Materials and Design 30 (2009) 927938

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Materials and Design

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Mechanical and microstructure properties of chilled cast iron camshaft:

Experimental and computer aided evaluation
Levent Cenk Kumruoglu *
Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Cumhuriyet University, 54187 Sivas, Turkey

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Received 29 May 2008
Accepted 2 July 2008
Available online 15 July 2008
Keywords:
Casting
Chilled cast iron
Hardness
Microstructure
Foundry methods
Computer simulation

a b s t r a c t
In the present study, the mechanical and metallographic properties of camshafts produced from chilled
cast iron were examined experimentally and numerically relating with the solidication, cooling rate and
metal ow. First of all, with the help of the 3-dimensional drawing and design programs the whole casting methodology was planned. This planning was analyzed with casting simulation software. After that
camshafts were produced experimentally at the foundry. Chill material was used in order to get rapid
cooling. The phases, dendrite structure and dendrite arm spacing on the lobes of camshaft were examined
with an optic microscope and XRD. The Brinell, Rockwell and Vickers hardness tests were carried out on
surfaces of lobes and camshafts. On the rapid cooling areas, the ledeburitic phase and high hardness values, on the slow cooling surfaces, rosette like graphite in pearlitic and low ferrite phase and low hardness
values were examined. On the chill areas 215 lm DAS (dendrite arm spacing) were measured.
2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
In recent years, numerical simulations and computer aided modeling of casting solidication are receiving increasing attention because of its great quantity of potential in increasing productivity of
the metal casting industry by reducing the time associated with
the traditional experimental based design of casting [1]. There
is an extensive and increasing effort in the numerical simulation of
a wide range of processes involving solidication and heatingcooling, including a variety of casting processes [2]. In order to identify
the conditions and optimum values, simulation of solidication process is done by running indigenously developed computer software
for the casting process selected for investigation [3]. The program
output provides the details on determination of the stress concentration level [4], porosity caused by gas entrapment, humidity of
sand, micro segregation [5], timetemperature prole, heat transfer
coefcient values, ow rate, thermal modulus, solidication process
which plays a key role in the effective design of castings [6,7]. Further, the computer simulation of solidication of castings offers a
basis for predicting the solidication simulation package depends
to a large extent on the use of accurate thermo-physical data and
boundary conditions by the solidication modeler [1,8].
The structural integrity of shaped castings is closely related to
their temperaturetime evolution during solidication. In the last
two decades to treat heat transfer during solidication a number
of analytical and numerical models were developed and the conse* Tel.: +90 2642955790; fax: +90 2642955608.
E-mail address: lkumruoglu@sakarya.edu.tr
0261-3069/$ - see front matter 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.matdes.2008.07.008

quent simulation of freezing patterns in castings has provided many

improvements in foundry technology and processes. Using of casting solidication simulation could do much to increase knowledge
of the process; however, some uncertainties must be eliminated
before such simulations can be widely accepted as realistic descriptions of the process. The heat transfer at the metalmould interface
is one of these uncertainties, and reliable experimental values of
heat transfer coefcients are required for various metalmould
combinations and superheats, as existing data is sparse. The way
the heat ows across the metal and mould surfaces directly affects
the evolution of solidication, and plays a notable role in determining the freezing conditions within the metal mainly in foundry
systems of high thermal diffusivity like chill castings. Gravity or
highlow pressure die casting, continuous casting, and squeeze
casting are some of the processes where product quality is more directly affected by the interfacial heat transfer conditions. Once information in this area is accurate, foundryman can effectively optimize
the design of their chilling systems to produce sound castings [9].
During the solidication and freezing of cast alloys, using of
chills plays an important role in promoting the directional solidication. One of the important factors that affects heat transfer
from the solidifying casting to chills is the resistance offered by
the casting/chill interface. The interface becomes signicant when
the metal and the chill have reasonable good rates of thermal conductance [1].
Bishop et al. has been studied that the effect of chills on the solidication characteristics of cast iron [10]. Importance of time on the
solidication of castings has been showed by Berry [11]. Sun and
Loper [12] showed that intensive super-cooling (both constitutional

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L.C. Kumruoglu / Materials and Design 30 (2009) 927938

and thermal) in front of the chilling interface results in the development of cellular dendrite growth of the graphite into a form recognized as exploded graphite. The microstructures of gray iron and
ductile irons are determined by cooling rate, composition, nucleation and growth conditions prevailing during solidication [13].

2. Chilled cast iron camshafts

Gray cast iron is an important metal, offering versatility and low
cost. Gray cast iron is used widely in the manufacturing of automotive parts since presents good wear resistance, pressure tightness,

Fig. 1. Intake (I) and Exhaust (E) lobes, cylinders, camshafts and their location in the casting branch.

Fig. 2. Foundry technology for producing camshafts.

L.C. Kumruoglu / Materials and Design 30 (2009) 927938

good machinability, even at hardness high enough to impart excellent wear resistance, and high vibration absorption. Also, gray cast
iron could be chilled to improve its wear surface properties [14]
maintaining the inside structural body easily machineable, and
reducing the manufacturing costs [15]. Also mechanical properties
especially good wear resistance and hard surface hardness could be
achieved by starting from the same molten metal to which small
amounts of some elements are added, or by a variation of the cooling rate during solidication or solid-state transformation [16].
In general, the cooling rate during casting is largely governed by
the design and thermal nature of the casting procedure, one significant factor being the mould material. Metalmoulds generally offer higher chilling action on the solidifying mass due to their higher
heat diffusivity. Therefore, the inuence of higher cooling rate is
normally responsible for the superior properties of chilled castings.
The use of chills rstly favors the renement of microstructure.

929

Thus, there is a marked effect upon, grain size and microstructure

over a wide range of cooling rates and, consequently, on the
mechanical properties [17].
When manufacturing a camshaft using chilled cast iron, casting
techniques ensures that the cast iron solidies more quickly,
increasing the hardness. In order to obtain a wear-resistant cam surface of cast camshafts, chills are used to increase the cooling rate
and create a hard ledeburitic structure [18]. Fast cooling prevents
graphite formation. Ledeburite, cementite and some martensitic
phase can be seen in the chilled layer on the outer surface of the gray
cast iron, as ledeburite and graphite akes. Ipek et al. [14] investigated that chilled gray cast iron has typical ledeburite and Fe2C,
Fe3C and FeC iron carbides on the surface, which are known as a
white cast iron structure. The carbon in the outer region solidies
as iron carbide (cementite) and remains bound to the iron atoms,
while otherwise it precipitates out of the iron structure as graphite;

Table 1
Chemical composition of examined camshaft (wt.%)

Chilled area
Center of lobe

Fe

Si

Mn

Cr

Cu

Ni

Mo

Sn

Ti

Ceq

91.53
91.27

3.54
4.09

2.25
2.21

0.79
0.702

0.68
0.555

0.06
0.059

0.03
0.03

0.4
0.453

0.2
0.17

0.41
0.385

0.03
0.027

0.014
0.014

4.31
4.84

Ceq: carbon equivalent.

Fig. 3. Chills assembly on camshafts (a), and the original cam shafts branch (b).

Fig. 4. Physical properties of camshaft casting material calculated by computer analysis.

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L.C. Kumruoglu / Materials and Design 30 (2009) 927938

also controlled chilling eliminates ferrite (too soft and susceptible to

corrosion) but promote pearlitic structure [15,19].
Chilled cast iron belongs to a group of metals possessing high
strength, hardness, toughness and wear resistance [19]. For a metallurgist, there is sufcient information available on the solidication mode and cell size of ordinary cast iron cast in sand moulds.
However, there is a serious lack of possibility of future development of cast irons possessing information on the mode of solidication of chilled cast high strength and hardness [13]. Related with
the undercooling of cast iron the mechanical properties such as
hardness, toughness, strength increases.
Chilled iron castings are produced by casting the molten metal
against a metal chill, resulting in a surface virtually free from graphitic carbon. In the production of chilled iron, the composition is selected so that only the surfaces cast against the chill will be free from
graphitic carbon. The more slowly cooled portions of the casting will
be gray or mottled iron. The depth and hardness of the chilled portion can be controlled by adjusting the composition of the metal,
the extent of inoculation, and the pouring temperature [20].

In this study, a camshaft, used in engine, was considered for the

simulation. In order to analyze the cooling rate, solidication and
liquid metal ow effect of the camshaft, the simulation software
called NOVA Flow&cast were used. These programs enable the
simulation of casting processes, including mould lling, thermal
modulus, temperature, shrinkage and solidication. Particularly,
the simulation of mould lling and solidication can provide a better insight to the process, since it is difcult to observe mould lling and solidication in a manufacturing operation. SOLIDWORKS
2003 was used to create solid models of the branch of camshafts.

3. Experimental details
Variable camshaft consisting of two cam lobes, one inside the
other, in which the exhaust cams are connected rmly to the camshaft tube, and the intake cams are joined to the inside cam lobe by
a connecting element. This achieves the functionality of two
adjustable camshafts using just one camshaft. Fig. 1 shows Intake
(I) and Exhaust (E) lobes, cylinders, camshafts and their location
in the casting branch with feeder, riser, and sprue.
3.1. Experimental and computer aided evaluation
Flow of liquid metal and mould lling phenomena is one of the
most important parameter when producing camshafts and the
other plenty of cast material by casting techniques. In order to obtain soundness casting; pouring speed, casting temperature, total
casting time, feeder, sprue, ingate, pour basin, chills location, chills
material and mould design are very crucial parameters by using
trial and error methods the optimization of these parameters is
so difcult therefore computer simulation has a great importance
on optimizing.

Fig. 6. Thermocouples locations in camshafts lobes and bearing cylinders.

Fig. 5. Physical properties of silica sand and gray iron (chill) material obtained by computer analysis.

L.C. Kumruoglu / Materials and Design 30 (2009) 927938

These models were converted into STL (STereo Lithography) formats and imported into simulation software for mesh generation.
The initial settings of parameters used in simulation were as
follows.
Dimension of sand mould box was 600 mm width, 450 mm
length, 230 mm height. Minimal mould thickness was 25 mm.
According to the nite element method, total number of cells
55877640 and total number of casting cells 2223868. The mould
material was chosen as silica sand and initial mould temperature
was 20 C. The volume of casting 2744,926 cm3 and volume of
chilled cast iron branch 883,458 cm3 were measured. Pouring temperature 1280 C, liquidus temperature 1157 C and solidus temperature 1045 C were selected.
4. Results and discussion
4.1. Foundry technology for producing camshafts and simulation
studies
The melts utilized in the present study were produced by using
a 500 kg induction melting furnace in Camshaft Company Turkey.

931

The foundry technology is illustrated in Fig. 2. AFS grain nes number of silica sand 5055 is used as sand mould material. CaSi (to
promote uniform structure) inoculants were used in crucible. The
camshaft material is gray cast iron with a carbon equivalent of
4.314.32%. Chemical composition of camshafts is given in Table
1. The pouring temperature is approximately 13801400 C. Inoculation is carried out in a ladle. All eight cams are chilled using grey
cast iron chills, the chills location of each camshaft and the original
casting equipment are shown in Fig. 3.
The simulation software called JMat-Pro was used to obtain
heat conduction, specic heat, density properties of chilled cast
iron, gray cast iron mould (chill) material. These properties are
shown in Fig. 4. In addition, the simulation software was used to
obtain physical and thermal properties of both gray iron chill that
is set in mould for rapid cooling and silica sand. The thermal and
physical properties of these materials are shown in Fig. 5.
To obtain meaningful results the thermocouples were located in
camshaft lobes and cylinders. The detail of location is presented in
Fig. 6. The numbers 18 were located as X shape in lobes and the
numbers 911 were located as X shape in cylinders. CS1CS4 are
acronyms of camshaft. After the liquid metal was poured in the

Fig. 7. Simulated cooling curve by computer simulation software for camshaft 2 and camshaft 3.

Fig. 8. Simulated cooling curve by computer simulation software for camshaft 1 and camshaft 4.

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L.C. Kumruoglu / Materials and Design 30 (2009) 927938

mould cavity, each thermocouple supplied temperature and cooling curve data. CS2CS3 and CS1CS4 cooling curves are given in
Figs. 7 and 8, respectively, for each lobe.
According to the simulation results, the cooling curves of CS2
and CS3 are same therefore they were shown in the same graphic.
As shown in Fig. 7 the lobes 2, 3, 6, 7 which belong to CS2 and CS3
got cold faster than the lobes 1, 4, 5, 8.
As the situation happened in CS2 and CS3, the cooling curves of
CS1 and CS4 are the same, therefore they are shown in the same
graphic too. As shown in Fig. 8 the lobes 2, 3, 6, 7 got cold faster

than the lobes 1, 4, 5, 8. Despite the fact that the cooling curves
in CS1CS4 and CS2CS3 look the same; the cooling rate in CS1
CS4 was obtained a little faster than the cooling rate in CS2CS3.
In Fig. 9 the cooling curves were shown for bearings 911. Compared with the cooling curves in CS2CS3 and CS1CS4, the cooling
rate in the bearings 911 was obtained more slowly.
To characterize the chilled and non-chilled area, the CuCl2 test
was carried out. The CuCl2 test gives macroscopic vision. Cu is
deposited on the chilled cast iron and the Fe dissolves by forming
Fe2+. Fe is spontaneously oxidized to Fe2+ by Cu2+. The Cu2+ is spon-

Fig. 9. Computer simulation of cooling curve for camshaft cylinders.

Fig. 10. Computer simulation of cooling curve of camshaft lobe.

L.C. Kumruoglu / Materials and Design 30 (2009) 927938

Fes CuCl2 aq ! FeCl2 aq Cus:

933

Electrons ow from anode to cathode because the cathode has a lower electrical potential energy than the anode. On the atomic level, a
Cu2+ (aq) ion comes into contact with a Fe(s) atom on the surface of
the lobe. The Cu(s) atoms supply better vision to have a macroscopic
view on the chilled (ledeburitic) area and non-chilled area.
In order to understand the cooling phenomena in the lobes
clearly, 14 thermocouples were located in each lobe as shown in
Fig. 10 and the computer simulation was carried out. The results
of the computer solidication and cooling simulation showed that
on the outer surface of the lobes solidication was occurred more
rapidly. The transformed ledeburitic phase was examined on the
outer surface of the lobes because of the rapid cooling rate.
Flow of liquid metal is one of the most important parameters
when producing camshafts by casting techniques. After the liquid
metal poured into mould cavity, metal ows in sprue, runner, ingates, respectively, then lls mould cavity. The ow simulation results shown in Fig. 11 that the liquid metal rstly reaches the last
feeder which is at the end of the runner then ows into bearing 3,
lobe 8 and 7, respectively, then reaches bearing 2 and ows towards lobe 4 and 3. Because of rstly contacting, chill materials
of these lobes are heated by liquid metal. Heated chills supply slow
cooling rate as compared with to the other chills. At the same time
because of the lobe 8 locations near the feeder, the high thermal
modulus feeder cools slowly and heats around. Lobe 1 has the
same cooling conditions, due to the nearest location of high thermal modulus feeder. Total casting time was measured as 10 s. Flow
of liquid and solidication simulation steps are illustrated in Fig.
11. The numbers 18 in Fig. 11 were presented as step by step of
ow-solidication simulation.
4.2. Metallographic studies
Fig. 11. Flow simulation of camshaft branch.

taneously reduced to Cu0 by Fe. The entire CuCl2 process is

spontaneous.

After the camshafts were poured and solidied, all camshafts

branches were separated from the mould sand. Then the sand on
the surface of the camshaft was cleaned by grinding method. After
that all the camshaft lobes were cut with a metallographic ne
cutter disc. After cross sectional cutting of the specimen, grinding

Fig. 12. Microstructure pictures of lobe 1.

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L.C. Kumruoglu / Materials and Design 30 (2009) 927938

Fig. 13. Microstructure pictures of lobe 4.

Fig. 14. Microstructure pictures of lobe 6.

was performed by using emery papers of grade 1801200. Alumina

polishing from 6 to 1 lm particle size followed. Specimen surfaces
were etched with 2% Nital to reveal the microstructures.
An optic microscope employed all lobes microstructures. For
each lobe the microstructure photos were taken from the top area
to the bottom area with the range of approximately 430 lm. 23
photos were taken for each sample. Eventhough all lobes were
investigated, only lobe 1, 4 and 6 are illustrated in Figs. 1214,

respectively. Because, lobe 1, 4 and 6 have different cooling curve

and solidication time.
The typical microstructure adjacent to the surface of the camshaft lobe 1 is shown in Fig. 12. At the top location of the lobe,
the microstructure is consistent with transformed ledeburitic
phase it contains a greater percentage of cementite and less
pearlitic than the gray cast iron microstructure in the camshaft
core. This type of microstructure was likely achieved during solid-

L.C. Kumruoglu / Materials and Design 30 (2009) 927938

ication by the use of chill plates situated in the mould adjacent to

the cam lobes.
At the center of lobe, a cast iron microstructure is presented
consisting of graphite surrounded with pearlite and low ferrite.

935

The microstructure at average cooling rates is occurred as mottled iron and the carbon in this structure is as primary cementite
and graphite. Very slow cooling of irons that contain large percentages of silicon and carbon is likely to produce considerable fer-

Fig. 15. Overall views of the cross-sections of lobes.

Table 2
Rockwell hardness values of camshaft lobes alone X- and Y-axis
1 Lobe

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

2 Lobe

3 Lobe

4 Lobe

5 Lobe

6 Lobe

7 Lobe

8 Lobe

X-axis

Y-axis

X-axis

Y-axis

X-axis

Y-axis

X-axis

Y-axis

X-axis

Y-axis

X-axis

Y-axis

X-axis

Y-axis

X-axis

Y-axis

57
50
38
34
31
33
38
46
51

56
54
48
33
36
31
35
40
44
50

54
50
46.5o
36.5
39
31
42
51
53

54
52.5
48
42
39
39
40.5
48
54
54

53
50
42
39
36
35
40
48
56

52
49
46
43
39
26
35
35
47
52

49
41
35
32
35
27
40
45.5

54
54
49
45.5
38
35
34
35
40
50

52.5
48
44
38
37
30
39
45
54.5

54.5
52
49
47
39
37
34
39
50
54

50
43
44
36
36
34
43
46
50

54
54
48
46
41
36
36
40
45
56

55
50
46
40
36
38
41
44
54

55
54
47
47
38
35
37
42
47
51

51
43
40
40
40
35
37
40
53

54
49
45
43
39
40
34
41
51
54

All data in the table is Rockwell C.

Fig. 16. HRc Hardness test results along the X-axis.

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L.C. Kumruoglu / Materials and Design 30 (2009) 927938

rite and pearlite throughout the matrix, together with coarse graphite akes.
As shown in Figs. 1214 the ledeburitic structure was obtained
at the top area and the bottom area. Especially it was examined
that there was a great amount of ledeburitic phase depth at the
top area. The mottled graphite was also examined in the center
of the lobe. That kind of microstructure was approximately 30
35 HRc hardness. On the other way ledeburitic structure hardness
was between 45 HRc and 57 HRc.
4.3. Hardness testing
The hardness tests methods, micro-hardness, Rockwell C and
Brinell hardness, were used on the surface of the camshafts lobes.
The hardness tests performed on cross-sectional surface are shown
in Fig. 15.

Rockwell hardness testing was carried out on the all camshaft

lobes surfaces from top (nose) area to the bottom area. The hardness tests results are summarized in Table 2. Also the table results
are presented in Figs. 16 and 17 as graphic. Along the Y-axis 10
hardness tests were carried out for each lobe at the same time 9
hardness tests were carried out for each lobe along the X-axis.
The hardness test was performed on each lobe surface from left
to the right. The hardness tests numbers were illustrated in the
lobe drawing in Figs. 16 and 17.
All hardness tests results gave us an important knowledge. The
computer simulation results and the hardness tests results had a
great agreement together. As shown previously, cooling speed is
a very important parameter. In addition to this, on the rapid cooling areas high hardness results, approximately 5060 HRC, in the
center of the lobe lower hardness results, approximately 30
35 HRC, were obtained. After that micro-hardness tests were per-

Fig. 17. HRc Hardness test results along the Y-axis.

Fig. 18. Average values of micro-hardness test result of camshaft lobes.

L.C. Kumruoglu / Materials and Design 30 (2009) 927938

937

Fig. 19. XRD data obtained from the chilled zone of lobe.

formed for each lobe in order to be understood well. Micro-hardness tests as shown in Fig. 18 were carried out from top to the bottom. According to the micro-hardness tests results, various values
from 350Hv0.3 (Hardness Vickers) to the 750Hv0.3 were obtained. It
was examined that there was cementite phase in high hardness
areas, graphite phase in lower hardness areas. In Fig. 18, the dark
line symbolizes an average micro hardness values.
The Fe3C and Fe phases were determined by XRD studies and
the detailed results are given in Fig. 19. The phase composition
investigation of the samples was carried out on the polished metal
surface using RIGAKU diffractometer Cu Ka, radiation, 1.54050 ).
As can be seen in Fig. 19, the rapid cooling area consist Fe3C carbides in matrix. The carbides phases improve hardness, wear and
abrasion resistance. The microstructure of the unalloyed iron generally consists of M3C carbides and pearlite. On the other hand, carbides and perlite do not supply sufcient properties for some
engineering applications. For instance, toughness is as signicant
as hardness for camshafts. Ni, Cr, Mo and Co additions both increase the hardness and toughness.
5. Conclusion
As the result of this work, the following conclusions are derived.
The cooling rate of a casting is primarily a function of its section
size. Increasing the cooling rate renes both hard transformed
ledeburitic phase and ne pearlitic (without ferrite inclusions)
matrix structure (on nose area of the lobes) therefore the hardness
increases. Lobe 6, 7, 2 and 3 have rapid cooling rate therefore harder values are expected than the other lobes.
Because of the strong cooling effect of chill, top of lobes are rapidly solidied under the high cooling rate therefore deeper chill
zone occurs and the DAS(dendrite arm spacing) is between 2 lm

and 15 lm. In lower cooling areas the DAS rises but in the central
areas of the lobes DAS doesnt occur.
Thermal characteristics such as cooling time, cooling ow rate,
chill and feeder locations, have shown the most pronounced effect
on microstructure. The casting simulation software is very useful
for predicting chill effect and casting parameters. So trial and error
period could be decreased.
Acknowledgements
The author gratefully acknowledge the technical supports extended by Mr. Hakan Bogatur and ESTAS Company (Sivas).
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