Chapter 1: Key Terms

Globalization- the increasing interdependence of citizens and nations across the

world.
Government- the legitimate use of force to control human behavior; also, the
organization or agency authorized to exercise that force.
National sovereignty- a political entitys externally recognized right to exercise final
authority over its affairs.
Order- established ways of social behavior. Maintaining order is the oldest purpose
of government.
Communism- a political system in which, in theory, ownership of all land and
productive facilities is in the hands of the people and all goods are equally shared.
The production and distribution of goods are controlled by an authoritarian
government.
Public goods- benefits and services, such as parks and sanitation, that benefit all
citizens but are not likely to be produced voluntarily by individuals.
Freedom of- an absence of constraints on behavior, as in freedom of speech or
freedom of religion.
Freedom from- immunity, as in freedom from want.
Police power- the authority of government to maintain order and safeguard citizens
safety, health, welfare, and morals.
Political equality- equality in political decision making: one vote per person, with all
votes counted equally.
Social equality- equality in wealth, education, and status.
Equality of opportunity- the idea that each person is guaranteed the same chance to
succeed in life.
Equality of outcome- the concept that society must ensure that people are equal, and
governments must design policies to redistribute wealth and status to achieve
economic and social equality.
Rights- the benefits of government to which every citizen is entitled.
Political ideology- a consistent set of values and beliefs about the proper purpose
and scope of government.
Totalitarianism- A political philosophy that advocated unlimited power for the
government to enable it to control all sectors of society.
Socialism- a form of rule in which the central government plays a strong role in
regulating existing private industry and directing the economy, although it does
allow some private ownership of productive capacity.
Democratic socialism- a socialist form of government that guarantees civil liberties
such as freedoms of speech and religion. Citizens determine the extent of
government activity through free elections and competitive political parties.
Capitalism- the system of government that favors the free enterprise (privately
owned businesses operating without government regulation).
Libertarianism- a political ideology that is opposed to all government action except
as necessary to protect life and property.
Laissez faire- an economic doctrine that opposes any form of government
intervention in business.

Anarchism- a political philosophy that opposes government in any form.

Liberals- those who are willing to use government promote quality but not order.
Conservatives- those who are willing to use government to promote order but not
equality.
Libertarians- those who are opposed to using government to promote either order
or equality.
Communitarians- those who are willing to use government to promote both order
and equality.
Democracy- a system of government in which, in theory, the people rule, either
directly or indirectly.
Procedural democratic theory- a view of democracy as being embodied in the
decision-making process that involves universal participation, political equality,
majority rule, and responsiveness.
Personal participation- the concept that everyone in a democracy should participate
in government decision-making.
Majority rule- the principle basic to procedural Democratic theory that the
decision of the group must reflect the preference of more than half of those
participating; a simple majority.
Participatory democracy-a system of government where rank-and-file citizens rule
themselves rather than electing representatives to govern on their behalf.
Responsiveness- a decision-making principle, this is a dictated by representative
government, that implies that elected representatives should do what the majority
of people want.
Substantive Democratic theory-the view that democracy is embodied in the
substance of government policies rather than in the policy-making procedure.
Minority rights-the benefits of government that cannot be denied to any citizens by
majority decisions.
Majoritarian model of democracy-the classical theory of democracy in which
government by the people is interpreted as government by the majority of the
people.
Interest group- an organized group of individuals that seeks to influence public
policy; also called the lobby.
Pluralist model of democracy-an interpretation of democracy in which government
by the people taken to mean government by people operating through competing
interest groups.
Elite theory- the view that a small group of people actually makes most of the
important government decisions.
Oligarchy-the system of government in which power is concentrated in the hands of
a few people.
Democratization-the process of transition as a country attempts to move from a
authoritarian form of government to a democratic one.
Chapter 2: Key Terms
Declaration of Independence- drafted by Thomas Jefferson, the document that
proclaimed the right of the colonies to separate from Great Britain.

Social contract theory- the belief that the people agree to set up rulers for certain
purposes and thus have the right to resist or remove rulers who act against those
purposes.
Republic-a government without a monarch; government rooted in the consent of the
governed, whose power is exercised by elected representatives responsible to the
governed.
Confederation-a loose association of independent states that agree to cooperate on
specified matters.
Articles of Confederation- the compact among the thirteen original states that
established the first government of the United States.
Virginia Plan- a set of proposals for a new government, submitted to the
Constitutional Convention of 1787; included separation of the government into
three branches, division of the legislature into two houses, and proportional
representation in the legislature.
Legislative branch-the law making branch of government.
Executive branch- the law enforcing branch of government.
Judicial branch-the law interpreting branch of government.
New Jersey Plan- submitted by the head of the New Jersey delegation to the
Constitutional Convention in 1787, A set of nine resolutions that would have, in
effect, preserved the Articles of Confederation by amending rather than replacing
them.
Great Compromise- submitted by the Connecticut delegation to the Constitutional
Convention of 1787, and thus also known as the Connecticut Compromise, a plan
calling for a bicameral legislature in which the House of Representatives would be
apportioned according to population and the states would be represented equally in
the Senate.
Republicanism-the form of government in which power resides in the people and is
exercised by their elected representatives.
Federalism-the division of power between a central government and regional
governments.
Separation of powers- the assignment of lawmaking, law-enforcement, and law
interpreting functions to separate branches of government.
Checks and balances- a government structure that gives each branch some scrutiny
of and control over the other branches.
Extraordinary majority- majority greater than that required by majority rule, that is,
greater than 50 percent plus one.
Enumerated powers-the powers explicitly granted to Congress by the Constitution.
Necessary and proper clause- the last clause in Section 8 of Article I of the
Constitution, which gives Congress the means to execute its enumerated powers.
This clause is the basis for Congresss implied powers. Also called the elastic clause.
Implied powers- those powers that Congress required in order to execute its
enumerated powers.
Judicial review- the power to declare government acts invalid because they violate
the Constitution.

Supremacy clause- the clause of Article VI of the Constitution that asserts that
national laws take precedence over state and local laws when they conflict.
Bill of Rights- the first 10 amendments to the Constitution. They prevent the
national government in tampering with fundamental rights and civil liberties and
emphasize a limited character of national power.
Chapter 3: Key Terms
Sovereignty- the quality of being supreme in power or authority.
Federalism- the division of power between a central government and regional
government.
Dual federalism- a view that holds the Constitution is a compact among sovereign
states, so that the powers of the national government are fixed and limited.
States rights- the idea that all rights not specifically conferred on the national
government by the Constitution are reserved to the states.
Implied powers- those powers that Congress required in order to execute its
enumerated powers.
Cooperative federalism- a view that holds that the Constitution is an agreement
among people who are citizens of both state and nation, so there is little distinction
between state powers and national powers.
Elastic clause- the last clause in Section 8 of Article I of the Constitution, which gives
Congress the means to execute its enumerated powers. This clause is the basis for
Congresss implied powers. Also called the necessary and proper clause.
Commerce clause- the third clause of Article I, Section 8, of the Constitution, which
gives Congress the power to regulate commerce among the states.
Grant in aid- money provided by one level of government to another to be spent for
a given purpose.
Categorical grant- a grant in aid targeted for a specific purpose by formula or by
project.
Formula grant- a categorical grant distributed according to a particular formula that
specifies who is eligible for the grant and how much each eligible applicant will
receive.
Project grant- a categorical grant awarded on the basis of competitive applications
submitted by prospective recipients.
Block grant- a grant in aid awarded for general purposes, allowing the recipient
great discretion in spending the grant money.
Preemption- the power of Congress to enact laws by which the national government
assumes total or partial responsibility for a state government function.
Mandate- a requirement that a state undertake an activity or provide a service in
keeping with minimum national standards.
Restraint- a requirement laid down by act of Congress prohibiting a state or local
government from exercising a certain power.
Coercive federalism- a view that the national government may impose its policy
preferences on the state through regulations in the form of mandates and restraints.
Redistricting- the process of redrawing boundaries for electoral jurisdictions.
Municipal governments- the government unit that administers a city or town.
County governments- the government unit that administers a county.

School district- an area for which a local government unit administers elementary
and secondary school programs.
Special district- a government unit created to perform particular functions,
especially when those functions are best performed across jurisdictional
boundaries.
Chapter 4: Key Terms
Public opinion- the collected attitudes of citizens concerning a given issue or
question.
Political socialization- the complex process by which people acquire their political
values.
Socioeconomic status- position in society, based on a combination of education,
occupational status, and income.
Self interest principle- the implication that people choose what benefits them
personally.
Mass media- the means employed in mass communication, often divided into print
media and broadcast media.
Newsworthiness- the degree to which a news story is important enough to be
covered in the mass media.
Federal Communications Commission (FCC)- an independent federal agency that
regulates interstate and international communication by radio, television,
telephone, telegraph, cable, and satellite.
Equal opportunity rule- under the Federal Communications Act of 1934, the
requirement that if a broadcast stations gives or sells time to a candidate for any
public office, it must make available an equal amount of time under the same
conditions to all other candidates for that office.
Reasonable access rule- an FCC rule that requires broadcast stations to make their
facilities available for the expression of conflicting views or issues by all responsible
elements in the community.
Gatekeepers- media executives, news editors, and prominent reporters who decide
which events to report and which elements in those stories to emphasize.
Horse race journalism- election coverage by the mass media that focuses on which
candidate is ahead rather than on national issues.
Television hypothesis- the belief that television is to blame for the law level of
citizens knowledge about public affairs.
Political agenda- a list of issues that need government attention.
Going public- a strategy whereby a president seeks to influence policy elites and
media coverage by appealing directly to the American people.
Watchdog journalism- journalism that scrutinizes public and business institutions
and publicizes perceived misconduct.
Chapter 5: Key Terms
Political participation- actions of private citizens by which they seek to influence or
support government and politics.
Conventional participation- relatively routine political behavior that uses
institutional channels and is acceptable to the dominant culture.

Unconventional participation- relatively uncommon political behavior that

challenges or defies established institutions and dominant norms.
Terrorism- premeditated, politically motivated violence perpetrated against
noncombatant targets by subnational groups or clandestine agents.
Direct action- unconventional participation that involves assembling crowds to
confront businesses and local governments to demand a hearing.
Supportive behavior- actions that express allegiance to government and country.
Influencing behavior- behavior that seeks to modify or reverse government policy to
serve political interests.
Class action lawsuit- a legal action brought by a person or group on behalf of a
number of people in similar circumstances.
Voter turnout- the percentage of eligible citizens who actually vote in a given
election.
Suffrage- the right to vote. Also called the franchise
Franchise- the right to vote. Also called suffrage.
Progressivism- a philosophy of political reform based on the goodness and wisdom
of the individual citizen as opposed to special interests and political institutions.
Direct primary- a preliminary election, run by the state government- in which the
voters choose each partys candidates for the general election.
Recall- the process for removing an elected official from office.
Referendum- an election on a policy issue.
Initiative- a procedure by which voters can proposed an issue to be decided by the
people in a referendum. It requires gathering a specified number of signatures and
submitting a petition to a designated agency.
Standard socioeconomic model- a relationship between socioeconomic status and
conventional political involvement: people with higher status and more education
are more likely to participate than those with lower status.
Chapter 6: Key Terms
Political party- an organization that sponsors candidates for political office under
the organizations name.
Nomination- designation as an official candidate of a political party.
Political system- a set of interrelated institutions that links people with government.
Critical election- an election that produces a sharp change in the existing pattern of
party loyalties among groups of voters.
Electoral realignment- the change in voting patterns that occurs after a critical
election.
Electoral dealignment- a lessening of the importance of party loyalties in voting
decisions.
Two party system- a political system in which two major political parties compete
for control of the government. Candidates from a third party have little chance of
winning office.
Majority representation- the system by which one office, contested by two or more
candidates, is won by the single candidate who collects the most votes.

Proportional representation- the system by which legislative seats are awarded to a

party in proportion to the vote that party wins in an election.
Party identification- a voters sense of psychological attachment to a party.
Party platform- the statement of policies of a national political party.
National convention- a gathering of delegates of a single political party from across
the country to choose candidates for president and vice president and to adopt a
party platform.
National committee- a committee of a political party composed of party
chairpersons and party officials from every state.
Party conference- a meeting to select party leaders and decide committee
assignments, held at the beginning of a session of Congress by Republicans or
Democrats in each chamber.
Congressional campaign committee- an organization maintained by a political party
to raise funds to support is own candidates in congressional elections.
Party machine- a centralized party organization that dominates local politics by
controlling elections.
Responsible party government- a set of principles formalizing the ideal role of
parties in a majoritarian democracy.
Election campaign- an organized effort to persuade voters to choose on candidate
over others competing for the same office.
Primary election- a preliminary elections conducted within a political party to select
candidates who will run for public office in a subsequent election.
Closed primary- a primary election in which voters must declare their party
affiliation before they are given the primary ballot containing that partys potential
nominees.
Open primary- a primary election in which voters need not declare their party
affiliation and can choose either partys primary ballot to take into the voting booth.
Modified closed primary- a primary election that allows individual state parties to
decide whether they permit independents to vote in their primaries and for which
offices.
Modified open primary- a primary election that entitles independent voters to vote
in a partys primary.
Presidential primary- a special primary election used to select delegates to attend
the partys national convention, which in turn nominates the presidential candidate.
Caucus/convention- a method used to select delegates to attend a partys national
convention. Generally a local meeting selects delegates for a county-level meeting,
which in turn selects delegates for a higher level meeting; the process culminates in
a state convention that selects the national convention delegates.
Front loading- states practice of moving delegate selection primaries and caucuses
earlier in the calendar year to gain media and candidate attention.
General election- a national election held by law in November of every even
numbered year.
Straight ticket- in voting, a single partys candidates for all the offices.
Split ticket- in voting, candidates from different parties for different offices.

First past the post elections- A British term for elections conducted in single
member districts that award victory to the candidate with the most votes.
Open election- an election that lacks an incumbent.
Federal Election Commission (FEC)- a bipartisan federal agency that oversees the
financing of national election campaigns.
Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (BCRA)- a law passed in 2002 governing campaign
financing; the law took effect with the 2004 election.
527 committees- political organizations that are organized under Section 527 of the
Internal Revenue Code; they enjoy tax exempt status and may accept unlimited
funds from unlimited sources but cannot expressly advocate a candidates election
or defeat.

Chapter One: Summary Points

As globalization increases, human rights weigh more heavily in international
politics.
- Some believe that nations should be held accountable to international law.
- The US government worries that international law would require us to abide
by laws based on other nations values rather than our own.
The American government must recognize it is part of a worldwide economic, social,
and political network. Foreign affairs must be evaluated by how they affect the
United States government and, conversely, how American politics affects
governments in other nations.
Government requires citizens to surrender some freedom as part of being governed.
People do so to obtain the benefits of government: maintain order, providing public
goods, and- more controversially- promoting equality.
Maintaining order: the rule of law is established to preserve life and to protect
property.
Providing public goods: benefits and services are available to everyone, such as
education, sanitation, and parks.
Promoting equality: the governments role in promoting economic and social
equality has been a major source of policy debate in the United States.

Concepts that identify the values pursued by government

- Freedom
- Order
- Equality
Dilemmas facing government
- The original dilemma: freedom versus order.
- The modern dilemma: freedom versus equality.
Political ideologies and the scope of government
- Totalitarianism: government should have unlimited power.
- Socialism: the scope of government extends to ownership or control of basic
industries that produce goods and services.
- Capitalism: free enterprise such as private business should operate without
government regulations.
- Libertarianism: all government action is opposed except that which is
necessary to protect life and property.
- Anarchism: anarchists oppose all government, in any form.
Liberals and conservatives
- In popular usage, liberals favor more government, conservatives less. This is
misleading: both favor the use of government, but for different ends.
- Liberals are willing to use the government to promote equality, but value
freedom over order.
- Conservatives value order over freedom and freedom over equality.
- Communitarians value both equality and order more than freedom.
- Libertarians value individual freedom highly and frown upon government
action to pursue equality and order.
Procedural democratic theory emphasizes four democratic processes including
universal participation, political equality, majority rule, and government
responsiveness to public opinion.
Substantive democratic theory focuses on the substance of policies more than the
procedures of democracy. It holds that there are civil liberties and civil rights that
are so important they should not subject to being overturned by majority decision.
Models of democracy
- The majoritarian model of democracy is built around majority rule as
evidenced by elections.
- The pluralistic model conceives of democracy as a competition between
interest groups in society.
An undemocratic model
- Elite theory is the idea American government is dominated by a small, stable
set of wealthy individuals and large businesses.
An increasing number of countries around the world have moved towards
democratic governance.
The process of democratization is difficult. Ethnic and religious rivalries interfere
with a governments ability to recognize all citizens interests.
Governmental instability caused by the transition to democracy can lead to
vulnerability for a new democracy.

Inevitable economic reforms often bring greater freedom, which authoritarian

rulers often see as a threat to their leadership.
Chapter 2: Summary Points
American colonists
- Were free of the restrictions of feudalism.
- Enjoyed almost complete freedom of speech, press, and assembly.
- Were unwilling to pay taxes to a distant government in which they had no
representation.
Colonial desire for liberty conflicted with British attempts to maintain order.
Two continental congresses were convened to determine how to ensure colonists
rights.
Congressional delegates accepted the Declaration of Independence in 1776, which
asserted the right of individuals to revolt if their government denied their rights.
The Articles of Confederation established an alliance between the independent
states while severely limiting the power of a central government.
Under the terms of the confederation, the newly formed government
- Was unable to tax.
- Lacked an independent leader.
- Could not regulate commerce or international trade.
- Was unable to amend the Articles of Confederation without unanimous
agreement of Congress and state legislative approval.
The inability of the confederation to deal with insurrections demonstrated the need
for an empowered central government that could maintain order.
A constitutional convention, initially authorized to revise the Articles of
Confederation, determined instead to debate the Virginia Plan.
The Virginia Plan introduced several important ideas that would create a powerful
national government:
- Three separate branches of government.
- Division of the legislature into two houses.
- Proportional representation.
Fearing control by the larger states, the small states recommended the New Jersey
Plan to amend the Articles of Confederation.
While the New Jersey Plan was rejected by the Convention, smaller states did force a
compromise on representation.
The delegates accepted the Great Compromise, which determined the
responsibilities and means of electing state representatives and the president.
The delegates agreed to a presidential term of four years with unlimited terms.
A procedure was agreed upon for the impeachment of the president that included
both houses as well as the judiciary.
The Preamble forms the foundation for the Constitution because it
- Defines a people.
- Explains the reason for the Constitution.
- Articulates goals.
- Fashions a government.
The basic principles the founders relied upon were

- Republicanism
- Federalism
- Separation of powers.
- Checks and balances.
The Articles of the Constitution
- Article I specifies the enumerated and implied powers of Congress.
- Article II describes the presidents term, election process, qualifications,
duties, and powers.
- Article III establishes the Supreme Court and gives Congress the authority to
establish federal court system.
- Article IV specifies the rights and responsibilities of the states.
- Article V specifies the constitutional amendment process.
- Article VI asserts the supremacy clause, requires that elected officials take an
oath of loyalty to the Constitution, and mandates that religion cannot be a
prerequisite to office.
- Article VII describes the ratification process.
Nine states were needed to ratify the Constitution.
Federalists were the proponents of the Constitution while Antifederalists, fearful of
an overly powerful national government, were opponents.
The Federalist papers supported the Constitution and were widely rad throughout
the states.
In Federalist No. 10 and No. 51, James Madison developed arguments for the
Constitution that foreshadowed a pluralist theory of democracy.
Both sides agreed to the Bill of Rights: ten amendments that restrained the national
government from tampering with rights and civil liberties as well as clarified the
limit of its power.
The Constitution was ratified on June 21, 1788.
Amendments can be proposed by a two-thirds vote in both houses of Congress or by
national convention. Amendments can be ratified by a vote of the legislatures of
three fourths of the states.
Change can occur by judicial review and interpretation.
Change can occur by political practice.
The US Constitution is one of the shortest constitutions.
It lays out a structural framework for government without describing relationships
and powers in detail.
Its general wording allows for contemporary interpretation.
It originally focuses on protecting freedom and maintaining order but has been
amended to support social equality.
Its fits perfectly with the pluralistic model of government.
Chapter 3: Summary Points
Federalism is a political model for government in which power is divided between a
central government and regional governments.
Dual federalism, a concept illustrated by the layer cake metaphor, holds that
national and state governments are sovereign within their own spheres.

The relationship between nation and state is characterized by tension rather

than cooperation.
Cooperative federalism, a concept illustrated by the marble cake metaphor,
presumes that national and state agencies work together and share power and that
this power is fragmented.
- Cooperative federalism blurs the distinction between national and state
governments.
Congress has increased national power during times of crisis and national
emergency.
The Supreme Court settles disputes regarding the balance of power between the
states and national government.
The national government often uses financial incentives (e.g., grants in aid) to
persuade states to act in desired ways.
State governments have increased their abilities by making internal changes,
holding more legislative sessions, attracting more qualified people, and hiring better
educated administrators.
Although it is common to associate conservative views with the layer cake model of
dual federalism and liberal views with the cooperative federalism, the ambiguity
with which federalism is treated in the Constitution makes it difficult to pin clear
ideological labels on particular theories of federalism.
In practice, the national government
- Takes over responsibility for state functions by preemption.
- Issues a mandate to require states to act in a particular way.
- Limits the use of state power by issuing a restraint.
- Uses funding as a means to control the states.
State governments act as proving grounds for politicians who want to achieve
national recognition and office.
Redistricting can change political careers through changes in district size and
location of voting districts.
Americans are citizens of both the nation and their state. They are also under the
jurisdiction of local governments, which include municipal, county, school, and
special districts.
While in principle local governments being politics closer to individuals, in reality
most citizens are less engaged in local than in national politics. Organized groups,
with the time and resources to understand the minutiae of government at each level,
are the most successful at influencing policy at the local level.
The large number of governments allows for responsiveness at some level, which
benefits citizens.
By recognizing the legitimacy of the state, the federal system recognizes diversity,
which reflects the pluralist model.
The national governments regulatory power casts a coercive shadow over all state
governments. This model of coercive federalism reflects the ebb and flow of power
moving from states to nation to states to nation.
Chapter 4: Summary Points
Public opinion is the collective attitude of the citizens on a given issue or question.

Modern polling gathers opinions through random sampling methods.

The majoritarian model assumes that most people hold clear opinions on political
issues; however, public opinion is often different from government policy.
The pluralistic model believes voters are often uniformed about political issues; this
is generally consistent with the public opinion.
Public opinion is grounded in political values.
Values are acquired through the political socialization process.
Political socialization is the path to political awareness, knowledge, and values.
Everyones political socialization is different and continuously shaped by family,
school, peer group, community, and the media.
Members of the same social group tend to experience similar socialization processes
and thus are more likely to adopt similar values.
Differences in education, race, and religion tend to produce sharper divisions of
opinion today on questions of order and equality than do differences in income or
region.
Ideology influences public opinion on specific issues.
The publics ideological thinking cannot be adequately categorized in conventional
liberal conservatives terms.
Significant portions of the public are also communitarians or libertarians.
When it comes to freedom and order, people associate liberals with change and
conservatives with tradition.
When it comes to economic equality, people view liberals as supporting intervention
and conservatives as favoring less government intervention.
Americans have political opinions even on topics on which they little knowledge.
Strongly held opinions may not change, even when voters are presented with new
information questioning those beliefs.
Equal levels of political understanding may produce different political views due to
self-interest.
The influence of political leaders is enhanced through the mass media.
The mass media are a means for communicating to voters.
The Internet is a source for communication through websites, both for media outlets
to provide information and individuals to express opinions.
In the United States, the media are privately owned and make money primarily
through advertising.
The First Amendment to the Constitution prohibits Congress from abridging the
freedom of the press, which has come to mean mass media.
The equal opportunities rule requires broadcasters to give equal time to all
candidates in a political race.
The reasonable access rule requires stations to give time to conflicting views.
The mass media are an important part of the political socialization process.
Newspapers gave way to television as the source for peoples news about politics,
and today the Internet is surpassing newspapers as a news source, especially for
young adults.
More than half the public consults multiple sources of news during the day.

Those who rely on television for news tend to know less about public affairs; this is
called the television hypothesis,
The medias greatest potential for influencing public opinion is setting the political
agenda.
Reporting is filtered through ideological biases of the medias owners, editors, and
reporters.
A large proportion of the public distrusts the media because of perceived biases. In
practice, national journalists tend to be more liberal than the public, but the most
systematic bias seems to be against incumbents and front-runners.
The media contribute to the two-way communication between government and
voters.
Journalists practice watchdog journalism to provide an external check on
government.
The media encourage government action to promote equality but not action to limit
freedom of the press.
Chapter 5: Summary Points
Political participation is defined as those actions of citizens that attempt to influence
- The structure of government
- The selection of government officials
- The policies of government or to support government and politics
Forms of participation include conventional and unconventional participation.
Unconventional participation is behavior that challenges or defies established
institutions and dominant norms.
Unconventional participation, such as direct action during the civil rights
movement, can be effective.
Direct action appeals most to those who distrust the political system but have a
strong sense of political efficacy.
Americans are less likely to take part in demonstrations than their European
counterparts.
Conventional behavior falls into two categories: supportive behavior and
influencing behavior.
Supportive behavior are actions that express allegiance to country and government,
such as pledging allegiance, flying the flag, or voting.
Influencing behaviors attempt to modify or reverse government policy to serve
particular political interests.
Particularized forms of participation
- Are consistent with democratic theory.
- Are used more by citizens who are advantaged.
- Can serve private interests to the detriment of the majority.
Participation can require high initiative or low initiative.
Although the United States was the first country to hold elections with mass
suffrage, initially only white male property holders could vote.
Progressive reforms- the initiative and referendum- facilitated voting on state
policies, but citizens cannot vote on national policies in a referendum.

Americans seem to participate in many political activities at high levels but have low
voter turnout.
According to the standard socioeconomic model, increasing political participation is
linked to increases in education, wealth, and occupational status.
Young people are more likely to engage in unconventional participation than other
people, but older citizens are more likely to vote than younger citizens.
Blacks are women are voting at higher rates today than in the past.
Voter turnout has declined because
- Voters believe government is unresponsive
- Fewer people identify with political parties.
- Americans have voter registration procedures that may lower voter
participation.
- Parties have not mobilized voters, which may lower participation.
Freedom holds that people should be able to participate in politics as much or as
little as they want and should be able to use all their sources in the process.
Equality holds that each citizens ability to influence government should be no
greater than any others, which is formally true in voting but not in influencing how
others vote.
Order is generally promoted by conventional participation but undercut by
unconventional participation.
Elections socialize political activity, institutionalize access to political power, and
bolster the states power and authority.
The majoritarian model assumes that government responds to popular demands
expressed through conventional participation, primarily elections.
The pluralist model encourages forms of participation to influence government,
including well-financed efforts to persuade both voters and officials.