Civil Engineering Materials-Ordinary Concrete

Civil Engineering Materials-Ordinary Concrete
Chapter Four Ordinary Concrete

Catalogue
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Ingredient of Ordinary Concrete
4.3 Workability of Ordinary Concrete
4.4 Strength of Concrete
4.5 Durability of Concrete
4.6 Dimensional Stability
4.7 Mix Proportion Design of Concrete
4.8 Advanced Concrete
4.1 Introduction
4.1.1 What is Concrete?
Concrete is defined as a composite material which consists essentially of a binding medium of
embedded particles or aggregate fragments. In Portland cement concrete, the binder is a mixture of
Portland cement and water. Asphalt and other cements are used to make various types of concrete, but
commonly the term concrete refers to Portland cement concrete.
4.1.2 Origin of Concrete

Concrete can be dated back to Rome palace. In the 1980s, the 100m3 concrete was excavated in
Dadiwan of Qin, an county of Gansu province 5000 years ago in Neolithic age.
4.1.3 Widely usages

Concrete is used exclusively for foundations of buildings, bridges, and other structures. It is used in
dams, canals, aqueducts, and other structures to control and divert water. It is used in highways, streets,
pavements, and sidewalks; thus, it is a major material in the transportation industry.
Concrete is of such importance that almost every civil engineering structure uses concrete in some form.
Materials to make Portland cement and concrete are clean, abundant and non strategic, for they can be
obtained from the earth. Concrete may become more important in the future as the supply of strategic
materials becomes exhausted.
4.1.4 Classification of Concrete

1. In Portland cement concrete, the binder is a mixture of Portland cement and water. Asphalt and other
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cements are used to make various types of concrete, but commonly the term concrete refers to Portland
cement concrete.
2. By apparent density, concrete includes three types:
Heavy concrete: 02600 as shielding materials of atomic energy engineering;
Normal concrete: 0=2000-2500 in several bearing structure;
Lightweight Concrete: 01900 including: Light aggregate concrete and porous concrete.
3. By strength, concrete includes three types: Ordinary concrete, high strength concrete, super strength
concrete.
Ordinary concrete: Compressive strength <60 MPa.
High-strength concrete: Compressive strength>60 MPa.
It is applied largely to the high-rise building, large span bridges and high-strength prefabrication
components and so on.
Super-strength concrete: Compressive strength>80 MPa.
4. By forming or construction technology (Fig.4.1.1)
It includes four kinds of concretes: Deposit concrete, Precast concrete, Premixed concrete and Shotcrete
concrete.
4.1.5 Characteristics of Concrete

The concrete is largely applied to the construction for its excellent technical performance and low cost.
It is characterized by rich raw material, the changeability of its performances, excellent plasticity and
durability, and reinforcement by the steels.
Disadvantage of Concrete are large deadweight and brittle.
Fig.4.1.1 Types of concrete
4.2 Ingredient of Ordinary Concrete

Concrete is made up of paste (cement water), aggregate (sand, gravel) and admixture.
4.2.1 Cement
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1. Selection of Types
Select according to the different environment.
The six general cements are commonly used in Portland cement, Ordinary Portland cement,
Furnance-slag cement, Portland Pozzlana cement, Portland Fly-ash cement and Composite Portland
cement.
2. Selection of Grade
Grade must be selected according to the different design strength grades.
For ordinary concrete the cement is 1.5-2 times the strength of the concrete.
For high strength concrete, it is 0.9-1.5 times the strength of the concrete.
4.2.2 Aggregate
1. Classification
Aggregate can be divided into primary aggregate and recycled concrete aggregate. Primary aggregate,
such as sand and gravel are widely used in engineering.
Most rocks found in the earth's crust can be used as aggregate in concrete. Because of the variety of
physical and chemical characteristics among aggregates, their influence on concrete mixtures is also
varied.
2. Features influence concrete
Physical characteristics influence this behavior, such as particle size distribution, particle shape, surface
texture and hardness. Chemical composition and reactivity influence the properties of hardened concrete.
The maximum amount of aggregate should be used in concrete mixtures
Aggregate generally increases both the quality and the economy of concrete. Each cubic meter of
Portland cement water paste will cost approximately 4 times as much as each cubic meter (solid volume)
of aggregate. Aggregates also have greater dimensional stability, particularly less drying shrinkage, than
Portland cement paste.
Workability requirements limit the amount of aggregate that can be used in concrete mixtures.
Aggregate particles, in effect, float in the paste of the mixture. When there is insufficient paste to fill the
voids in the aggregate particles, the mixture becomes granular, crumbly, and unworkable because of
particle interference.
The following describes the factors which influence the amount of aggregate that can be used.
(1)SlumpAs the aggregate content increases, the slump decreases with no changes in the paste content.
(2)GradingProper grading of aggregate particles decreases the volume of voids among the aggregate
particles, which permits a greater aggregate content in a mixture without particle interference.
(3)Entrained airEntrained air increases the volume of paste in effect and permits an increase in aggregate
content at the same slump.
(4)Particle shape and surface textureThere is usually a smaller volume of voids in rounded and smooth
aggregates.
(5)Water-reducing admixturesDispersing agents commonly referred as water-reducing admixtures which
make the paste more fluid by releasing water in the cement. This permits an increase in the aggregate
content at a given slump.
(6)Viscosity of pasteAn increase in viscosity of paste decreases the allowable aggregate content.
(7)TemperatureHigh temperature increases the viscosity of paste and reduces the aggregate content of
the same slump.
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3. Fine Aggregate-Sand
(1) Definition
It refers to the aggregate whose diameter is less than 5mm.It must be in agreement with
GB/T14684-2001(JGJ52-92).
(2)Classification
Sand is the widely used in primary fine aggregate.
By raw materials
Sand can be divided into natural sand and artificial sand by the sand origin. In natural sand, we have
river sand, sea sand and hill sand.
By technical requirement, it includes three kinds of sand
:Those used in the concrete whose strength grade is more than C60;
:Those used in the concrete whose strength grade is between C30~C60;
:Those used in the concrete whose strength grade is less than C30.
(3)Requirements of Aggregate
Impurities
Impurities hinder the hydration or causes harden cement paste corrosion, and reduce the bond between
cement paste and aggregate.
Types:
micaclaysilt and organic substance.
Damage:
Hinder the bond between paste and aggregate, weaken the strength of concrete, increase the requirement
quantity of water, increase the shrinkage of concrete and bring corrosion to harden cement paste.
Processing methods:
Wash impurities out as requested, if too much in the sand.
The amount of impurities must be in agreement with GB/T14684-2001(JGJ52-92) (Tab.4.2.1).
Tab.4.2.1 Amounts of Impurities (GB/T14684-2001)
Index
Type
Clay content, % <
1.0
2.0
5.0
Clod content, % <
1.0
2.0
Mica, % <
1.0
2.0
2.0
Light matter, % <
1.0
1.0
1.0
Organic substance
(colorimetry)
Eligible
Eligible
Eligible
Sulphide and
sulphate, % <
0.5
0.5
0.5
-4-
Chloride, % <
0.01
0.02
0.06
Particle shape and surface texture

Particle shape, surface texture and their influences in properties are listed in Tab.4.2.2.
Tab.4.2.2 Particle Shape and Surface Texture
Type
River sand
Sea sand
Particle Shape
Surface Texture
Workability
Strength
Round or elliptical
Lubricity
Well
Low
Pointed
Rough
Bad
High
Mountain sand
Particle size gradation
It refers to the distribution of the sand of different diameters.

Grading
region
Accumulated
screening
rate %
10mm
5mm
100
100
100
2.5mm
35~5
25~0
15~0
1.25mm
65~35
50~10
25~0
0.63mm
85~71
70~41
40~16
0.315mm
95~80
92~70
85~55
0.16mm
10090
10090
10090
Screen size
(a) sand of the same diameters

(b) sand of the two kinds of diameters
(c) sand of the three kinds of diameters
Particle size gradation and grading region are listed in Tab.4.2.3 and Tab.4.2.4.
Tab.4.2.3 Particle Size Gradation
Screen size (mm)
Unit screening rate%
Accumulated screening rate%
a1
A1=a1
2.50
a2
A2=a1+a2
1.25
a3
A3=a1+a2+a3
0.63
a4
A4=a1+a2+a3+a4
0.315
a5
A5=a1+a2+a3+a4+a5
0.16
a6
A6=a1+a2+a3+a4+a5+a6
Tab.4.2.4 Grading Region
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Note:
Three grading regions are compartmentalized by accumulative total sieve residue percent of sieve size
with 0.63mm.
Compared with the numbers listed in the table, the accumulative total sieve residue percent of the sand
can go beyond 5% of all the sand except 5mm and 0.63mm.
Grading region grading curve of sand is shown in Fig.4.2.1.
Fig.4.2.1 Grading Region Grading Curve of Sand

Curve analyze:
The curve in the below right region towards I is thicker while it is thinner in the above left towards .
Region I:
The sand of region I is mainly made up of coarse sand, but not for general concrete since it is easy to
bleed but hard to come into forming densely. It is used to make rich concrete.
The SP of region I should be raised to meet with the demands of workability while that of region
should be reduced to guarantee the strength.
Region :
The sand of region is mainly made up of medium sand.
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It is suitable for ordinary concrete.

The sand in region will be taken precedence over while we produce the concrete.
Region :
The sand of region is mainly made up of fine sand.
The concrete mixture made up of it takes on high viscosity and good water retentivity, but it becomes
easily dry shrinkage.
Fineness
It refers to the composite fineness of the sand with different diameters.
Denotation method: it can be denoted by fineness modulus.
Fineness Modulus:
( A2
f
A3
A4 A5 A6)
100 A1
5 A1
According to fineness modulus, we can deicide the types of fineness referring to Tab.4.2.5.
Tab.4.2.5 Types of Fineness
Types of fineness
coarse sand
f =3.1~3.7
medium sand
=2.3~3.0
fine sand
=1.6~2.2
super fine sand
=0.7~1.5
Excellent distribution:
The coarse and fine sand are in appropriate quantity. The voidage ratio is tiny. The total surface area is
small and the quantity of cement paste is low so the workability, density, strength and durability are high.
4. Coarse aggregate
(1) Definition
It refers to the aggregate which has size larger than 5mm. It must be in agreement with
GB/T14685-2001(JGJ53-92).
(2) Classification
According to shape of primary coarse aggregate, it can be divided into gravel and scree. Gravel is the
widely used primary coarse aggregate.
By quality, there are three types:, and . :Those used in the concrete whose strength grade is more
than C60; :Those used in the concrete whose strength grade is between C30-C60; : Those used in the
concrete whose strength grade is less than C30.
(3) Requirements of aggregate
Impurities
Clay content, clod content and the content of needle shape particles and slice shape particles (Fig.4.2.2)
must be in agreement with
GB/T14685-2001(JGJ52-92).
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Fig.4.2.2 Needle and Slice Shape Particles

Details of alkali-aggregate reaction will be introduced later in durability of concrete. If there is potential
danger, the alkali content should be less than 0.6%. A special test is needed when we use the admixture
with potassium and sodium
Particle shape and surface texture
The particle shape and surface texture is the same with that of the sand.
Particle size gradation
The parameter is the same with the sand in the test method of gradation and the calculation, only differs
in the size of sieve pore and the requirements of gradation.
Standard screen size: 2.55.01016202531.540506380100 and so on.
Screen instrument are showed in Fig.4.2.3.
Fig.4.2.3 Screen Instrument

Type of particle size gradation:
There are three types of particle size gradation sequent grading, discontinuous gradation and single
gradation.
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Sequent gradation: every gradation of gravel accounts for a certain proportion in size so that the
workability is excellent and layer is not easy to form layers.
Discontinuous gradation: rid of some particles gradation to reduce porosity and separate out easily so
that high strength concrete or dry concrete can be produced with pounding them.
Single gradation: it is used to form sequent gradation or mix with coarse aggregate in continuous
gradation, but the porosity is bigger and easier to be separated out when it is used alone.
Maximum size
Maximum size refers to upper limit of nominal gradation of gravel.
For example: 520 is a range of nominal gradation, 20mm is the upper line of nominal gradation
Maximum Size (Dmax) can be decided according to the economy, structure Limit and construction
. Economy: Larger the D max is, smaller the specific surface is, less the quantities are, higher the
economy is.
. Structure Limit
According to structure standard, the Dmax should meet the following requirements:
1/4 minimum size of section; 3/4 minimum clear distance of bar; =1/2 thickness of solid floor and
50mm.
. Construction
It is easy to produce segregation, breakage of vane, walling up the tube of pump and under vibration in
mixing, transporting and vibrating, if maximum size is too large.
Aggregate Strength
There are two methods to measure the strength of the aggregate strength: cubic strength of rock and
crushing index of gravel.
The compressive strength of the cube is measured in saturated water. For ordinary concrete: Aggregate
strength 1.5 fcu; for HSC: Aggregate strength 2.0 fcu.
Also select the strength of rock according to the rocks types (Tab.4.2.6).
Tab.4.2.6 Aggregate Strength of different types
Rocks
Strength
Igneous rock
80 MPa
Metamorphic rock
60 MPa
Aqueous rock
30 MPa
Crushing index of gravel (Fig.4.2.4)

Method: put the gravel with the diameter of 10-20mm into the standard cylinder three times, press them
to 200kN and shift them in 2.5mm sieve.
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Press
Sife
Fig.4.2.4 Sketch map to measure Crushing Index
Crushing index
m0 m1
m0
m0mass of dry gravel before crushing

m1mass of dry gravel after crushing and sifting
Crushing index of gravel or scree is listed in Tab.4.2.7 and Tab.4.2.8.
Tab.4.2.7 Crushing Index of Gravel of different types
Types of rock
Aqueous rock
Concrete strength grade
Gravel crushing index%
C55~C40
10
C35
Metamorphic rock or plutonic igneous

rock
C55~C40
C35
C55~C40
Igneous rock
C35
16
12
20
13
30
Tab.4.2.8 Crushing Index of Scree (GB/T14685-2001)

C55-C40
C35
Crushing index (%)
12
16
Two methods: Cubic strength of rock and crushing index of gravel. Cubic strength of rock is used for
strength of high strength concrete. Cubic strength of rock should be accorded with when its disputable
between the two methods.
4.2.3 Water
The water for blending concrete must be clean water. The waste water, whose PH<4 or sulphate
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containment goes beyond, must not be used.

The water, whose sulphate, chloride and sulphide containment goes beyond, must not be used to blend
reinforced concrete and prestressed concrete.
Limit of the Matter in water is listed in Tab.4.2.9.
Tab.4.2.9 Limit of the Matter in Water
Types
Prestressed concrete
Reinforced concrete
Plain concrete
PH
>4
>4
>4
<2000
<2000
<5000
mg/L
<2000
<5000
<10000
Cl-mg/L
<500
<1200
<3500
SO42-mg/L
<600
<2700
<2700
S2-mg/L
<100
Insoluble matter
mg/L
Soluble matter
Containing water content (esp. saturated water content) is shown in Fig.4.2.5.
Fig.4.2.5 Saturated water content
4.2.4 Concrete Admixture

1. Chemical admixture
(1) Introduction
Definition
An admixture is any material added to concrete besides the three principal ingredientsPortland cement
aggregates and water. Admixtures are used in concrete to improve the principal requirements for concrete
mixtures.
The amount of admixture must not exceed 5% of cement content, and admixture can make properties of
the concrete adjusted to requirements.
Classification
Cement admixtures can be classified into the following four types:
The first are those that can improve the rheological behavior of the cement composite, including
water-reducing admixture, air entraining admixture and pumping aid.
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The second ones refer to those used to adjust the setting time and to harden the performance, including
set retarded, hardening accelerating and flash setting admixture.
The third ones are used to improve the durability of the cement, including air entraining admixture,
water-repellent admixture and anti-freezing admixture.
The last ones are used to improve other performances, including air entraining admixtureexpanding
admixtureanti-freezing admixture and coloring admixture and so on.
Application
Using admixtures is one of the most effective ways of improving the concrete strength and performance,
saving on the cement and energy.
Concrete admixtures develop rapidly for their usage in many abroad countries comes up to 60-80%,
even 100%. Nowadays, they have become one of the five components in concrete.
(2) Water-reducing admixture
Definition
Water-reducing admixture permits less water at the same of workability or the mobility increase in the
same amount of water.
Water-reducing admixtures increase workability and quality by more efficient use of the water in a
concrete mixture. By reducing the water, these admixtures densify the concrete and decrease capillary
voids and permeability.
Classification
By effect: It can be classified into ordinary water-reducing admixture and super plasticizer.
The water-reducing rate of the former is less than 10% while that of the latter, also called super
plasticizer or fluid concrete, is more than 10%.
By the effect on setting time: It can also be classified into standard type, set retarder type and coagulant
type.
By the effect on air content: It can also be classified into air entraining type and non air entraining type.
Mechanism
Water-reducing admixture (surfactant) is composed of hydrophilic group-polar group and hydrophobic
group-nonpolar group. When mixed with water, hydrophobic group attaches to cement particle and
hydrophilic group attaches to water.
Mechanism of water-reducing admixture is reflected in the apparent active reaction.
Cement paste flocculation structure is wrapped to reduce the mobility of the admixture. But
water-reducing admixtures can make flocculation structure dissolve so as to improve the mobility and
strength.
The flocculation structure dissolves by the following three ways:
Disassemble cement flocculation by electron repels from the surface of cement particle. Improve the
fluidity of paste by forming a solvate membrane on the particle surface. Extend the hydrating area by
improving the dispersity of the cement particles to improve mobility.
Technical and economic effects
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Technical and economic effects of water-reducing admixture are listed in Tab.4.2.10.

Tab.4.2.10 Technical and economic effects of water-reducing admixture
Cement content
Group effects
Slump
Kg/m3
W/C
mm
Fcu,k (MPa)
Base concrete(not of
water-reducing
admixture)
300
0.62
50
37
Improving mobility
300
0.62
100
38
Improving strength
300
0.56
50
46
Saving cement
270
0.62
50
37.5
Water-reducing admixture in common use

a. Lignin suffocate water-reducing admixture
Definition: Lignin suffocates (M) is the most common one in use. It is made by wood pulp through
sulfonation and dryness.
Application: It applies to large molding, sliding formwork, mass concrete, concrete pumping, and
summer construction and so on.
Performance:
Set retarded activity:
Delay the setting time 1-3hours. Add 0.25% M into lignin suffocate water-reducing admixture. In winter
it must be used with the mixture of hardening accelerator.
Air entraining activity:
Increase the air content from 2% to 3.6% to reduce the strength and improve durability.
The amount and its effects: If 0.2-0.3% lignin suffocates is added, the water-reducing rate will be 10%
or the strength increased by 10-20% by increasing the slump of 10cm.
b. Naphthalene suffocate water-reducing admixture
Brief Introduction: At present, there are varieties of naphthalene suffocate water-reducing admixtures in
China. The most common types include NF, NNO, FDN, UNF, MF, AF and so on.
Applications in five fields: high strength concrete, high performance concrete, liquid concrete, concrete
pumping and winter construction concrete.
Performance: It has advantages over lignin suffocate water-reducing admixture for its violent dispersion
in that water-reducing rate is over 15%, reinforcing rate over 20% and saving cement 10-20%.
Minor set retarded activity but doesnt affect the strength. Most of them are non air entraining types. Its
amount is 0.2-1.0%.
c. Resinous water-reducing admixtures
Introduction: Resinous water-reducing admixtures are one of super-plasticizers.
In China, SM, the main type of resinous water-reducing admixtures, has the perfect water-reducing
effect.
Advantages: It is better than naphthalene suffocate in dispersion, water reducing, and reinforcing. 7d
strength of early strength types is the same with 28d strength of ordinary ones. The 28d strength can
increase by 30-60%.
Disadvantages: The cost is high.
(3) Hardening accelerator
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Definition
It refers to those that improve the strength in early period without affecting that of the later period.
Application
It applies to the construction that is constructed in winter, emergency engineering and time-limited ones.
The use of hardening accelerator can make C20 reach mould removal strength within 16 hours and the
strength allowing floor slab installment on it within 36 hours so as to speed up the construction.
Common hardening accelerator
a. Chloride hardening accelerator
Typical type:
CaCl2 type is most commonly used for its excellent effect, low cost and convenience.
Performance-early strength: Add 0.5-1% chloride and strength of 2-3d can improve 50-100%, and 7d of
strength 20-40%.
Mechanism of early strength:
CaCl2, reacted with C3A and CH, gives new hydrate-calcium oxychloride. Hydrate-calcium oxychloride
is separated in the early period, and formed into the framework. It speeds up the formation of structure of
hardened paste. Meanwhile, the CH concentration reduces. These two factors quicken the C3S hydration.
Thus the strength is improved in the early period.
It can form new hydration, improve speed of hydrate and intensify solubility of cement, so as to improve
early strength.
b. Sulfate hardening accelerator
Typical type:
Sal mirabile are most commonly used.
Performance-early strength:
When it is 1-1.5%, sulfate is added. The concrete strength goes up 70% of design strength in only half of
the time.
Mechanisms (Fig.4.2.7):
c. Organic amine hardening accelerator
Typical type:
TEA is the main type of organic amine water-reducing admixtures. It is pale buttery liquid. Its quantity
is 0.020.05%.
Performance-early strength:
The early strength improves by about 50%. The 28d strength remains the same. It plays the role of slow
setting
Mechanisms:
Compliant in the form of complex ion in aqueous alkali produces complex salt of small solubility
framework with cement hydrate.
Na2SO4Ca(OH)2+H2O
NaOH+CaSO42H2O
CH
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speed of hydrate
Aft
formed into the framework

speed up the formation of structure of paste
improvement of strength in the early period

Fig.4.2.7 Mechanism of early strength of sulfate hardening accelerator
(4) Air entraining admixture
Definition
It refers to the concrete admixture that is added by large quantities of separate, tiny and even bubbles.
Mechanism
It is hydrophobic apparent active substance. It reduces the surface tension and causes the oriented
adsorption in the bubble surface to change the air mixing into separate, tiny and even bubbles.
Performance
It improves durability and workability as well as decrease concrete strength. Air entraining admixtures
improve durability and plasticity, but air entrainment reduces strength.
Air entraining admixtures can change the pore structure, improve durability, increase lubricate of
aggregates, improve plasticity, increase air content and reduce strength.
Application
This type of admixture should always be used where freezing and thawing deterioration occurs. It
reduces the strength unnecessarily in structural concrete.
Common air entraining admixture
Rosin soap and rosin pyrolytic polymer and so on. The amount is 0.005%-0.012%. Introduce
D=0.05-1.25mm air bladder. Make concrete air content to 2%-6%.
(5) Set retarding admixture / Flash setting admixture
a. Set retarding admixture
Definition: It refers to the admixture that can delay the setting time without apparent effects on the
secondary hardening
Common types: molasses and citric.
Application: It applies to mass concrete, hydraulic construction, large moulding, and high temperature
construction, construction using long time scale of mixing or pouring.
b. Flash setting admixture
Definition: It refers to the materials that make concrete accelerating and improve adhesion and stability
of concrete.
Classification: Inorganic salts can be classified by their main components in sodium aluminates, calcium
aluminates and silicate.
Common types: Red star type 2.5%-4%; 711 type 2.5%-3.5%.
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Application: gunite concrete and caulking engineering

Performance: Initial setting time is 5min and final setting time 10min. Strength can be achieved within
one hour. It will improved 2-3 times one day later and reduces to 80-90% of the concrete without it 28 days
later.
(6) Expanding admixture
Definition: This kind of admixtures can compensate shrinkage of concrete and cause self-stressing in
concrete.
Common types: U type expanding admixture
Performance: amount 10%-15%, impermeability improvement.
(7) Anti-freezing admixture
Definition: It makes concrete gain strength normally in negative temperature and plays the role of
freezing point, anti-freezing and accelerating strength gain in concrete.
Common types: NaNO2 and Ca(NO2)2 mixing 1%-8%; CaCl2 and NaCl mixing 0.5%-1%.
Performance: lowing freezing point; anti-freezing; accelerating strength gain
The admixture used in the construction is composite anti-freezing admixture which is compounded of
anti-freezing component, early strength component, reducing water component, even air entraining
component so as to improve the effect on anti-freezing.
2. Mineral admixture
(1)Definition:
It refers to mineral powdery materials blended during the course of mixing concrete for saving cement
and improving the performance of concrete, such as fly ash, silica fume, grounded slag, sintered, clay,
zeolite, and volcanic tuff and so on.
(2)Types in common use
Fly ash, Silica fume, Grounded slag, Sintered, Clay, Zeolite and Volcanic tuff
(3)Fly ash
Definition
It refers to fine powder that is collected from smoke of burning coal.
Property
=1.77~2.43g/cm3, average 2.08g/cm3(China); 1.9-2.9g/cm3(overseas
Classification
It can be divided into dry ash and wet ash by the form of discharging. It can be divided into ash collected
by static electricity and by machine. It can be divided into ground ash and original ash by the degree of
grinding.
Requirement of quality
It includes three grades according to CaO content, fineness, loss on ignition, water requirement ratio,
SO3 content and water content.
First class: reinforced concrete, prestressed concrete (span<6m); Second class: reinforced concrete, plain
concrete; third class: mainly plain concrete.
Effects of fly ash
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There are three effects of fly ash: Pozzolana effect, rolled ball effect and filling effect.
Change porosity structure and improve properties of concrete including workability, strength and
durability.
Blending methods
There are three methods: equal replacement, excess replacement and adscititious.
(4)Silica fume
Definition
It refers to the smoke and dust of absolute fine particle collected through the smoke during the
production of ferrosilicon or silicon steel, whose density 2.1-2.2 g/cm3.
Effect
Improve viscidity and water retention of concrete admixture. Take mobility into consideration.
Improve concrete strength, pore structure and durability.
4.2.5 Influence of Each Ingredient on Concrete Properties

The proportions of ingredients used in concrete must be carefully balanced to produce an optimum
mixture for the purposes intended. Too much or too little of any one ingredient may have an adverse effect
on one of the important properties of the resulting concrete (Tab.4.2.11).
Tab.4.2.11 Influence of each principal ingredient on the properties of concrete
Ingredient
Quality
Workability
Economy
Aggregate
Increases
Decreases
Increases
Portland cement
Water
Increases
Decreases
Increases
Increases
Decreases
Increases
1. Aggregates
Most of the rocks found in the earth's crust can be used as aggregate in concrete. Because of the variety
of physical and chemical characteristics among aggregates, their influence on concrete mixtures is also
varied. Physical characteristics such as particle size distribution, particle shape, surface texture, and
hardness influence this behavior. Chemical composition and reactivity influence the properties of hardened
concrete.
The maximum amount of aggregate should be used in concrete mixtures. Aggregate generally increases
both the quality and the economy of concrete. Each cubic meter of Portland cement water paste will cost
approximately 4 times as much as each cubic meter (solid volume) of aggregate. Aggregates also have
greater dimensional stability, particularly less drying shrinkage, than Portland cement paste.
Workability requirements limit the amount of aggregate that can be used in concrete mixtures.
Aggregate particles, in effect, float in the paste of the mixture; and when there is insufficient paste to fill
the voids in the aggregate particles, the mixture becomes granular, crumbly, and unworkable due to particle
interference. The following describes the factors which influence the amount of aggregate.
a. SlumpAs the aggregate content increases, the slump decreases with no changes in the paste content.
b. GradingProper grading of aggregate particles decreases the volume of voids among the aggregate
particles, which permits a greater aggregate content in a mixture without particle interference.
- 17 -
c. Entrained airEntrained air, in effect, increases the volume of paste and permits an increase in
aggregate content at the same slump.
d. Particle shape and surface textureThere is usually a smaller volume of voids in rounded, smooth
aggregates.
e. Water-reducing admixturesDispersing agents commonly referred as water-reducing admixtures make
the paste more fluid by releasing water in the cement. This permits an increase in the aggregate content at a
given slump.
f. Viscosity of pasteAn increase in viscosity of paste decreases the allowable aggregate content.
TemperatureHigh temperature increases the viscosity of paste and reduces the aggregate content for the
same slump.
2. Portland Cement
Portland cement and water react chemically and produce a calcium silicate hydrate. It takes a
comparatively small amount of water (estimated to be about 30 percent of the cement) to complete the
hydration reaction. A paste with this much water, however, is stiff and unworkable, and an additional
amount of water is required for sufficient fluidity of the paste and workability of the concrete. The ratio of
water to cement (w/c ratio) determines the quality of the paste and, to a large extent, controls the quality of
concrete. It follows that additional cement added to concrete improves the quality by reducing the w/c
ratio.
In lean concrete, additional amount of Portland cement improves the workability of the concrete. This
trend is limited, however, and an excessive amount of cement tends to make concrete mixtures sticky and
lacking of mobility. Hardened concrete containing excessive cement and water will increase drying
shrinkage.
3. Water
Water is essential to hydrate Portland cement and provides workability to concrete mixtures. Too much
water added to the mixture is detrimental to the quality of concrete. More water than required added to
hydrate Portland cement dilutes the paste, separates the calcium silicate gel crystals, and weakens the gel
structure. Uncombined water leaves capillary voids in the paste, which are involved in most freezing and
thawing mechanisms. The proportion of water to cement is critical in producing quality, and the ratio of
aggregate to paste is critical in obtaining workability and volume stability.
4. Admixtures
An admixture is any material added to concrete besides the three principal ingredientsaggregates,
Portland cement, and water. Admixtures are used in concrete to improve the principal requirements for
concrete mixtures. For example, air-entraining agents improve durability and plasticity, but air entrainment
reduces strength. This type of admixture should always be used where freezing and thawing deterioration
occurs, but it reduces the strength unnecessarily in structural concrete not exposed to freezing and thawing
in a saturated condition. Water-reducing admixtures increase workability and quality by more efficient use
of the water in a concrete mixture. By reducing the water, these admixtures densify the concrete and
decrease capillary voids and permeability.
- 18 -
Admixtures which retard or accelerate the time of set or strength gain do not generally influence the
properties of plastic concrete. The following are the use of some main admixtures in common use in
concrete.
Air-entraining agentsImprove durability and workability; Allow the additional aggregate
Water-reducing agentsIncrease slumpReduce w/c ratioAllow the additional aggregate at the same
slump and same w/c ratio
Accelerating agentsAccelerate hydration and setting of cement; Produce early strength
Retarding agentsRetard hydration and setting of cement
It should be noticed that Pozzolans also can be added to concrete composite as admixtures to improve
concrete properties. For example, Pozzolans can be used to reduce alkali-aggregate reaction, temperature,
permeability and increase sulfate resistance.
4.3 Workability of Ordinary Concrete

4.3.1 The principle requirements for concrete
The principle requirements for concrete listed in the order of importance are workability, strength,
durability and economy.
4.3.2 Workability of Fresh Concrete

1. Definition workability
(1)Fresh Concrete
Fresh Concrete is the concrete before hardened, e.g. concrete composite.
(2)Workability (Fig.4.3.1)
The properties of Fresh Concrete are sufficiently workable to be mixed, transported, and placed
properly.
Fig.4.3.1 concrete in construction

2. Importance of workability
Concrete which cannot be placed properly will not produce quality structures regardless of the qua1ity
of the mixture. Concrete may be considered workable for one structure, but may not be suitable for
another.
3. Mobility
The capacity for a concrete mixture to readily respond to vibration and completely fill all parts and
- 19 -
corners of a form is defined as mobility. It overcomes interior friction, paste viscidity and fiction between
aggregates in composite.
4. Viscidity
Viscidity is the property of a concrete mixture which allows molding without segregation.
Segregation: Composition of concrete mixture segregates by their density and grain size.
5. Water retention
It refers to the capacity to prevent water bleeding from concrete composite.
Bleeding:
It refers to the phenomenon that water flows from composite and up to the concrete surface.
Harm:
(1) Bleeding path or water package can be caused deteriorate durability;
(2) Settlement can be caused crazing in concrete;
(3) Floating paste can be caused wreck the bond to new concrete.
4.3.3 Evaluation of Workability

1. Slump Test
(1)Index
Slump is a common field control test for concrete mobility. It is the subsidence of fresh concrete upon
removal of a 12-in truncated cone form. Plasticity and water retention also can be evaluated by slump test.
(2)Application range:
Dmax40mmSlump10mm
(3)Testing method:
Put the concrete composite in a slump cone (Fig.4.3.2) in standard methods, and smooth the top surface,
and then remove the cone, in the end measure the composite subsidence due to gravity.
Slump=height before subsidence-height after subsidence
Fig.4.3.2 Slump Cone

(4)Evaluation
Mobility
The larger the slump is, the greater the mobility is.
Viscidity
There are possibilities after kicking the side of composite. (good, poor)
Water retention
- 20 -
More paste bleeding means poor capacity of water retention and less paste bleeding means good
capacity of water retention.
2. Vebe Consistometer Test
(1) Application range
Dry composite with D40mm, Vebe Consistometer is 5~30sslump10mm
(2) Testing Method
Put the composite of truncated cone shape in the container of Vebe Consistometer instrument and make
the transparent disc touch to the top of cone, then put on vibrating table and record the time when the disc
is covered with paste.
Fig4.3.3 Vebe Consistometer Instrument
4.3.4 Selection and classification of composite slump

1. Principle
We should abide by the principle to select low mobility with the guarantee of construction operation and
dense placement.
2. Selection
Select mobility by member cross section, condensing methods and reinforcement spacing.
3. Slump selection for concrete structure (vibrated by machine) (Tab4.3.1).
Tab4.3.1 Slump selection for concrete structure (vibrated by machine)
Slump
(mm)
Type
Application
>160
Large viscidity
Pumping concrete, structures that have narrow transact and reinforcing

steel bar distribute especially densely
100-150
Viscidity
Pumping concrete, structures that have narrow transact and reinforcing

steel bar distribute densely
50-90
Plasticity
Normal concrete structure
10-40
Low plasticity
Vibrate intensely, prefabricate member, base and steel less thick structure
4.3.5 Main influencing factors of workability

1. Influence from ingredients
(1) W/C (water to cement ratio, cement consistency)
When cement quantity is fixed, W/C is critical in producing quality.
- 21 -
Low W/C will produce dry composite and small slump.

If excessively low W/C,
Composite will breakdown and low viscidity will be condensed, which results
in poor strength and durability.

High W/C will produce thin composite and large slump.
If excessively high W/C, it tends to segregate and bleed, which results in poor strength and durability.
With proper W/C, composite can be condensed favorably and stability.
W/C should be selected according to the requirements of concrete strength and durability.
(2) Quantity of paste (quantity of mixing water, ratio of paste to aggregate)
When W/C is fixed, quantity of paste is crucial in obtaining workability and volume stability.
More paste will produce greater mobility.
Excessive paste will produce excessive mobility and low viscidity, which results in poor strength and
durability.
Proper quantity of paste can fulfill the requirements of mobility, viscidity and capacity of water
retention.
It should be determined according to the requirements of construction.
How to adjust mobility:
Function of water:
Water is essential to hydrate Portland cement and provides Workability to concrete mixtures.
The mixture with too much water is detrimental to concrete quality.
Reasons:
Dont add water singly when the mobility of composite is to be adjusted; otherwise it will cause
segregation and deteriorate the strength and durability of concrete.Harmfulness of too much water
Too much water added to the mixture is detrimental to the quality of concrete. More water in-required to
hydrate Portland cement dilutes the paste, separates the calcium silicate gel crystals, and weakens the gel
structure. Uncombined water leaves capillary voids in the paste, which are involved in most freezing and
thawing mechanisms.
The proper method is to alter the quantity of cement paste to improve the mobility with the stability of
W/C.
(3) Sp
Definition
Sp is the ratio of sand to gravel. It determines the void and surface area of aggregates (w and c are
fixed).
- 22 -
Influence
With low Sp, it lacks of mortar so it results in poor lubrication of the surface of aggregates and poor
mobility, which tends to segregate. With high Sp in large surface area, cement mortar wraps up sand and
fills paste, which results in low mobility.
Optimized Sp (Fig.4.3.4): When W and C are fixed; the Optimized Sp makes the composite gain the
highest mobility with favorable viscidity and water retention. Or, the Optimized Sp makes the composite
gain the required mobility with the least cement used.
The principle of Sp selection
Method: selecting Sp according to test and experience.
General principle: select small Sp with the guarantee that segregation will not happen and the composite
can be placed densely
slump
Amount of cement
Sp
Sp
Sp
Sp
Fig.4.3.4 Sketch map of optimized Sp

Select small Sp when gravel has great maximum dimension, proper size distribution and smooth surface.
Select small Sp when fine sand is used. Select small Sp when composite is thick with low w/c. Select large
Sp when composite has a high mobility avoiding segregation. Select small Sp when using admixture.
Select large Sp when there is a requirement for permeability.
How to adjust workability
Low slump increases the cement paste with fixed W/C; High slump increases the use of aggregates with
- 23 -
fixed Sp.
(4) Aggregates
Shape and surface texture
The relationship between shape/surface texture and mobility is that: Gravel or pit sand in coarse texture
and multi-angle results in low mobility; smooth and round scree has high mobility.
Size distribution
The relationship between size distribution and mobility: Proper size distribution has small voidage (W is
certain) and high mobility; poor size distribution has large voidage (W is certain) and poor mobility.
Large particle size
The relationship between larger particle size and mobility: Large particle size has small surface area
(cement paste is certain) and high mobility.
(5) Admixture
Admixture also has effects on the mobility of the concrete composite. This problem has been discussed
in previous section.
2. Influence from environment conditions
(1) Time (Fig.4.3.5)
By hydration and vaporization, water is absorbed by aggregates and mobility decreases accordingly.
The relationship between slump and time is shown in Fig.4.3.5. Slump decreases while time increases.
Slump test should be preceded in 15 minutes after preparation of the composite in construction.
slump
time
Fig.4.3.5 Relationship between Slump and Time
(2) Temperature (Fig.4.3.6)
Mobility decreases with temperature rising. Temperature must be noticed to get a required workability.
More mixed water in summer should be used than in winter.
slump
- 24 -
temperature
Fig.4.3.6 Relationship between Slump and Temperature
(3) Test condition
Test conditions also have effects on the mobility of the concrete composite. Device condition-parameter.
Concrete condition-humidity, smoothness.
4.3.6 Approach to improve workability

1. When slump is too small, improve the quantity of cement paste for the mobility with the stability of
W/C.
2. When slump is too large, improve the quantity of aggregates to decrease the mobility with the stability
of Sp.
3. Choose the optimized Sp.
4. Improve the gradation of aggregates.
5. Choose coarse aggregates if possible.
6. Use admixture.
4.4 Strength of Concrete

4.4.1 Quality of Concrete
The quality of concrete is measured by its strength, durability, and dimensional stability.
1. Strength
Hardened concrete must have sufficient strength to resist stresses from 1oads which may be imposed on
a structure. The strength must also be sufficiently high to allow for variations in concrete mixtures.
2. Durability
Concrete must be able to withstand forces of deterioration such as freezing and thawing, wetting and
drying, erosion and chemical attack.
3. Dimensional stability
Quality concrete should have a minimum of shrinkage or expansion because of either outside forces or
chemical reactions within the concrete itself.
4.4.2 Deformation under load and damage process

1. Deformation under load and damage process
(1) Damage type under compressive load;
(2) Original crack;
(3) Damage process-one-axis static compression.
2. Damage type under compressive load
There are three damage types of concrete under compressive load. Damage types, the reason and
possibility of these kinds are illustrated in Tab.4.4.1 and Fig.4.4.1.
Tab.4.4.1 Damage type under load, reason and possibility
damage type
reason to cause
- 25 -
possibility
hardened cement damage
cause by low grade cement
appear often
Interface damage
caused by interface cracks;
appear often
coarse aggregates damage
normally, frock>fcu
appear seldom
Fig.4.4.1 Damage types under compressive load

3. Original crack
The interface damage is likely to happen because there are original cracks in interface.
Original cracks refer to the cracks formed in the interface of coarse aggregates and mortar before the
concrete is loaded. Sketch map of original crack is illustrated in Fig.4.4.2.
water package
crack
coarse aggregates
mortar
Fig.4.4.2 Sketch map of original crack

Types of original crack: dry shrinkage, cold contract, volume decrease, settlement, plastic shrinkage and
bleeding path forming.
4. Damage process under one-axis static compression
(1) Method
The relation between deformation and interior crack development can be found by mechanic test and
microscope observation.
(2) Mechanism
With load increasing, concrete deformation increases with micro-cracks appearing and developing in the
concrete until the concrete is damaged. Concrete compressive instrument is shown in Fig.4.4.3.
- 26 -
Fig.4.4.3 Picture of concrete compressive instrument

Compression-deformation curve of concrete (deformation, ultimate load)
interface cracks develop slowly;
Interface crack increase;
cracks appear in mortar and continuous cracks appear;
continuous cracks develop quickly;
cracks develop slowly;
cracks develop quickly
5. Relation between damage process and interior crack development
The following Tab.4.4.2 illustrated the relation between damage process and interior crack development.
Tab.4.4.2 Relation between damage process and interior crack development
Period
Load
Interior cracks
-OA
elastic limit
(30% of ultimate load)
not obvious development
-AB
critic load (70%-90% of

ultimate load)
<
ore cracks appear (only at

interface)
-BC
ultimate load
<<
cracks develop to mortar and

continuous cracks appear
-CD
Exceeding ultimate load
increases largely
continuous cracks develop and

concrete is damaged
4.4.3 Definition of strength

1. Cubic compressive strength of concrete
(1) Definition
The compressive strength of 150150150mm cube cured in standard age of 28days.
(2) Standard condition
- 27 -
Tep=203, RH>90% cured in standard condition.

(3) Instruments
Instruments of strength test are shown in Fig.4.4.4.
Fig. 4.4.4 Instruments of strength test
(l)
Pt90%
t
Fig.4.4.5 Sketch map of assurance factor of concrete -P%
t
0
2. Assurance factor of concrete (Fig.4.4.5)
Assurance factor of concrete-P% refers to the probability of the strength beyond the designed strength in
strength ensemble.
3. Standard cubic compressive strength of concrete
Standard cubic compressive strength of concrete with the assurance factor of 95%.
(1) fcu,k is the strength according which to design structures
(2) fcu,k is used in quality control
(3) fcu,k is used in engineering acceptance check 1.15 fcu,k, fcu, min0.95 fcu,k
(4) f m is average value of strength.
4.4.4 Strength grade of common Concrete

Normal concrete strength is classified according to fcu,k. Method to explain strength grade and the 12
- 28 -
grades of normal concrete are C7.5, C10, C15, C20, C25, C30, C35, C40, C45, C50, C55, C60.
4.4.5 Other strength

1. Prism compressive strength fcp
The compressive strength of 150150300mm prism is cured in standard condition in age of 28 days.
The relations of Prism compressive strength and compressive strength are:
fcp=0.70.8fcu
2. Tensile strength
Tensile strength is tested through split tensile test.
(1) Principle
Fig.4.4.6 is the ketch map of split tensile test. Apply linear load
distributed evenly on two opposite surfaces, thus the tension
stress will be produced on the vertical surface affected by the
external force. This force will be calculated by the elastic theory.
(2) Formula
Split tensile test strength-fts
f ts
2p
A
0.637
P
A
Fig.4.4.6
Sketch map of split tensile test
Pdamage load, N;
Asplit area of specimen, mm.
3. Bending strength (Fig.4.4.7)
Middle third point loading experiment test;
Specimen: 150150600(550) beam specimen;
Formula:
fm
PL
bh 2
Fig.4.4.7 Sketch map of bending test
4.4.6 Influencing factors

1. Strength grade of cement
Strength grade of cement are important to the strength of concrete.
When the mix proportion of concrete is fixed, the higher the cement grade, the higher the strength of
hardened cement paste, binding with aggregate and the aggregate strength. The prerequisite of the above
rules is the density of the concrete.
2. W/C
The concrete strength is determined by W/C, when the types and strength of cement are the same.
(1) If W/C in a certain range(concrete density)drops, the strength will climb up.
(2) If excessively small W/C (concrete non-density) W/C drops, voidage will increases and the strength
drops.
- 29 -
The water needed in normal hydration is 23% of the cement (W/C=0.23). However, in order to have the
excellent mobility for the concrete composite, the water should be 40%~70% of the cement (W/C=0.4 ~
0.7).
The extra water leaves lots of pores in the concrete, thus reduces the actual loaded area, concentrates the
stress, and decreases the strength of the concrete.
Velocity mixing, ultrasonic vibration, high frequency vibration, multi frequency vibration used in the
current project will lessen the mixing water, exclude air, improve the density and strength of the concrete.
3. Strength formula of the concrete
f cu
fc
Afce
C
W
Kc f
B
b
ce
W/C0.30.8
fcu-compressive strength of concrete in the age of 28 days (MPa);
fce-actual compressive strength of cement in the age of 28 days (MPa);
f ceb -compressive strength of cement in the age of 28d;

Kc extra-coefficient of cement (1.13);A, Bempirical coefficient, related to the types of aggregate;
gravel
A =0.46 B=0.07
scree
A =0.48 B=0.33
Application range: plastic concrete and low plastic concrete4. Factors of aggregate
The strength of coarse aggregate, particle size and gradation are important to the concrete strength.
(1) When the aggregate strength is high, the crack expands and passes over the interface between aggregate
and cement, thus the concrete strength is increased.
(2) surface texture: W/C0.65, no effect; W/C0.4, fcu =1.38fcu,k
(3) DMAX has smaller effect on ordinary concrete. When HSC and DMAX goes up, strength will drop (effect
of dimension)
Obviously aggregates play an important role in producing strength in concrete. The shearing strength of
an aggregate particle itself may control the strength across a shear plan when the bond between the
aggregate and the paste is strong enough to force the shear plane through the aggregate particles rather than
around them. This is usually true in lightweight aggregate concretes.
a. surface texture
Angular particles and rough surface textures will generally produce higher-strength concrete with the
same quality of paste (equal water-cement ratio) but require a higher paste content. The gel structure of
hydrated Portland cement tends to permeate a rough, porous surface of an aggregate particle and creates
better bond. Angular aggregate particles will also create greater aggregate interlock and force shearing
stresses through the aggregate particles.
b. particle shape
Since the hardened cement paste provides stability, there is no special requirement for crushed
aggregates like in asphaltic concrete pavements. Rounded aggregates have a lower void content requiring
- 30 -
less paste and less cement for a given water-cement ratio. Rounded aggregates also produce more
workable concrete.
The advantages and disadvantages of crushed and rounded aggregates tend to balance out. It has been
found that in concrete mixes containing an equal amount of cement, the strength is also nearly equal,
regardless of whether crushed or rounded aggregates are used. The lower water-cement ratio obtained
when rounded aggregate is used balances the better strength-producing properties achieved when crushed
aggregate is used.
c. maximum size of aggregate
There has long been consensus that the largest size of aggregate practicable should be used to produce
quality concrete. The larger the maximum size of aggregate, the fewer voids are left to fill with paste. This
is important in the construction of concrete dams and other massive structures where the heat of hydration
cannot readily escape and the thermal coefficient of expansion becomes a problem in dimensional stability.
With large-size aggregates, a minimum amount of cement is required for high-quality, economical
concrete.
d. aggregate-paste bond
It is possible to produce concrete with higher strength when smal1er maximum-size aggregates are used
because of the increase in total bonding surface of the aggregate particles. For example, the surface area of
an equal amount of 3/4 aggregate is about double that of 11/2 aggregate, if we assume that the aggregate
particles are spheres.
In a given plane of shear, therefore, the 3/4 aggregate will have about 2 times as much bonding surface
as the 11/2 aggregate.
The maximum size of aggregate has the influence on the strength of concrete. In this case, the maximum
strength that a given concrete can reach is limited by the aggregate size. Larger-size aggregates have the
highest strength when the quality of paste controls. As the bond strength between the paste and the
aggregate particles begins to control, the concretes having smaller maximum-size aggregate produce
higher strengths.
5. Curing condition
The concrete strength is influenced by the degree and speed of cement hydration, which is affected by
the humidity and temperature. Higher the temperature is, faster the speed of cement hydration is, higher the
concrete strength is. Larger the humidity is, higher degree of cement hydration is. Relationship among
strength, temperature and damping age of concrete are shown in flash, Fig.4.4.8 and Fig.4.4.9.
non-frozen
f
40
frozen after 7 days
30
20
frozen after 1 day

10
0
age
Fig.4.4.8 Influence of temperature to strength
- 31 -
f28(%)
Damped for a long time
140
120
100
80
60
40
Damped for 14 days
Damped for 7 days
20
0
Damped for 1 day

9
Age (d)
365
Fig.4.4.9 Relationship between strength and damping age of concrete

The fixed temperature and relative humility in a certain time will guarantee the normal development of
strength and other performances of concrete after the formation of concrete. There are three types of curing:
Natural cure, steam cure and autoclaved cure.
(1) Natural cure
Cured at the natural temperature and in the natural condition.
P.P.P.OP.S should be cured in more than 7 days;
P.P and P.F should be cured in more than 14 days;
The aluminous cement should be cured in more than 3 days.
(2) Steam cure
Steam cure: pressure is1 standard atmospheric pressure; temperature>100.
The steam cure can improve Portland cement with mineral admixture for 1040% in the age of 28
days;
P.P.and P.O can reduce 1015%.
f
Mpa
(3) Autoclaved cure

Pressure 8 standard
atmospheric pressure;
Temperature > 174.5 ;
Place: autoclave.
(4) ageFormula: f28=fn (lg28/lgn)
f28=fn (log28/logn)fnn days strength of concrete
f2828 days strength of concreteApplication range:
Cured in standard condition; 32.542.5 grade P.O (n>3)
6. Testing conditions
- 32 -
7d
28d
age
Fig.4.4.10 The relations of compressive strength and age
The shapes, dimensions and surface texture of specimen and experimental instrument and operation are
important to the concrete strength.
(1) Hoop effect
When the concrete specimen is suffered by the axis compression, the traverse deformation of
compression panel is smaller than that of the concrete. Thus the contacting surface between specimen and
compression panel is influenced by the centric constraint, which is effective in the range of
3 / 2a and
improve the concrete strength. After the damage of the specimen, a complete pyramid is formed upper and
below.
(2) Size effect
Effects of size to concrete strength are listed in Tab.4.4.3.
Tab.4.4.3 Effects of size to concrete strength
aggregate Dmaxmm size of specimen mm
60
40
31.5
200
150
100
hoop effect
strength
conversion coefficient
feebleness
low
strong
high
1.05
1.00
0.95
Size of specimen 3Dmax

7. Influence of Admixtures on Strength
Admixtures influence the strength of concrete in different ways. Air-entraining agents reduce strength;
water-reducing admixtures increase strength by permitting a reduction in the water-cement ratio.
Accelerating agents produce higher early strength, and retarding agents delay the initial strength gain.
(1)Air-entraining Agents
As the gel structure of Portland cement paste becomes more porous, its resistance to stress decreases.
Air voids between the surface of aggregate and the gel structure decrease the bond. The influence of
entrained air on concrete strength is shown in Fig.4.4.11. This figure indicates that where the water-cement
ratio is the same, entrained air will reduce the strength of concrete about 5 percent for each percent of
entrained air.
Fig.4.4.11 Influence of entrained air on the strength of concrete having the same w/e ratio.
Entrained air increases the workability of concrete, which permit a reduction in water requirement. This
- 33 -
increases the strength for a given amount of cement.

For lower cement contents, entrained air actually increases the strength of concrete. For high-strength
concrete, however, entrained air causes a significant loss in strength.
(2)Water-reducing Admixtures
Water-reducing admixtures are widely accepted as a means of increasing slump and workability without
sacrificing strength and qua1ity. A second option is to reduce the water content and water-cement ratio
without decreasing the slump or workability.
For example, assume the water content is reduced by 10percent. In a typical mix, a 10 percent reduction
in water will lower the water-cement ratio from 55 percent by weight of cement to 50 percent. From
Fig.4.4.12, this indicates an increase in strength of 4MPa.
Fig.3.2 Typical W/C ratio-strength curves.

(3)Pozzolans
When pozzolans are added to a concrete mix, they add another cementing material which combines with
lime and soluble alkalies. When a suitable pozzolan is used as a partial replacement for Portland cement,
the early strength of the concrete is reduced, but the strength of concrete at later ages, when the pozzolanic
action is, complete, is not significantly changed.
When pozzolans are added, in addition to the regular amount of Portland cement, they increase the
strength of concrete; in some cases, very high strength concrete has been produced.
Accelerating and Retarding Admixture
As their name implies, accelerating and retarding admixtures either accelerate or retard the hydration
reaction of Portland cement.
(4) Accelerating agent
Calcium chloride is the most common accelerating agent. The major advantage of accelerating agents is
to speed up the hydration and setting of cement in cold weather, which produces reasonable finishing times
and reduces the time of protection from freezing. Calcium chloride cannot be used in prestressed concrete
and should not be used in any concrete where corrosion of reinforcing steel is critical.
(5)Retarding admixtures
Retarding admixtures are useful in hot weather to keep concrete plastic and prevent setting and cold
joints before successive layers of concrete can be placed. Retarding agents do not decrease slump loss of
fresh concrete, nor do they reduce the strength gain of concrete after set has taken place. Many waterreducing admixtures are also set-retarding admixtures.
4.4.7 Approaches to improve strength

- 34 -
1. High-grade cement and quick hardening and high early strength cement
2. Using dry and hard concrete makes porosity decrease and density improved, fierce vibration, ordinary
concrete strength.
3. Hydrothermal treatment can improve efficiency, save space and increase strength.
4. Employing the mechanic mixing, vibration, strong mixing and high frequency vibration
5. Blending agent and mineral admixture; predicting the concrete development; producing HSC, HPC and
so on.
4.5 Durability of Concrete

4.5.1 Definition
It refers to that concrete can resist the influence of exterior corrosive substance and maintain good
usability and complete appearance so that it can maintain the safety and usability of the structure. That is
to say that concrete can maintain stable quality after being used for a long time.
It includes:
(1) Anti-permeability;
(2) Anti-freezing;
(3) Anti-corrosion;
(4) Anti-carbonate;
(5) Anti-abrasion;
(6) Resistance to alkali-aggregate reaction and so on.
4.5.2 Importance of Durability

Concrete as a suitable structural material must be able to withstand the forces of deterioration. The most
important of these include freezing and thawing action; chemical attack; abrasion; alkali-aggregate
reaction.
In cold climates the most serious and persistent deterioration force in concrete is freezing and thawing.
When water freezes into ice, it expands about 9 percent of its original volume and exerts tremendous force
on any confining vessel. In concrete, water-filled voids are subject to these pressures. Hydrated Portland
cement gel contains voids of different sizes.
The loss of life and properties caused by sudden early destruction of material should be paid much
attention to.
Examples of deteriorate of concrete in engineering are shown in Fig.4.5.1.
Fig.4.5.1 Deteriorate of concrete in engineering
- 35 -
The costs of structure repair and the maintenance caused by material destruction account much
proportion in the whole construction budget. 40% of the construction investment in developed countries is
spent on repair and maintenance of the existing structure while the rest goes to the new structure
(Fig.4.5.2).
Fig.4.5.2 Percent of the constructure investment
4.5.3 Anti-permeability
1. Definition
It refers to the ability to resist the permeability from compressive water. It is one of the most important
symbols of durability. It influences the anti-freezing and anti-corrosion of the concrete directly. Instrument
in anti-permeability test is shown in Fig.4.5.3.
Fig.4.5.3 Instrument in anti-permeability test

2. Void system in hardened concrete
Several types of voids occur in concrete and are classified according to size and origins:
(1) Gel pores. Gel pores are the interstitial cavities among the hydration products of Portland cement. Gel
pores are estimated to be about 1.5 to 2.0 nm in diameter.
(2) Capillary cavities. Capillary cavities are estimated to average about 500 nm in diameter and are usually
formed by excess uncombined water not required for hydration.
(3) Entrained air. When air-entraining agents are used, billions of tiny spheres of air are introduced into the
gel structure. These are many times larger than capillary voids and will vary from lm to l mm or more in
- 36 -
size.
(4) Entrapped-air. If concrete is not completely compacted, pockets of air are left among the aggregate
particles. They commonly collect beneath particles of coarse aggregate and are irregular in shape. When
they show on a formed surface, they are unsightly and indicate poor workmanship. If these large pockets of
air are filled with water, when frozen, they exert enough force to fracture the concrete. Fortunately, large
voids are seldom completely filled with water.
3. Porosity and Permeability
It is necessary for any of the various voids in concrete to become filled with water before any of the
deteriorating mechanisms of freezing and thawing operate. Gel pores are too small to significantly
contribute to permeability, and the air voids are not connected. It is the capillary voids that become filled
with water and permit the ingress of moisture into concrete. They tend to rise and collect under particles of
aggregate, thus providing channels for water to penetrate. The capillary porosity can be reduced by
reducing the amount of uncombined water in the Portland cement paste. Low w/c ratios and low
mixing-water content will reduce permeability. Although normal amounts of entrained-air voids increase
the porosity of concrete, they do not tend to increase permeability. Being larger, spherical disconnected
voids, they tend to stop capillary flow through concrete.
4. Permeability Grade
The maximum hydraulic pressure (MPa) can be tested under the regulation in 28 days. For example, P2
P4P8 means the ability to resist 0.20.40.8 MPa water pressure without water penetrating.
5. Steps to improve the anti-permeability
Improving density and pore structure and so on, such as reducing W/C, air-entraining admixture and
expanding admixture.
4.5.4 Freezing Resistance

1. Definition
It refers that concrete can resist circles of freezing and thawing after saturation with water. Concrete in
cold region should have strong anti-freezing ability after contacting with water or suffering from freezing.
The density, pores quantity and structure and water filling are all the important factors regarding to
anti-freezing. Instrument in freezing resistance test is shown in Fig.4.5.4.
Fig.4.5.4 Instrument in freezing resistance test
- 37 -
2. The following mechanisms have been suggested as being contributing factors in freezing and thawing
deterioration.
(1) Critical saturation
Unless a void is filled, freezing water can expand and fill the void. The critical saturation point is above
91 percent since water will expand about 9 percent upon freezing.
(2) Osmosis
The gel structure may be considered a porous membrane, and any void containing a solution of water
which has a greater concentration of alkalies and sa1ts will draw water from the surrounding gel structure.
Moisture may also be drawn from the soil or water in contact with the concrete, which increases the
likelihood of critical saturation. Forces resulting from osmosis are in an opposite direction to the expansion
forces of freezing water and therefore add to the pressures exerted in the gel structure.
(3) Hydraulic pressure
Water does not freeze instantaneously, but ice crystals start forming within the solution. As freezing
progresses, the ice crystals grow larger until they completely fill a void. During the freezing process in
capillaries of hardened cement, the frozen water expands and forces the unfrozen water into the
surrounding gel structure. Water in the gel pores will not freeze because the gel pores are so small that ice
crystals cannot form and the gel-pore water exists as super-cooled water. The pressure will build, unless
there is flow away from the void, and the gel structure wil1be destroyed.
The comparatively large entrained-air voids provide an escape for the water pressure. The pressure
developed in the gel structure will depend on:
The coefficient of permeability of the gel structure;
The distance from the capillary void to the air void boundary;
The rate of freezing.
When the entrained-air voids in concrete are spaced sufficiently close, the hydraulic pressure
mechanism does not operate.
(4) Diffusion
When water freezes in a capillary, its energy level is reduced. The surrounding gel water has a higher
energy level and will migrate to the frozen ice crystal where it, too, will freeze. In soils this is referred to as
frost heave and will continue as long as unfrozen water is available. In concrete, ice lenses will form and
fracture the concrete.
Any water drawn from the gel structure by diffusion will cause shrinkage and, if near the surface, may
result in fine, hair1ine cracks.
Diffusion is particularly damaging when it occurs near a pavement surface. If the surface of a pavement
is compacted by poor, premature finishing methods or by rapid drying, any subsequent excess mixing
water that bleeds to the surface wi1l be trapped below the compacted surface and create an abundance of
capillary voids. When these voids are filled with frozen water, diffusion of the gel water is often sufficient
to force the compacted surface off the pavement. This is known as scaling. Hairline cracks which form
open channels for surface moisture to now to the ice crystals may also contribute to scaling.
(5) Deicing salts
The use of salts to melt the snow and ice on concrete pavements develops other mechanisms of concrete
deterioration.
- 38 -
Lowers temperature of concrete. Snow and ice melting in a salt solution draws heat from a concrete
pavement and may lower the temperature of the concrete significantly.
Provides a supply of water for diffusion to capillary ice.
Increases the concentration of salt in capillary water which increases saturation and stress through
osmosis.
Makes eutectic expansion possible.
(6) Eutectic expansion
A second expansion in sa1t solutions may cause damage such as scaling and deterioration of concrete
and explains some conflicting test results.
With relative dilute solutions of salt, the phase diagram of water-salt solutions shows the relative
freezing point of solutions with various percentages of salt. In weak salt solutions, the water freezes first
and gradually concentrates the salt solution until it reaches the eutectic concentration of about 23 percent,
at which time it freezes at a temperature of about -20 C. If the eutectic concentration of salt solution
freezes in a capillary, the hydraulic pressure mechanism operates and can be overcome with entrained air.
In more dilute solutions, however, the water freezes solid, leaving pockets of unfrozen salt solution. When
the temperature reaches -20 C, the remaining salt solution freezes. The resulting expansion occurs in solid
ice, so that the capi1lary ice expands as a unit. This secondary expansion may cause deterioration in
concrete otherwise protected, including air-entrained concrete, and will possibly explain unanswered
problems in concrete scaling.
Recommendations to avoid freezing and thawing deterioration
Keep concrete from becoming saturated. Unless the capillary voids are filled, freezing and thawing
mechanisms will not operate.
(a) Good drainage.
(b) Protective coatings.
Reduce the number of capillary voids by using a low water-cement ratio.

Entrain about 5 percent air in the concrete.
Avoid compaction of pavement surface by finishing before all bleed water has come to the surface.
Prevent compaction of surface by rapid drying of fresh concrete.
Prevent exposure to freezing and thawing action while concrete is immature and contains uncombined
water.
Avoid the use of deicing salts.
(7) Chemical attack
Acids
- 39 -
The cement paste of concrete is composed of several hydration products containing calcium. These
compounds will react with any acid; as a result, the concrete will disintegrate. Common types of acid
attack come from food, processing plants, and certain types of sewage. Lactic and acidic acids found in the
dairy and food, processing industries may show a mild attack on concrete and, over a long period of time,
cause deterioration (Tab.4.5.1).
Tab.4.5.1 Effect of commonly used chemicals on concrete
Rate of attack
at ambient
temperature
Inorganic
acids
Organic
acids
Alkaline
solutions
Salt solutions
Miscellaneous
Rapid
Hydrochloric
Hydrofluoric
Nitric Sulfuric
Acetic
Formic
Lactic
Aluminum chloride
Ammonium nitrate
Sodium
hydroxide
Moderate
Phosphoric
Tannic
Ammonium sulfate
20
Sodium sulfate
Bromine (gas)
Sulfite Liquor
percent
Magnesium sulfate
Calcium sulfate
Slow
Carbonic
Sodium
hydroxide
10 to 20
percent
Sodium
hypochlorite
Sodium
hydroxide
10 percent
Negligible
Oxalic
Tartaric
Sodium
hypochlorite
Ammonium
hydroxide
Ammonium chloride
Magnesium chloride
Sodium cyanide
Chloride (gas)
Seawater Soft
Water
Calcium chloride
Sodium chloride Zinc
nitrate
Ammonia
(liquid)
Sodium chromate
Sewage
Concrete pipe is used extensively in the conveyance of domestic sewage without appreciable
deterioration. Hydrogen sulfide gas (H2S) may be formed under certain conditions by decomposition of
sulfur compounds by bacteria. If this gas combines with oxygen and condenses on the surface of exposed
concrete, it will change to sulfuric add, which will attack the concrete. Certain types of industrial sewage
containing acids or sulfates will cause deterioration of concrete.
Sulfate attack
Alkali soils and drainage water in certain regions and, to a lesser extent, seawater contains magnesium
and sodium sulfate and other salts. These chemicals, particularly magnesium salts, will react with hydrated
- 40 -
calcium aluminate in hardened concrete and produce ca1cium sulfoaluminates. This cause expansion and
disintegration of the hardened cement paste.
The severity of sulfate attack depends on the percentage of tricalcium aluminate (C3A) in the cement
and the concentration of the sulfate salts. Specifications for sulfate-resisting cements limit the percentage
of tricalcium aluminate.
3. Freezing resistance grade
It can be expressed by circle times of the ultimate freezing and thawing which specimen can stand after
saturation in 28 days. The specimen should stand continuous freezing and thawing. The decreasing of
strength should not be more than 25% and the mass loss should not be more than 5%.
For example: F25, F50, F100, F300
Selection: Selection should be made with considerations of climate, environment and building types.
4. Important factors determining the anti-freezing
(1) Density;
(2) Pore quantity and structure;
(3) Pores water filling.
4.5.5 Carbonation /Neutralization

When calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2, is exposed to the air, it will react with CO2 and form CaCO3.
Calcium hydroxide is one of the hydration products of Portland cement and is available to react with CO 2
in the atmosphere. This process occurs slowly and is not usually important in hardened concrete with the
possible exception of dimensional instability of lightweight masonry units.
Carbonation can be a serious problem when freshly placed concrete floors are exposed to excessive
concentrations of CO2. This problem occurs frequently when open-flame space heaters, used to prevent
freezing, exhaust the oxygen in the air and leave excessive concentrations of CO2. This produces a soft
inferior layer on the surface of the concrete.
Ca(OH ) 2
CO2
H 2O
CaCO3
2H 2 O
1. Major factors influencing carbonation:

(1) Types of cement (quicker carbonation with mineral admixture);
(2) W/C;
(3) Time of carbonation;
(4) Humidity;
(5) Concentration of CO2;
(6) Admixture.
2. Influences on concrete performance
(1) Reducing concretes alkalinity;
(2) Lessening the protection to reinforcement;
(3) Improving concrete shrinkage;
(4) Leading to minor crack;
(5) Improving compressive strength (taking resilience method into consideration);
(6) Fill the pore with CaCO3 to produce water after carbonation, favorably cement hydrate.
3. Instrument in carbonation test (Fig.4.5.5)
- 41 -
Fig.4.5.5 Instrument in carbonation test

In short, the disadvantage of carbonation overweighs its advantage, so carbonation speed should be
slowed down.
4.5.6 Alkali-aggregate Reaction

Na 2 O SiO 2
nH 2 O
Na 2 O SiO 2 nH 2 O
The volume of sodium silicate hydrate gel is over 3 times than that of the admixture, leading to
expending crack.
Reaction conditions:
(1) Cement with high alkali content;
(2) Active aggregate;
(3) Water.
4.5.7 Steps to Improve Durability

1. Selecting cement appropriately;
2. Controlling the maximum W/C and the minimum quantity of cement;
3. Selecting appropriate aggregate and admixture etc.;
4. Guaranteeing construction quality.
4.6 Dimensional Stability

The volume and dimensions of hardened concrete will change slightly for the following reasons:
1. Elastic deformation (strain) resulting from stress
2. Creep or permanent deformation because of stress
3. Shrinkage of plastic and hardened concrete
4. Thermal volume change
5. Expansion because of chemical reactions
1. Elastic and Plastic Deformation.
In the initial stages of applying a compression load to a concrete cylinder, it exhibits elastic properties;
that is, it will deform under load and return to its original length when the load is released. As the stress
approaches the ultimate strength of the concrete, strain increases more for a given stress and the
stress-strain relationship is no longer a straight line, but shows increasing curvature. When the load is
released, part of the deformation is recovered. The permanent deformation is called creep.
Modulus of Elasticity. The modulus of elasticity is defined as the ratio of stress over strain, and in
elastic materials it is a straight-line relationship,
E=stress/strain
In determining E for concrete, strain is usually measured at zero load and at some load well below the
- 42 -
ultimate strength of the concrete. This gives the secant modulus of elasticity, which is generally used in
design. The chord will indicate a lower modulus, and the initial tangent will indicate a higher modulus.
The modulus of elasticity is important in reinforced-concrete design, since deflection of beams and
floors is inversely proportional to the modulus of elasticity:
D=PL3/48EI
E = modulus of elasticity
P= applied center load
D=deflection
L=distance between simple supports
I=moment of inertia
Since deflection controls many design considerations, the modulus of elasticity is of first importance.
The modulus of elasticity of normal structural concrete varies with the strength and can be estimated from
the following ACI formula
Ec
W 1.5 33 f c'
Ec = modulus of elasticity of concrete

W = density of concrete (unit weight, lb/ft3)
f c' = strength of concrete

2. Creep.
When concrete is loaded, elastic deformations and some nonelastic deformations take place. If the load
is maintained, the nonelastic deformation or creep continues for long periods (Fig.4.6.1).
Fig.4.6.1 Elastic and creep deformation of mass concrete under constant load
followed by load removal
Creep occurs because of the shifting of the internal structure of the cement gel, movement of moisture,
and possibly the adjustments in the aggregate-cement bond. Creep is desirable in some cases since it tends
to relieve stress concentrations. Weaker concrete will deform, shifting stresses to stronger concrete or to
reinforcing steel.
A portion of inelastic deformation is permanent and must be considered in the design of concrete
- 43 -
structural members since all structures have a permanent dead load.

In prestressed concrete a camber, with the center of the member slightly higher than ends, is designed
into the member so that when creep and elastic deformation of concrete and steel cables take place, the
member will be level.
3. Shrinkage.
(1)Plastic shrinkage.
Freshly placed concrete will decrease in volume as the solid particles settle and water bleeds to the
surface. When there is excessive evaporation the surface will shrink because of loss of moisture and
compaction. Plastic shrinkage cracks will develop. This usually occurs before final finishing. These cracks
can be avoided by preventing rapid evaporation by protection from sun and wind or by covering with
plastic sheets or a monomolecular film.
(2)Drying shrinkage.
After the concrete has hardened, drying shrinkage will take place principally by the contraction of the
gel structure as moisture leaves. Concrete shrinkage takes place in the hardened paste fraction and has been
found to be a function of the water content and water-cement ratio of a concrete mix.
Since drying shrinkage is an inherent property of concrete, it must be restrained with reinforcing steel or
controlled by contraction joints. A contraction joint or deep groove every 3 m will prevent intermediate
cracking in concrete slabs, which are relatively free to move on a subgrade.
4. Thermal Volume Change.
The coefficient of thermal expansion averages about 1410-6 cm/ C. This mount of expansion or
contraction with changes in temperature is not usually significant, since it is compatible with reinforcing
steel and readily dissipates in a structural member.
Severe problems develop in massive structures, however; where heat cannot be dissipated, thermal
contraction on the surface without a corresponding change in the interior will cause cracking. In this type
of structure, the interior temperature rise; resulting from heat of hydration must be within acceptable limits
from e the mean ambient temperature, or the interior of the concrete block must be cooled with cooling
coils to eliminate incompatible temperature differentials.
5. Chemical Reactions.
Alkali-aggregate reaction causes expansion in concrete because of the formation of unstable silica gel.
This expansion is localized around individual aggregate particles. When the expansion stresses exceed the
tensile strength of the gel structure, cracks occur and the structure is damaged. The volume of the concrete
increases; but more importantly, internal stresses develop.
Certain carbonate rocks will also react with alkalies, causing damage. This type of reaction has not been
as extensive or severe but can cause problems.
4.7 Mix Proportion Design of Concrete

4.7.1 Mix proportion
It is expressed by relative ingredients quantities of concrete.
Representation method:
(1)Expressed by ingredients quantities of 1m3 concrete.
C
S
G
W
(Kg/m)
300
720
1200
180
- 44 -
(2)Expressed by relative ingredients quantities of concrete (the cement quantity is 1)

C:S:G=1:2.4:4.0
W/C=0.6
Mix proportion can be expressed by the percentage of cement weight if admixture is blended.
4.7.2 Tasks of mix proportion design

1. Picking out the appropriate raw material according to technical properties, structure and construction.
2. Ascertaining the required technical economic index.
3. Ascertaining the quantity of each material.
4.7.3 Basic requirements of mix proportion design

1. Strengthconformed with structure design
2. Feasibilityconformed with construction condition
3. Durabilityconformed with engineering environment
4. Economical
4.7.4 Principle of mix proportion design of concrete

The basic theory of mix proportion design is based on the change rule of concrete performance. Normal
concrete mix proportion has four basic variables: C, W, S, G.
Three kinds of proportion:
1. The ratio of water to cement;
2. The ratio of sand to gravel;
3. The quality of water in 1m3 concrete- ration of cement paste to aggregates.
4.7.5 Steps and methods
Four steps:
Design of preliminary mix;
Ascertaining the basic mix proportion;
Laboratory mix proportion;
Working mix proportion.
1. Design of preliminary mix
(1) Determining the produce strength of concrete
According to the specification for mix proportion design of ordinary concrete (JGJ55-2000), the produce
strength of concrete should be determined by the following formula:
fcu , o
fcu, k
1.645
fcu0- the produce strength of concrete, MPa;

fcuk- designed cubic standard compression strength of concrete;
- 45 -
- standard deviation of concrete strength.

If statistical data is not available, 0 can be calculated according to the following formula:
n
f cu2 ,i
n f cu2
i 1
0
If statistical data is not available, select
according to the table below (Tab.4.7.1):
Tab.4.7.1 Selection of
Less than C20
C20C35
Higher than C35
4.0
5.0
6.0
(2) Selection of water-cement ratio

according to strength ratio:
fcu,0
W
C
f ce
c
Afce(C / W
B)
Afce
ABfce
rc
f cu , 0
b
ce
1.13
according to durability:
To meet the demands of durability, the calculated W/C should not excess the value in following table
(Tab.4.7.2).
Tab.4.7.2 Maximum of W/C and minimum of cement
Maximum of w/c
Environment condition
Dry environment
Damp
environment
Without
thawing
Structure type
Minimum of cement, kg
Concrete
Reinforced
concrete
Prestressed
concrete
Con
crete
Reinforced
concrete
Prestressed
concrete
Normal residences and offices
0.65
0.60
200
260
300
High humidity room; Outside

the house; in the earth and water
(non-corrosive)
0.70
0.60
0.60
225
280
300
- 46 -
Thawing
Damp environment with

thawing and deice
Exterior members under

thawing; member under thawing
in the earth and water
(non-corrosive)
Interior members under thawing
in a High humidity
0.55
0.55
0.55
250
280
300
Exterior and interior members

with thawing and deice
0.50
0.50
0.50
300
300
300
(3) Estimating the quantity of mixing water W0.

According to slump, coarse aggregate, maximum particle diameter and mixing water can be
estimated from the following table (Tab.4.7.3)
Tab.4.7.3 Mixed water in stiff concrete and plastic concrete
thickness of concrete
composite
items
maximum size of gravel (mm)
indexes
maximum size of crushed stone (mm)
10
20
40
16
20
40
175
180
185
160
165
170
145
150
155
180
185
190
170
175
180
155
160
165
190
200
210
215
170
180
190
195
150
160
170
175
200
210
220
230
185
195
205
215
165
175
185
195
1520
thickness
S
1015
510
1030
slump
mm
3050
5070
7090
Mixed water quantity is a constant to meet the requirement of mobility in the certain range of W/C
quantities, when the materials are fixed.
The principle means that different W/C will produce different strength concrete with common mobility
when the water quantity is the same.
(4) Calculating cement quality in 1m3 concrete
Cement quality can be calculated from the following equation:
C0 W 0 C /W
In addition, the calculated C0 should be no less than the value in the table before for durability demands.
(5) Selecting proper ratio of sand to gravel, Sp.
Calculating method
Sp
p'
' 'o s
os
'
'
- 47 -o g
Table
Sp can be selected from the following Tab.4.6.4
Testing Method
Select Sp by slump test results
(6) Calculating volume of sand (S0) and gravel (G0).
There are two methods to calculate S0 and G0:
Absolute volume
Assume an apparent density
The first method is that the volume of concrete composite equals to the whole volume of ingredients.
Tab.4.7.4 Selection of Sp%
Maximum size of crushed stone,mm
Maximum size of gravel, mmmm
W/C
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
16
20
40
10
20
40
3035
2934
2732
2632
2531
2430
3338
3237
3035
3035
2934
2833
3641
3540
3338
3338
3237
3136
3944
3843
3641
3641
3540
3439
C0
G0
S0
W0
ag
as
S0
S0
G0
100%
10a
1000 L
Sp%
C0, S0, G0, W0- quantities of each gradient in 1concrete composite;

, 0g- apparent density of sand and gravel;
- quantity of entrained air; and if there is no entrained air agent, =1.
The other method is to assume an apparent density of concrete composite at first. Then,
0s
S0
S0
G0
Sp
C 0 G0 S 0 W 0
oh
When C0, S0, G0, W0 are determined through the steps above (We call it primary proportion), there are
still some work to make the last proportion of concrete.
At first, use the primary proportion to make the concrete composite, and evaluate feasibility of it. Adjust
proportion according the following table.
- 48 -
2. Ascertaining the basic mix proportion

(1) The proportion that has been adjusted feasibility is called basic proportion (Tab.4.7.5)
Tab.4.7.5 Adjustment of concrete feasibility
Slump
Appearance
Adjustment
High
thin; easy to bleeding
keep Spraise S and G
Low
thick; easy to isolation
keep w/c, raise C and W
(2) Methods to adjust workbility

Actual apparent density after modifying the blending can be tested when slump conforms with the
requirement. It can be used to ascertain the laboratory mix proportion.
Ascertaining the basic mix proportion
C =Co+C
S =So+S
G =Go+G
W =Wo+W
(3) Laboratory mix proportion

Basic proportion should be adjusted by strength.
Prepare concrete composite of three proportions as follows and measure their strength.
Group 1: W/C of Basic Proportion, W, Sp
Group 2: W/C+0.05, W, Sp
Group 3: W/C-0.05, W, Sp
There are two selections:
Select the group that satisfies strength demand with minimum cement
The W/C has certain fcu,0 according linear figure by laboratory tests values (Fig.4.6.1).
Obviously, it is not practical to mix 1m3 concrete in
f cu,0
the laboratory. So, the proportion still needs to adjust
apparent density as following.
fcu,o
ohr
ohc
ohc
G W
oh r- tested density of concrete composite;

oh c- calculated density of concrete composite.
oh r- tested density of concrete composite;
oh c- calculated density of concrete composite.
C/W
C/W
Fig.4.7.1 The relation of W/C and fcu,o
If oh r -oh c 2%oh c, the proportion after strength adjustment is laboratory mix proportion
If oh r -oh c 2%oh c, all the ingredients plus , the proportion is laboratory mix proportion.
(4) Working mix ratio
Considering water content in sand and gravel, laboratory proportion should be converted to working
proportion as following.
C=C
S=S1+a%
- 49 -
G=G1+b%
W=W-Sa%-Gb%
C, S, G, W- quantity of all ingredients of working proportion;
C, S, G, W- quantity of all ingredients of laboratory proportion
a, b- water content in sand and gravel.
4.8 Advanced Concrete

4.8.1 The Sixth Composite of Concrete
The sixth composite of concrete refers to the composite used to improve concrete performance, provide
with more functions or make the concrete intelligent, besides cement, water, sand and chemical admixture.
By feature it can be classified into reformed type, functional type and intelligent type.
1. Reformed type
The reformed type is designed to improve concrete physical property. It contains mineral admixture,
polymer and fibre.
(1) Mineral Admixture
Mineral admixture refers to some fine and active mineral material added in bleeding to improve concrete
mixture and hardening concrete (esp. durability). It has the following kinds silica fume, grinding fly ash,
slag micronization, zeolite powder, kaolin and its complex.
(2) Polymer
Polymer concrete and mortar are mainly influenced by polymer type and its quantity.
(3) Fibre
If added with fibre, such as carbon fibre, steel fibre, organic fibre, the traditional concrete will have
great improvement in tensile, toughness, crack resistance, fatigue resistance.
Load-deflection curve of composite materials in fibre reinforcement cement is shown in Fig.4.8.1.
Fig.4.8.1 Load-deflection curve of composite materials in fibre reinforcement cement

2. Functional type
The functional type of composite can provide special functions, for example radiation protection, static
protection, shrinkage wateranti-abrasion, heat reservation and heat insulation. It is mainly
- 50 -
applied in making functional concrete.

(1) Conductive Concrete
There is a critical point in conductive composite. When its quantity exceeds the critical point,
conductivity of the composite materials will increase dramatically.
Relation between conductivity of the composite materials and quantity of carbon fibre is shown in
Fig.4.8.2.
(2) Shielded electromagnetism radiation concrete
(3) Shielded magnetic concrete
3. Intelligent type
(1) Traffic navigation concrete
(2) Self-diagnoses concrete
Fig.4.8.2 Relation between conductivity of the composite materials and quantity of carbon fibre
(3) Moisture-adjustable concrete
(4) Temperature self-monitoring concrete
Within the maximum difference of temperature of l5 and the highest of 70, electromotive force E
and
t
relation
maintain a steady linearity

Fig.4.8.3.
- 51 -
Fig.4.8.3 Relation between electromotive force and difference of temperature

As the curing age prolongs the electromotive force ratio takes on a stable tendency (Fig.4.8.4)
Fig.4.8.4 Influence of the electromotive force ratio by curing age

(5) Animated self-healing concrete (Fig.4.8.5)
Fig.4.8.5 Illustration of animated self-healing concrete mechanism
4.8.2 High-strength Concrete (HSC)

Introduction
1. Definition of HSC
In our country, it refers to the concrete not lower than C60. It is obtained by excellent aggregate, cement
whose mark is no lower than 525 and low W/C with strong vibration. But high efficiency water reducing is
helpful in making high strength and good mobility concrete.
2. Classifications of HSC (Tab.4.8.1)
Tab.4.8.1 Types of HSC
compressive strength after
types
W/C
28daysfc28/Mpa
- 52 -
notes
0.250.40
40.070.0
150200mm slump large
HSC with good mobility

high-strength with normal
consistency
high-strength without
slump
high-strength with low
W/C
impact HSC
0.350.45
45.080.0
amount of cement,
50100mm slump
0.300.40
45.080.0
0.200.35
100.0170.0
large amount of cement,

lower than 25mm slump
normal amount of cement,
admixture,
70.0Mpa or above.
0.050.30
70.0240.0
Choice of HSC raw material

1. Binding material
(1) characteristics of cement
Cement with high mark, rational composites and qualified fineness should be chosen, but not all kinds
of cement can be applied in HSC.
kinds and grades of cement
It is not necessary to use rapid-hardening cement to mix HSC. Normally, these kinds of cement, such as
high-mark Portland cement, ordinary Portland cement, slag Portland cement, pozzolan Portland cement
can obtain higher final strength. Pozzolan usually is applied in improving consistent strength.
In the past, it was difficult to mix HSC. The cement is usually 0.9~1.5 times as much as its
corresponding strength grade of concrete. That is, the mark of cement should be higher than strength grade
of concrete, or sometimes be slightly lower than strength grade of concrete. In our country, at present, it is
much easier to mix HSC with the modification of material properties and craftworks especially the wide
use of admixture.
mineral composites and fineness of cement
Fineness of cement can influence strength of concrete (Fig.4.8.6). Therefore, the cement is required with
high content of C3S and certain fineness characteristic (surface area is 35004000cm2g). Therefore, if
cement is used before another
strength can be enhanced
the large surface area is, the
reaction is, the higher strength
twice vibration and levigating,

largely. The finer levigating is,
more
sufficient
hydration
is.
- 53 -
Fig.4.8.6 Influence of concrete strength by fineness of cement

Although the content and fineness of C3S are important influence factors, these two are not the only
decisive factors. Proper cement should also be determined by testing. Maybe uniformity of cement is not
as important as strength, at least uniformity is as important as potential strength.
(2) quantity of cement
The quantity of binding material is so important to produce HSC that it directly influences the cohesion
between hardened cement paste and border surface. Construction requirement also needs certain feasibility.
In order to increase the proportion of binding material in mortar, the usage of cement is large usually in the
range of 500700kgm3. But it is recommended not out of this range otherwise it is easy to cause slow
heat radiation and large shrinkage in hydration. If technically permitted, wed better reduce the amount of
cement but mix with some high quality fly ash and other silicon ashes with an aim to bringing the
minimum side effects of hydration heat release and shrinkage.
Based on experience, HSC should be bled by experimenting with various cement in terms of kind and
quantity. Cement selection should meet the requirements of low cost in the required compressive strength.
It is suggested that aggregate should be in the best gradation and bleed evenly to obtain the minimum
amount cement.
2. excellent aggregate
There are two kinds of aggregate, fine aggregate coarse aggregate. HSC bleeding should select excellent
aggregate, which has good performance in hardness, high strength, density, porosity, non flexible impurity.
(1) fine aggregate
Concrete admixture contains more sand so middle sand or coarse sand will avoid over drying in concrete.
Usually it is recommended to use sand modulus of fineness lower than 3.0 and reduce sand rate as much as
possible. Concrete admixture should not be too dry or hard.
Fine admixture gradation should meet the requirements. In the composites of HSC, fine admixture
percentage is smaller than that of the ordinary concrete. It is better to use quartz river sand as the chemical
composite of sand.
(2) coarse aggregate
Concrete strength is influenced by coarse aggregate by the following factors, cement paste, cohesion of
mortar and aggregate, aggregate elasticity, inner levels below aggregate when water rising in concrete
admixture ,stress concentration around the aggregate. For HSC coarse aggregate has good performance in
compressive strength, surface, maximum grain-size.
3. superplasticizer
HSC can be obtained by high grade cement and superplasticizer.
- 54 -
Decisive factors in concrete strength

Measures can be taken in lower W/C, higher cement quantity, better concrete admixture mix and rod,
and more careful curing; enhancing cement activity and improving concrete admixture quality, such as
grinding, vibration activation, vibration mixing, superplasticizer.
Decisive factors in concrete strength:
Main factors in concrete strength can be studied by the Formula f c28Af ce
C
W
1.Cement Paste
The high strength concrete is made by strong vibration of high grade cement in larger quantity with new
superplsaticizer.
2. Aggregate
It is better to use qualified aggregate of high strength and density, coarse surface, good gradation, and
strong resistance. Fine aggregate quantity is smaller.
3. Cement paste aggregate adhension
Broken stone has good adhension to produce strong strength (Fig.4.8.7). The ratio of apparent area
and volume is bigger than that with gravel. Therefore, broken stone should have clean surface.
Fig.4.8.7 Influence of concrete strength by coarse aggregate in same gradation
4.8.3 High Performance Concrete (HPC)

ACI international conference first proposed that high performance concrete cant be made by regular
materials and technology to meet synthetic properties and uniformity in 1990.
HPC: excellent materials made by strict construction craftworks, It is convenient to cast and compact
with no segregate It is steady in volume and mechanical property. It has good performance in toughness,
durability. It can be applied to high architectures, bridges and those exposed in harsh environment.
1. Techniques:
(1) selection
Cement with medium heat, MDF, DSP; super fine mineral admixture; superplasticizer; Dmax<15mm.
(2) parameter
- 55 -
W/ C<0.4, W<175; Sp=36-42%; binding material=500-600

(3) craft works control
Forced mixing, high frequent vibration; pumping up, SL>200; protection in early days.
2. Proportion ratio (Tab.4.8.2)
Tab.4.8.2 Proportion ratio
items
amount of cementKg/cm3
460
357
357
400
amount of fly-ash in Grade 1Kg/cm3
63
63
70
NSF-A silicon
50~63
76~88
103~112
460
474
502
578
amount of water(Kg/cm )
200
114~118
98~102
114~118
slumpcm
202
202
202
202
content of gas
2.6
2.4
2.1
39
58
69
79
Cement + fly-ash + NSF-A silicon

3
C50 Pumped C60 Pumped

concrete
concrete
C70
Pumped
concrete
C30 Ordinary
concrete
compressive strength after

28 daysMPa
3. Properties (Tab.4.8.3, Tab.4.8.4 and Tab.4.8.5)

Tab.4.8.3 Comparison of properties
properties
C30OPC
C50HPC
C60HPC
compressive strength (MPa)
39
58
69
bending strength (MPa)

axial tensile strength (MPa)
5.1
5.4
3.1
4.7
5.2
compressive elastic modulus (GPa)
27.8
34.3
35.9
loss ratio of resistance to impact (%)
7.1
3.2
2.5
Tab.4.8.4 Dry shrinkage

shrinkage ratio(10-6)
kinds of concrete
2d
7d
14d
28d
60d
90d
C30
109
200
286
431
577
621
C50
109
172
239
345
433
475
C60
55
162
216
312
421
442
C70
96
170
232
326
430
466
Tab.4.8.5 Time and the slump loss
- 56 -
Slump loss
C50
C60
C70
beginning
23
20.7
21.4
an hour
23
20.5
17
two hours
20.4
20
15
2.5 hours
19.8
20
14
4. Application
In foreign countries:
German concrete structure design has reached to C110
In Norway C105, HPC in8590 is widely used in road construction
Denmark Belt-connection between tunnels and bridges
Designed for 100
Applied in tower structure, prefabricated beam and block
Japan
Super strength and high performance concrete for apartment buildings
Super durable concrete over 500 years has been developed
In China:
Shanghai Jin Mao Tower C60
Beijing West Railway Station C60
Beijing Jingan Center C80
Liaoning Goods and Material Mansion C80
Nanjing Posts and Telecommunications Center C60
Changchun International C55
Guangzhou Humen Bridge C50
Shanghai Yangpu Bridge C50
Steel concrete for Changjiang River Bridge Wanxian Countyin C60
5. Characteristics
HPC is a new kind of concrete with great feasibility, high strength and durability. Its characteristics are
as follows:
(1)The concrete mixture has good performance in mobility, self-impact and can ensure uniformity and
impact with slight vibration or without vibration.
(2)The concrete mixture shows good cohesion, water retentivity, plasticity, stability and pump ability with
no segregate in water.
(3)It can be used in mass concrete casting because low hydration heat is produced in the process of setting
and hardening. It can keep volume steady and have small shrinkage deformation after hardening, so there
are few defaults such as micro cracks inside concrete and it forms a stable structure.
(4)It has good protective ability of reinforced bars in concrete in high solidity and strong resistance of
permeability of water, corrosive liquid and chlorine ion.
(5)It contains little Ca(OH)2 and hydrated calcium sulfate, which are easy to be eroded by sulfate and
magnesium to ensure the resistance to seawater corrosion.
(6)Concrete has excellent permeability and proper content of gas with even and impact bubbles so it has
good performance in freeze-thaw resistance and fastness to efflorescence. It is easy to be cast for the
concrete structure in the area which can be touched by waves.
(7)It can be used in prefabricated concrete for its high strength and lower content of binding material,
- 57 -
which is less than that in ordinary concrete.
4.8.4 Pumped Concrete

1 Introduction
(1)Definition
It refers that the agitated concrete is conveyed and cast along flow pipe by concrete delivery pump.
(2)Characteristics
Vertical and level deliveries are completed continuously at one time, and can be cast so it shows high
production efficiency and saves labor. It can be especially applied in narrow sites and the sites with
obstacles and structures with mass concrete (eg. skyscrapers).
2 Requirements of Raw Material
(1)Binding material-cement
Kinds of cement
Cement with good water retentivity and little bleed can be used in pumped concrete. Therefore, Portland
cement and ordinary silicate cement always be used in pumped concrete. But it is seldom applied in mass
concrete due to its large hydrated heat.
The minimum usage of cement
Minimum cement is required in order to ensure pumpability of concrete. It is usually 250300kg/m3 in
foreign counties, and in our country it is 300kgm3 according to GBJ204-83.
(2)Aggregate
Coarse aggregate
The ratio of gravel maximum diameter and inner diameter of flow pipe is 1:3 at most, while the ratio of
scree is 1:2.5 at most.
If necessary, different diameters of aggregates can be mixed rationally to get ideal gradation.
Fine aggregate
The content of fine aggregate with the fineness modulus of 2.3~3.2 and the diameter below 0.315mm
should not be less than 15%, and better, over 20%.
(3)Admixture-fly ash
The relationship between the slump of C30 concrete mixed by ordinary cement and time is presented in
Fig.4.8.8.
- 58 -
Fig.4.8.8 The relationship between slump and time

After mixed with fly ash, the slump can be enhanced about 2mm, while the loss of slump is more or less
the same.
The finer fly ash is, the more globular particles are, then the more active is, the better lubrication is.
Therefore, fly ash is usually mixed after levigating.
3. Mix ratio Design of Pumped Concrete
(1)Choice of w/c
W/C should not be lower than 0.40 and higher than 0.70.
In addition to pumpability, we should also consider durability requirements of concrete when choosing
w/c for pumping up concrete.
(2)Choice of sand ratio (Tab.4.8.6)
Tab.4.8.6 Range of sand ratio fit to pumped concrete
Maximum diameter of coarse aggregate / mm
Range of proper sand ratio
25
40
4145
3943
(3)Choice of slump
In our country, the stipulated slump should be 8-18cm.
(4)Cohesion requirement of concrete
Cohesion concrete mixed by the certain mix ratio shows good cohesion.
4.8.5 Non-dispersion Concrete in Water (NDC)

1. Introduction
NDC is also called casting concrete in water. It is a new kind of concrete, cast in water and unlike
ordinary concrete in which aggregate and cement paste will be separated if they react in water.
2. Composites of NDC
The main materials are cement, sand and gravel, and some other admixtures (water reducing admixture)
(1)Cement: its strength grade is 42.5Mpa at least.
(2)Aggregate
Coarse aggregate
- 59 -
Preferably scree; continuous gradation
Fig.4.8.9 Instrument sketch map of connecting conduct construction

Fine aggregate
Preferably medium sand from Mx-=2.63.1 of fine modulus
(3) NDCA
NDCA is the key material in NDC, whose main composites are water soluble ion and material with high
specific surface area, whose main functions are strengthening cohesion and packing ability.
(4)Other Admixtures
High efficiency water reducing, accelerator
3. Properties of NDC
(1)Properties of Fresh NDC
Good anti-dispersion
Good mobility and packing ability
Certain retardation ability
(2)Properties of Hardened NDC
NDC strength
Its quality and mixture quantity will influence the strength of NDC.
Influences on NDC compressive strength by C/WNDCA (Fig.4.8.10 and Fig.4.8.11).
- 60 -
Fig.4.8.10 Influences on NDC compressive strength by C/W
Fig.4.8.11 Influences on NDC compressive strength by NDCA

(2) NDC permeability and Resistance to Impact (Tab.4.8.7)
Tab.4.8.7 NDC permeability and resistance to impact
kinds of concrete
1.2MPa permanent compression
weightlessness of Scouring
/g
ordinary concrete
Total permeable within 5min
20679
NDC with NNDC-2
Average permeable height of

12.7cm in 24h
60.0
(3) Frost Resistance

NDC frost resistance is not as good as ordinary concrete.
(4)Dry shrinkage and moisture expansion of NDC
Compared with ordinary concrete, NDC has good performance in water retentivity and bleeding. Its dry
shrinkage is larger than ordinary concrete but moisture expansion is smaller.
4.8.6 Seawater-resistant concrete

1. Technical requirements of seawater-resistant concrete
In addition to mechanical properties, seawater-resistant concrete properties should have seawater
corrosion-resistance (such as sulfuric acid corrosion, chlorine ionic corrosion and frost-resistance)
- 61 -
according to its parts and circumstance temperature. The minimum thickness of reinforced bar protective
layer and the permitted maximum crack should be ensured to prevent sea corrosion to reinforced concrete.
Technical properties of seawater-resistant concrete are presented as follows:
(1)Resistance to corrosion
It is ensured mainly by raw materials which are used to produced concrete (such as cement and
aggregate).
Resistance to chlorine ionic corrosion
Its index is ensured mainly by measuring the coefficient of diffusion of chlorine ion in concrete.
(2)Frost-resistance (Tab.4.8.8)
Tab.4.8.8 Frost Requirements
average monthly
temperature in the coldest
04
-4-8
-8
no requirement
F250
F300
F350
month/
required antifreeze of
concrete
(3)Thickness protective layer of marine reinforced concrete

The minimum thickness of protective layer is presented in Tab.4.8.9 and Tab.4.8.10.
Tab.4.8.9 the minimum thickness of protective layer of marine reinforced concrete/mm
part
area
the air-touched
the wave-touched
water level
under water
the north
50
50
50
30
the south
50
65
50
30
Tab.4.8.10 the minimum thickness of protective layer of deformed bar in sea circumstance/mm
part
thickness of
component
the air-touched
the wave-touched
water level
under the water
0.5m
75
90
75
75
<0.5m
Select the Max.; a2.5prestressed reinforced concrete diametermm
b
50
(4)The maximum permitted crack of seawater-resistant concrete (Tab.4.8.11)

Tab.4.8.11 the maximum permitted width of cracks in reinforced concrete components (JTJ268-96)/mm
parts of structure
conditions
sea water
fresh water
above the water
0.13
0.20
water surface
0.20
0.25
under the water
0.30
0.35
2. Raw materials choice of seawater-resistant concrete

(1)Cement: The cements whose hydrate contains little Ca(OH)2 and hydrated aluminate should been
chosen according to sea corrosion of concrete. If it is applied on the water surface, freeze-resistance,
- 62 -
abrasive resistance, shrinkage should be taken into consideration.

The strength grades should not be lower than 32.5MPa
(2) Aggregate: Aggregate should shows strong fabric, clearness and good gradation.
To be specially noticed, the coarse aggregatewhich is used to produce seawater-resistant concrete
should not contain active SiO2, to prevent the reaction between alkali and aggregate.
According to JTJ, if sea sand chosen as fine aggregate, it should be flowed by cleat water until the
content of NaCl reaches below 0.1%.
(3)Admixture: such as water reducing, accelerator and anti-freezing mixture, can be chosen according to
the requirements of engineering.
4.8.7 Green concrete

There are three types of green concrete including functional concrete, eco-concrete and recycled
concrete. In eco-concrete there are permeable concrete, virescence concrete and sound absorption concrete.
Functional concrete has been introduced in the previous sections. We will focus on virescence concrete and
sound absorption concrete.
1.Virescence concrete
Virescence concrete is suitable for plant, vegetation and its products.
There are 3 types:
(1)Virescence concrete with holes
It is designed to leave holes in the block for plant
(2)Virescence concrete with connected pores
It contains connected holes to provide spaces for root growth and nutrient absorption (Fig. 4.8.12).
- 63 -
Fig.4.8.12 Structure of green concrete

(3)Virescence concrete with holes in multilayers (Fig.4.8.13)
It is made out of concrete with holes added by cavities and multilayers.
Fig.4.8.13 Virescence Concrete with Holes in Multilayers

The upper layer is concrete with holes and cavities but the lower layer is concrete with holes not cavities.
The two layers are glued together to form the space for earth filling.
It is applied in parts, which has no direct connection with earth, for example, on the balcony in
apartment buildings and top of the wall of the yard in the city. It can enlarge the green area in the city and
make it more beautiful.
2. Recycled Concrete
Lots of waste will be produced when buildings are torn down. They take up much room and bring
unhealthy effects on the environment. They can be processed by washing, cracking and setting to produce
concrete aggregate called recycled aggregate. Recycled concrete refers to the concrete whose aggregate or
part of aggregate are made of recycled aggregate.
Definitions of architectural waste in foreign countries are shown in Tab.4.8.14.
Tab.4.8.14 Definitions of architectural waste in foreign countries
Country
Definition
Canada
Construction waste: waste in every phase
Japan
Building Cube
Sand and stone dug up can be recycled
Building waste
Recycled: concrete, damp concrete, silt, paper, metal and used

wood
Non-recycled: poison waste, disseminated
Unpolluted solid waste from cleaning of new construction, maintenance,

reconstruction, tear-down, farm clearing-up, public property maintenance and
seasonal or natural disasters.
the US
( %)
Recycled aggregate:
(1)Process: Scrap the aggregate then crack with jaw crusher; the distance between jaw boards is similar
with that of natural coarse aggregate.
(2)Features: lower than natural aggregate specific gravity; higher water absorption.
(3)Standard:
Referred to the requirements of natural aggregate (JGJ53-92) (Fig.4.8.14, Fig.4.8.15 and Fig.4.8.16).
100
80
60
40
20
- 64 -
RCA1
RCA2
RCA3
NA1
( MPa)
Fig.4.8.14 Natural and regeneration coarse aggregate gradation curve
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
( )
N50000
R50000
N60000
R60000
N70000
R70000
Fig.4.8.15 Ordinary concrete and regeneration concrete strength curve
MPa
40
30
N60000
R60000
R61000
R62000
R63000
20
10
0
0
10 20
30 40 50 60 70
80 90 100
Fig.4.8.16 Fly ash-added recycled concrete strength curve
- 65 -

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Chapter Four Ordinary Concrete

4.1.2 Origin of Concrete

4.1.3 Widely usages

4.1.4 Classification of Concrete