Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Strong Bases: soluble compounds containing the hydroxide ion (OH-) that completely
dissociate when dissolved in water
Solutions have a bitter taste and slippery feel
Common solutions are NaOH or KOH
Weak Electrolytes
Substances that produce relatively few ions when dissolved in water
Common weak electrolytes are weak acids and weak bases
Formula HC2H3O2 (acetic acid) indicates 1 acidic and 3 nonacidic hydrogen atoms
Only 1% dissociate
Weak electrolyte therefore a weak acid: any acid that dissociates only to a slight extent in
aqueous solution
Weak base: the resulting solution is a weak electrolyte (very few ions are present)
Most common weak base is ammonia (NH3)
Nonelectrolytes
Substances that dissolve in water but do not produce any ions
Ethanol; entire C2H5OH molecules dispersed in water
Sucrose (C12H22O11); very soluble in water, but produces no ions when it dissolves
4.3: The compositions of Solutions
To perform stoichiometric calculations we must know 2 things:
1. nature of the reaction
2. the amounts of chemicals present in the solutions
Molarity (M): moles of solute per volume of solution (in L)
M=moles of solute/liters of solution
A solution that is 1.0 molar contains 1.0 mole of solute per liter of solution
Solution concentration is always given in terms of the form of the solute before it dissolves
Liters of solution x Molarity = liters of solution x (moles solute/liters soln.)
= moles of solute
Standard solution: a solution whose concentration is accurately known
Dilution
Water is added to concentrated (stock solutions) to achieve the desired Molarity
Moles of solute after dilution = moles of solute before dilution
Dilution procedure involves 2 types of glassware: a pipet and a volumetric flask
Pipets
Measuring pipets: used to measure out volumes when a volumetric pipet is not available
Volumetric pipets (type we used in the first lab)
4.4: Types of Chemical Reactions
Precipitation reactions; acid-base reactions; oxidation reactions
4.5: Precipitation Reactions
A reaction that when 2 solutions are mixed, an insoluble substance (a solid which separates from
the solution) forms.
Reactants: K2CrO4(aq) and Ba(NO3)2(aq); a yellow solid is formed
Ba(NO3)2 contains separated Ba2+ and NO3- ions; KCrO4 contains K+ and CrO4 2Things that will help predict the products:
1. When ions form a solid compound, it must have a zero net charge. Thus the products of
this reaction must contain both anions and cations.
2. Most ionic materials contain only 2 types of ions: one type of cation and one type of
anion (NaCl, KOH, etc.)
Possible combinations are: K2CrO4, KNO3, BaCrO4, and Ba(NO3)2
Has to be KNO3 and BaCrO4 as the other options were reactants
Which is the yellow solid?
K+ and NO3- colorless
CrO4 2- is yellow
K+ and NO3- are left dissolved in the solution; dont for a solid; (aq)
Simple Rules for Solubility of Salts in Water
1. Most nitrate (NO3-) salts are soluble.
2. Most salts of Na+, K+ and NH4+ are soluble.
3. Most chloride salts are soluble. Notable exceptions are AgCl, PbCl2, and Hg2Cl2
4. Most sulfate salts are soluble. Notable exceptions are BaSO4, PbSO4, and CaSO4
5. Most hydroxide salts are only slightly soluble. The important soluble hydroxides are
NaOH, KOH and Ca(OH)2
6. Most sulfide (S 2-), carbonate (CO3 2-) and phosphate (PO4 3-) salts are only slightly
soluble.
Ion interchange: cation from one reactant combines with the anion from the other reactant
4.6: Describing Reactions in Solution
Molecular equation: shows reactants and products
Complete ionic equation: represents the actual forms of the reactants and products in a solution.
All substances that are strong electrolytes are represented as ions.
Spectator ions: ions that do not participate directly in a reaction in solution.
Net ionic equation: includes only those solution components directly involved in the reaction.
Spectator ions are not included.
4.7: Selective Precipitation
Separating the cations by precipitating them one at a time.
Cations Ag+, Ba 2+ and Fe3+
1. Add an aqueous solution of NaCl to solution containing all the cations. Solid AgCl will
form, and can be removed, leaving Ba 2+ and Fe 3+ ions in the solution.
2. Add an aqueous solution of Na2So4 to solution containing Ba 2+ and Fe 3+ ions. Solid
BaSO4 will form and can be removed, leaving only Fe 3+ ions.
3. Add an aqueous solution of NaOH to the solution containing Fe 3+. Solid Fe(OH)3 will
form and can be removed.
Qualitative Analysis: process whereby mixtures of ions are separated and identified.
4.8: Stoichiometry of Precipitation Reactions
Solving a Stoichiometry Problem Involving Reactions in Solution
Identify the species present in the combined solution and determine which reaction occurs
Write the balanced equation for the reaction
Calculate the moles of reactants
Determine which reactant is limiting
Calculate the moles of product or products, as required
Convert to grams or other units, as required
Gravimetric analysis: a method where the amount of a given substance is determined by
forming a precipitate, which is then filtered, dried and weighed.
4.9: Acid-Base Reactions
2. The oxidation state of a monatomic ion is the same as its charge. For example, the ON of the
Na+ ion is +1.
3. In its covalent compounds with nonmetals, hydrogen is assigned an ON of +1. For example,
in compounds HCl, NH3, H20, etc.
4. Oxygen is assigned an oxidation state of -2 in its covalent compounds, such as CO, CO2,
SO2, etc. The exception to this rule occurs in peroxides (O2 2- group), where each oxygen is
assigned an oxidation state of -1; H2O2.
5. In binary compounds the element with the greater attraction for electrons in the bond is
assigned a negative oxidation state equal to its charge in its ionic compounds. For example, F
is always -1. N is usually -3, therefore in NH3, H is +3.
6. The sum of the oxidation states must be zero for all electrically neutral compounds and must
be equal to the overall charge for an ionic species. For example, the sum of the oxidation
states of H and O in water is 0; sum of oxidation states for C and O atoms in CO3 2- is -2.
Attraction for electrons
F>O>N=Cl
Sometimes oxidation state can be a fraction
Fe3O4; 4(-2) = 8 8/3 for Fe
The Characteristics of Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
Characterized by transfer of electrons
Oxidation: an increase in oxidation (a loss of electrons)
Reduction: a decrease in oxidation state (a gain of electrons)
LEO GER
2Na + Cl2 2NaCl
Sodium goes from 0 to +1; oxidized
Chlorine goes from 0 to -1; reduced
Oxidizing agent: electron acceptor
Reducing agent: electron donator.
Whole compound is specified as agent
4.11: Balancing Oxidation-Reduction Equations
Two methods
Oxidation state
reaction method
Oxidation States Method
Find the coefficients for the reactants that will make the total increase in oxidation state balance
the total decrease.
Assign the oxidation states of all atoms
Decide which element is oxidized and determine the increase in oxidation state
Decide which elements is reduced and determine the decrease in oxidation state
Choose coefficients for the species containing the atom oxidized and the atom reduced such that
the total increase in oxidation state equals the total decrease in oxidation state
Balance the remainder of the equation by inspection
Half-Reaction Method
Separate the reaction into 2 half-reactions, one involving oxidation and the other reduction.
Balancing redox Eq. in Acid soln. using half-reaction Method
Write the equations for the oxidation and reduction half-reactions
For each half-reaction