A cell structure

The microscope in cell studies

Cells as basic units of living organisms
Detailed structure of typical animal and plant cells, as seen using the
electron microscope.
Outline functions of organelles in plant and animal cells.
Characteristics of Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
Learning Objective
a) Use an eyepiece graticule and stage micrometer scale to measure cells
and be familiar with units (millimetre, micrometre, nanometre) used
in cell studies.
Cells and organells can be measured with a microscope by means of an
eyepiece graticule. This is a transparent scale. It usually has 100
divisions. The eyepiece graticule is placed in the microscope eyepiece so
that it can be seen at the same time as the object to be measured. We
will not know the actual size of the eyepiece units until the eyepiece
graticule scale is calibrated.
To calibrate the eyepiece graticule scale a miniature transparent rules
called a stage micrometre. Scale is placed on the microscope stage and is
brought into focus. This scale may be etched onto a glass slide or printed
on the transparent film. It commonly has subdivisions of 0.1 and 0.0
eyepice graticule scale (arbitrary units)

Eyepiece graticule
stage micrometer scale (marked in 0.01 mm and 0.1 mm divisions

Fraction of a metre
One thousandth= 0.01= 1/1000= 10^-3
One millionth= 0.000001= 1/1000000= 10^-6
one thousand millionth= 0.0000000001=
1/1000000000= 10^-9

Unit
Millimeter
Micrometer
Nanometer

Symbol
mm
m

nm

b) Explain and distinguish between resolution and magnification with

reference to light microscopy and electron microscopy.
Resolution The ability to distinguish between two objects very close
together; the higher the resolution of an image, the greater the detail that can
be seen.
Magnification The number of times greater than an image is than the actual
object;
Magnification = image size / actual (real size)
Light microscopy Light rays pass through the specimen on a side and are
focused by an objective lens and an eyepiece lens. This produces a magnified
image of the specimen on the retina of your eye. Alternatively, the image can
be projected onto a screen, or recorded by a camera.
Electron microscope An electron microscope uses beams of electrons rather
than light rays. The specimen has to be very thin and must be placed in a
vacuum, to allow electrons to pass through it. The electrons are focused onto a
screen, or on to photographic film, where they form a magnified image of the
specimen.
Types of electron microscope
There are two types of electron microscope:
Transmission electron microscope (TEM):
The electron bean passes through a very thin prepared sample
Electrons pass through the denser parts of the sample less easily, so giving some
contrast
The final image produced is two-dimensional
The magnification possible with a TEM is x500,000
Scanning electron microscope (SEM):
The electron beam is directed onto a sample. The electrons dont pass through the
specimen
They are bounced off the sample
The final image produced is a 3D view of the surface of the sample

The magnification possible with an SEM is about x100,000

Light microscopy
Transmission Electron
Microscope
Scanning Electron Microscope

Resolution
200nm
0.1nm

Magnification
X1,500
X500,000

0.1nm

X100,000

c) Describe and interpret drawings and photographs of of typical animals

and plant cells, as seen using the electron microscope recognising
following: rough endoplasmic reticulum, and smooth endoplasmic
reticulum, Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, ribosomes, lysosomes,
chloroplasts, cell surface membrane, nuclear envelope, centrioles,
nucleus and nucleolus.

d) Outline the functions of the structure listed in ( C )

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

is so called because it
is covered with many tiny organelles called ribosomes. These are just visible as
black dots. At high magnification they can be seen to consist of two subunits: a
large and small subunits. Ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis. They
can be found free in the cytoplasm as well as on the rough ER. They are very
small, only about 25nm in diameter. They are made of RNA (ribonucleic acid)
and protein. The rough ER forms an extensive system of flattened sacs
spreading in sheets throughout the cell. Protein made by the ribosomes on the
rough ER enter the sacs and move through them. The proteins are often
processed in same way on their journey. Small sacs called vesicles can break

off from the ER and these joins together to form the Golgi apparatus. Proteins
can be exported from the cell via the Golgi apparatus.

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

so called because it lacks
ribosomes has completely different functions. It makes lipids and steroids,
such as cholesterol and the reproductive hormones oestrogen and
testosterone.

Golgi apparatus
the Golgi apparatus is a stack
of flattened sacs. This stack of sacs is sometimes referred to as the Golgi body.
More than one may be present in a cell. The stack is constantly being formed
at one end from vesicle which bud off from the ER, and broken down again at
the other end to form Golgi vesicles. The stack of sacs with the associated
vesicles is referred to as the Golgi apparatus as Golgi complex.
The Golgi apparatus collects, processes and sorts molecules (particular
proteins from the Rough ER) ready for transport in Golgi vesicles either to
other parts of the cell or out of the cell (secretion). Two examples of protein
processing in the golgi apparatus are the addition of sugar to protein to make
molecules known as glycoproteins, and removal of the first amino acid,
methionine, from newly formed proteins to make a functioning proteins. In
plants, enzymes in the Golgi apparatus convert sugars into cell wall
components. Golgi vesicles are also used to make lysosomes.

Mitochondria
have an envelope (two
membrane) surrounding them. The inner one is folded to form cristae. This is
where aerobic respiration takes place, producing ATP. This first stage of this
process, called the Krebs cycle, takes place in the matrix. The final stage,
oxidative phosphorylation, takes place on the membrane of the cristae.

Ribosomes
are small structures made of RNA and
proteins. They are found free in the cytoplasm, and attached to rough ER.
Proteins are made on the ribosomes, by linking them together amino acid.

Lysosomes
are little membrane- bound packages of hydrolytic
(digestive) enzymes. They form by breaking off from the Golgi apparatus. They
are used to digest bacteria or other cells taken into the cell by phagocytosis, or
to breakdown unwanted, or damaged organelles within the cell.

Chloroplasts
are found in the same plant cells.
Like mitochondria, they are surrounded by an envelope made up of two
membranes. Their background materials is called the stroma and it contains
many paired membranes called thylakoids. In places, these forms stacks called
grana. The grana contains chlorophyll, which absorbs energy from sunlight. The
first reactions in the in photosynthesis, called the light-dependent reactions

and photophosphorylation, takes place on the membranes. The final stages

called, the Calvin cycle, takes place in the stroma. Chloroplasts often contain
starch grains, which are storage materials formed from the sugars that are
produced in photosynthesis.

Cell surface membrane

controls what enters and
leaves the cell. These are many membranes within the cell, which help to make
different compartments in which different chemical reactions can take place
without interfering with another.

Nucleus

A relatively large organelle found in

eukaryotic cells, but absent from
prokaryotic cells; the nucleus contains the cells DNA and therefore controls
the activities of the cell.
Nuclear envelope The two membranes, situated closely together, that
surround the nucleus; the envelope is performed with nuclear pores.
Nucleolus A small structure, one or more of which is found inside the
nucleus; the nucleolus is usually visible as a densely stained body; its function
is to manufacture ribosomes using the information in its own DNA.

Centrioles
one of two small, cylindrical structures
found just outside the nucleus in animal cells, but absent from plant cells;
centrioles help control spindle formation during nuclear division.
e) Draw and label low power plan diagram of tissues and organs (
including a transverse section of stem, roots and leaves and calculate
the linear magnification of drawings.

Magnification = measured length of the image /measured

length of the specimen
Length of the actual specimen =
length on the image/
image

magnification ( e.g. rose leaf =

length 4.2cm/ magnification 0.82 = 5cm real length

f) Compare the structure of typical animal and plant cells.

Plant cell
Nucleus
Golgi apparatus
Golgi vesicles
Mitochondria
Ribosomes
Cell surface membrane
SER
RER
Choroplast grana and
envelope
Cytoplasm
Nuclear Pore
Nucleolus
Chromatin
Nuclear envelope
Cell wall
Vacuole
Plasmodesma
Middle lamella

Animal cell
Nucleus
Golgi apparatus
Golgi vesicles
Mitochondria
Ribosomes
Cell surface membrane
SER
RER
Cytoplasm
Nuclear Pore
Nucleolus
Nuclear envelope
Lysosomes
Centrioles
Chromatin
microvilli

g) Calculate linear magnification of drawing and photographs;

h) Calculate actual size of specimens from drawing and photographs;

i) Describe the structure of a prokaryotic cell and compare and contrast

the structure of prokaryotic cells with Eukaryotic cells.
Features

Prokaryotic cells

Cell surface
membrane

Always present

Eukaryotic Animal
cells
Always present

Eukaryotic plant cells

Always present

Cell wall

Always present; made

up of peptidoglycans
Never present

Nucleus and
nuclear
envelope
Chromosomes Contain so called
bacteria chromosomes
- a circular molecule of
DNA not associated with
histones, bacteria may
also contain small circles
of DNA called plasmid
Mitochondria Never present
Chloroplast
Never present, though
some do contain
chlorophy II or other
photosynthesis pigment
RER & SER
Never present
&Golgi
apparatus
Ribosomes
Present, about 18nm
diameter
Centrioles
Never present

Never present
Always present

Always present; made

up of cellulose
Always present

Contains several
chromosomes, each
made up of a linear
DNA molecule
associated with
histone

Contains several
chromosomes, each
made up of a linear
DNA molecule
associated with
histone

Usually present
Never present

Usually present
Sometimes present

Usually present

Usually present

Present about
22nm diameter
Usually present

Present about 22nm

diameter
Never present