Timer/Counter1
The 16-bit Timer/Counter unit allows accurate program execution timing (event management),
wave generation, and signal timing measurement.
REGISTER
The Timer/Counter (TCNT1), Output Compare Registers (OCR1A/B), and Input Capture
Register (ICR1) are all 16-bit registers. Special procedures must be followed when
accessing the 16-bit registers. The Timer/Counter Control Registers (TCCR1A/B) are
8-bit registers and have no CPU access restrictions. Interrupt requests (abbreviated to
Int.Req. in the figure) signals are all visible in the Timer Interrupt Flag Register (TIFR).
All interrupts are individually masked with the Timer Interrupt Mask Register (TIMSK).
The Timer/Counter can be clocked internally, via the prescaler, or by an external clock
source on the T1 pin. The output from the clock select logic is referred to as the timer clock (clkT1).
The double buffered Output Compare Registers (OCR1A/B) are compared with the
Timer/Counter value at all time. The result of the compare can be used by the Waveform
Generator to generate a PWM or variable frequency output on the Output Compare pin (OC1A/B). The
compare match event will also set the Compare Match Flag (OCF1A/B) which can be used to generate an
output compare interrupt request.
The Input Capture Register can capture the Timer/Counter value at a given external
(edge triggered) event on either the Input Capture Pin (ICP1) or on the Analog Comparator
pins
Analog to Digital Converter
The ATmega16 features a 10-bit successive approximation ADC. The ADC is connected
to an 8-channel Analog Multiplexer which allows 8 single-ended voltage inputs
constructed from the pins of Port A. The single-ended voltage inputs refer to 0V (GND).
The device also supports 16 differential voltage input combinations. Two of the differential
inputs (ADC1, ADC0 and ADC3, ADC2) are equipped with a programmable gain
stage. Seven differential analog input channels share a common negative terminal (ADC1), while any other
ADC input can be selected as the positive input terminal.
The ADC contains a Sample and Hold circuit which ensures that the input voltage to the
ADC is held at a constant level during conversion.
The ADC has a separate analog supply voltage pin, AVCC. AVCC must not differ more
than 0.3 V from VCC.
REGISTER
ADC Multiplexer Selection Register ADMUX
Bit
7
6
5
4
REFS01

REFS00

ADLAR

MUX4

2
MUX3

1
MUX2

0
MUX1

MUX0

18

 Bit 7:6 REFS1:0: Reference Selection Bits

These bits select the voltage reference for the ADC. If these bits are changed during a conversion, the
change will not go in effect until this conversion is complete (ADIF in ADCSRA is set).
REFS1 REFS0
Voltage Reference Selection
0
0
AREF, Internal Vref turned off
0
1
AVCC with external capacitor at AREF pin
1
0
Reserved
1
1
Internal 2.56V Voltage Reference with external capacitor at AREF pin
Bit 5 ADLAR: ADC Left Adjust Result
The ADLAR bit affects the presentation of the ADC conversion result in the ADC Data
Register. Write one to ADLAR to left adjust the result.
Bits 4:0 MUX4:0: Analog Channel and Gain Selection Bits
The value of these bits selects which combination of analog inputs are connected to the
ADC. These bits also select the gain for the differential channels.
ADC Control and Status Register A ADCSRA
Bit
7
6
5
4
ADEN
ADSC
ADATE
ADIF

3
ADIE

1
ADPS2

0
ADPS1

ADPS0

Bit 7 ADEN: ADC Enable

Writing this bit to one enables the ADC..
Bit 6 ADSC: ADC Start Conversion
In Single Conversion mode, write this bit to one to start each conversion. In Free Running
Mode, write this bit to one to start the first conversion. ADSC will read as one as long as a conversion is in
progress. When the conversion is complete, it returns to zero.
Bit 5 ADATE: ADC Auto Trigger Enable
When this bit is written to one, Auto Triggering of the ADC is enabled. The ADC will start
a conversion on a positive edge of the selected trigger signal.
Bit 4 ADIF: ADC Interrupt Flag
This bit is set when an ADC conversion completes and the Data Registers are updated.
The ADC Conversion Complete Interrupt is executed if the ADIE bit and the I-bit in
SREG are set.
Bit 3 ADIE: ADC Interrupt Enable
When this bit is written to one and the I-bit in SREG is set, the ADC Conversion Complete
Interrupt is activated.

19

 Bits 2:0 ADPS2:0: ADC Prescaler Select Bits

These bits determine the division factor between the XTAL frequency and the input
clock to the ADC.
ADC Data Register ADCL and ADCH
When an ADC conversion is complete, the result is found in these two registers. If differential
channels are used, the result is presented in twos complement form.
When ADCL is read, the ADC Data Register is not updated until ADCH is read. Consequently,
if the result is left adjusted and no more than 8-bit precision is required, it is sufficient to read ADCH.
Otherwise, ADCL must be read first, then ADCH.
The ADLAR bit in ADMUX, and the MUXn bits in ADMUX affect the way the result is
read from the registers. If ADLAR is set, the result is left adjusted. If ADLAR is cleared
(default), the result is right adjusted.

CODES
LINE FOLLOWER
//set your clock speed
#define F_CPU 12000000UL //set your clock speed
#include <avr/io.h>
int move_forward= 0b10111000;
int move_left= 0b00111000;
int move_right= 0b10110000;
int left_sensor_on= 0b10000000;
int left_sensor_off= 0b00000000;
int right_sensor_on= 0b00000001;
int right_sensor_off= 0b00000000;
int stop = 0b00110000;
int main (void)
{
DDRD = 0xFF; //Output port
DDRA = 0x00; //input port
int left_sensor = 0;
int right_sensor = 0;
while(1)
//create an infinite loop
{
PORTD |=(1<<4); //motor enable
PORTD |=(1<<5); //motor enable
left_sensor = (PINA & 0b10000000); // define left sensor
right_sensor = (PINA & 0b00000001); // define right sensor

20

if(( left_sensor==left_sensor_off) & (right_sensor==right_sensor_off))

{
PORTD = stop;
right_sensor = 0;
left_sensor = 0;
}
if((left_sensor==left_sensor_on) & (right_sensor==right_sensor_on))
{
PORTD = move_forward; //Robot move forward;
left_sensor = 0;
right_sensor = 0;
}
if(( left_sensor==left_sensor_on) & (right_sensor==right_sensor_off))
{
PORTD = move_right;
left_sensor = 0;
right_sensor = 0;
}
if(( left_sensor==left_sensor_off) & (right_sensor==right_sensor_on))
{
PORTD = move_left;
left_sensor = 0;
right_sensor = 0;
} } }
ALTERNATE TIMER DELAY
#include<avr/io.h>
#include<avr/interrupt.h>
#include<compat/deprecated.h>
#include<util/delay.h>
#define time=0x00;
int ctr=0;
int ctrl=0;
SIGNAL(SIG_OVERFLOW0)
{
if(ctr==0)
{PORTC=0x55;
ctr++;
ctrl=1;
}
else if(ctrl==1)
{ PORTC=0x00;
ctrl++;
ctr=0;
} }

21

void main()
{ DDRC=0xFF;
DDRB=0x00;
PORTC=0xFF;
PORTB=0x00;
TCNT0=0x00;
TCCR0=0x05;
TIMSK=_BV(TOIE0);
sei();
while(1)
{ PORTC=0xAA;
_delay_ms(200); } }
IMAGE PROCESSING

Image processing involves changing the nature of an image in order to either

1. improve its pictorial information for human interpretation,
2. render it more suitable for autonomous machine perception.

RELATED TERMS
PIXEL : The pixel (a word invented from "picture element") is the basic unit of programmable color on a
computer display or in a computer image.
DIGITAL IMAGES : are electronic snapshots taken of a scene or scanned from documents, such as
photographs, manuscripts, printed texts, and artwork.
RESOLUTION is the ability to distinguish fine spatial detail. The spatial frequency at which a digital image
is sampled (the sampling frequency) is often a good indicator of resolution
QUANTIZATION refers to the number of available grayscale.
ASPECTS OF IMAGE PROCESSING
It is convenient to subdivide different image processing algorithms into broad subclasses. There
are dierent algorithms for different tasks and problems, and often we would like to distinguish the nature
of the task at hand.
Image enhancement.
This refers to processing an image so that the result is more suitable for a
particular application. Example include:
.. sharpening or de-blurring an out of focus image,
.. highlighting edges,
.. improving image contrast, or brightening an image

22

.. removing noise.
Image restoration.
This may be considered as reversing the damage done to an image by a
known cause, for example:
.. removing of blur caused by linear motion,
.. removal of optical distortions,
.. removing periodic interference.
Image segmentation.
This involves subdividing an image into constituent parts, or isolating
certain aspects of an image:
.. ending lines, circles, or particular shapes in an image,
.. in an aerial photograph, identifying cars, trees, buildings, or roads

AN IMAGE PROCESSING TASK

Acquiring the image. First we need to produce a digital image from a paper envelope. This an
be done using either a CCD camera, or a scanner.
Preprocessing. This is the step taken before the major image processing task. The problem here
is to perform some basic tasks in order to render the resulting image more suitable for the job
to follow.
Segmentation. Here is where we actually get the postcode; in other words we extract from the
image that part of it which contains just the postcode.
Representation and description. These terms refer to extracting the particular features which
allow us to differentiate between objects. Here we will be looking for curves, holes and corners
which allow us to distinguish the different digits which constitute a postcode.
Recognition and interpretation. This means assigning labels to objects based on their descriptors
(from the previous step), and assigning meanings to those labels. So we identify particular
digits, and we interpret a string of four digits at the end of the address as the postcode.
TYPES OF DIGITAL IMAGES
Binary. Each pixel is just black or white. Since there are only two possible values for
each pixel, we only need one bit per pixel. Such images can therefore be very efficient
in terms of storage.
Greyscale. Each pixel is a shade of grey, normally from 0 (black) to 255(white)
This range means that each pixel can be represented by eight bits, or exactly one byte.
Other greyscale ranges are used, but generally they are a power of 2. Such images
arise in medicine (X-rays), images of printed works.
Binary image
True colour, or RGB. Here each pixel has a particular colour; that colour being described by the amount of
red, green and blue in it. Since the total number of bits required for each pixel is 24 such images are also
called 24-bit colour images. This means that for every pixel there correspond three values.
Indexed. Most colour images only have a small subset of the more than sixteen million possible

23

colours. For convenience of storage and handling, the image has an associated colour map or colour
palette, which is simply a list of all the colours used in that image. Each pixel has a value which does not
give its colour (as for an RGB image), but an index to the colour in the map.
ARITHMATIC OPERATION
In this we can perform adding and subtracting task on an image
Matlab function imadd which is designed precisely for addition
>> b1=imadd(b,128);
Subtraction is similar;
>> b2=imsubtract(b,128);
And now we can view them:
>> imshow(b1),figure,imshow(b2)

HISTOGRAM
Histogram is a graph indicating the number of times gray level occur
in the image.
>> imshow(p),figure,imhist(p),axis tight
We can view the histogram of an image in Matlab by using
the imhist function:
>> p=imread('pout.tif');
NEIGHBOURHOOD PROCESSING
To change the grey level of a given pixel we need only know the value of the grey levels in a small
neighbourhood of pixels around the given pixel.
The combination of mask and function is called a filter. If the function by which the new grey value is
calculated is a linear function of all the grey values in the mask, then the filter is called a linear filter.
The filter2 function does the job of linear filtering for us; its use is
filter2(filter,image,shape)
and the result is a matrix of data type double. The parameter shape is optional, it describes
the
method for dealing with the edges

low and high pass filters

high pass filter if it _passes over_ the high frequency components, and reduces or eliminates low
frequency components,
low pass filter if it _passes over_ the low frequency components, and reduces or eliminates high
frequency components,
SEGMENTATION
Two very important topics: thresholding, and edge detection

24

Thresholding
SINGLE THRESHOLDING
A pixel becomes

white if its grey level is ,

black if its grey level is .
_

__

COMMANDS are
>> r=imread('rice.tif');
>> imshow(r),figure,imshow(r>110)
DOUBLE THRESHOLDING
A pixel becomes white if its grey level is between T1and T2 otherwise black if its grey level is
otherwise.
Command is
imshow(im2bw(x,map,0.45)&~{}im2bw(x,map,0.5))}
_

EDGE DETECTION
Edges contain some of the most useful information in an image.
We may use edges to measure
the size of objects in an image; to isolate particular objects from
their background; to recognize or
classify objects. The general Matlab command for finding edges is
edge(image,'method',parameters. . . )
some filters used are
sobel filter [ -1,-2,-1;0,0,0;1,2,1] and [-1,0,1;-2,0,2;-1,0,1]
edge detection
prewit filter [-1,-1,-1;0,0,0;-1,-1,-1] and [-1,0,-1;-1,0,-1;-1,0,-1]

A binary image

Dilation

Erosion

Edges

MORPHOLOGY
Morphology is a branch of image processing which is particularly useful for analyzing shapes in images.

25

Matlab has many tools for binary morphology in the image processing toolbox; most of which can be used
for greyscale morphology as well.

Dilation and erosion

These are the basic operations of morphology, in the sense that all other operations are built from
a combination of these two.
Dilation adds pixels to the boundaries of objects in an image, while erosion removes pixels on object
boundaries.. In the morphological dilation and erosion operations, the state of any given pixel in the output
image is determined by applying a rule to the corresponding pixel and its neighbors in the input image.
Dilation in Matlab is performed with the command
>> imdilate(image,kernel)
Erosion in Matlab is performed with the command
>> imerode(image,kernel)
Creating a Structuring Element
The toolbox dilation and erosion functions accept structuring element objects, called STRELs. You use the
strel function to create STRELs of any arbitrary size and shape. The strel function also includes built-in
support for many common shapes, such as lines, diamonds, disks, periodic lines, and balls.
An essential part of the dilation and erosion operations is the structuring element used to probe the input
image.. The pixels with values of 1 define the neighborhood.
A = strel('diamond',3)
To dilate an image, use the imdilate function. The imdilate function accepts two primary arguments:
The input image to be processed (grayscale, binary, or packed binary image)
OPENING AND CLOSING
The definition of a morphological opening of an image is an erosion followed by a dilation, using the same
structuring element for both operations.

The morphological closing of an image, is the reverse: it consists of dilation followed by an erosion with the
same structuring element.

These functions have simple sintax i.e

c=imopen(A,B)

AND

c=imclose(A,B)

Defining Connectivity in an Image

26

The following table lists all the standard two- and three-dimensional connectivities supported by the
toolbox.
Two-Dimensional Connectivitys
4-connected

Pixels are connected if their edges touch

8-connected

Pixels are connected if their edges or corners touch.

PARALLEL PORT COMMUNICATION

A parallel port is a type of interface found on computers (personal and otherwise) for
connecting various peripherals. It is also known as a printer port or Centronics port. The
IEEE 1284 standard defines the bi-directional version of the port.
This port will allow the input of up to 9 bits or the output of 12 bits at any one given time,
thus requiring minimal external circuitry to implement many simpler tasks.
The port is composed of 4 control lines, 5 status lines and 8 data lines. It's found commonly
on the back of your PC as a D-Type 25 Pin female connector

8 Output pins [D0 to D7]

5 Status pins [S4 to S7 and S3]
4 Control pins [C0 to C3]
8 ground pins [18 to 25]

PROGRAM FOR MOTOR

27

#include{stdio.h}
#include{conio.h}
#include{dos.h}
main()
{
outportb(0378,000); STOP MOTOR
sleep(2);
outportb(0378,001);MOVE MOTOR(CCW)
sleep(2);
outportb(0378,002);MOVE MOTOR(CW)
sleep(2);
outportb(0378,003);MOVE MOTOR(Break!)
sleep(2);
return 0;
}

SNAPSHOTS
Simple Line Follower (H-Bridge)

Using Microcontroller 8051

28

(1) Line Follower Programmed

(2) Edge Follower Programmed

29