Chapter VI- Learning and Conditioning

Learning
a relatively permanent change in behavior, or a behavioral tendency, as a result of training or experience.
a process through which ones capacity or disposition is changed as a result of experience.

Relatively permanent
o Learning tends to resist change once it is acquired, it sometimes does change.
o It can be forgotten
o It can be changed or modified

Behavioral tendency
o It indicates that it is sometimes dormant- it does not reflect itself in immediate action (latent learning)

Experience
o In order to learn it is necessary to receive information- through our sense organs.
o Imagine an infant o person without hands/feet, vision/ hearing, it would be very difficult to learn and
develop normal intelligence/ learning would be next to impossible.
Theories of Learning

One way of understanding learning is by studying the different approaches or theories of learning.

These explain how people learn- system interpretations of observations about learning- the hows and whys of learning.

Theories are not only give theoretical basis for teaching but explanations for day-to-day learning events.

Recent/Contemporary learning theories are generally classified into two:

o The association or stimulus response (SR) theories- Thorndikes connectionism, classical method, operant
condition

learning occurs through interactions with the environment.

the environment shapes behavior and that taking internal mental states such as thoughts, feelings, and
emotions into consideration is useless in explaining behavior.
o The non-association or cognitive theories observational or social learning theory by albert bandura, latent
learning & insight learning.
Animal studies
o Have been very useful in the development of the learning theories. From animal studies, generalizations have
been made to apply to human beings.
o Although there are lot of criticisms but still today these theories remain strong in terms of their plausibility.
1. Classical Conditioning: Responding to Signals
a learning process in which an association is made between a previously neutral stimulus and a stimulus that naturally
evokes a response
this is the first type of learning to be studied.
By Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist.
Give examples
The four variables in order to apply conditioning works
The Unconditioned Stimulus - *food
The unconditioned stimulus is one that unconditionally, naturally, and automatically triggers a response. For example,
when you smell one of your favorite foods, you may immediately feel very hungry. In this example, the smell of the food
is the unconditioned stimulus.
The Unconditioned Response- *feeling hunger
The unconditioned response is the unlearned response that occurs naturally in response to the unconditioned stimulus.
In our example, the feeling of hunger in response to the smell of food is the unconditioned response.
The Conditioned Stimulus- *the sound of the whistle
The conditioned stimulus is previously neutral stimulus that, after becoming associated with the unconditioned stimulus,
eventually comes to trigger a conditioned response. In our earlier example, suppose that when you smelled your favorite
food, you also heard the sound of a whistle. While the whistle is unrelated to the smell of the food, if the sound of the
whistle was paired multiple times with the smell, the sound would eventually trigger the conditioned response. In this
case, the sound of the whistle is the conditioned stimulus.
The Conditioned Response- *feeling hungry when you hear the sound of whistle.
The conditioned response is the learned response to the previously neutral stimulus. In our example, the conditioned
response would be feeling hungry when you heard the sound of the whistle.

Principles of Classical Conditioning

Acquisition

Acquisition is the initial stage of learning when a response is first established and gradually strengthened.
o For example, imagine that you are conditioning a dog to salivate in response to the sound of a bell. You repeatedly pair
the presentation of food with the sound of the bell. You can say the response has been acquired as soon as the dog
begins to salivate in response to the bell tone. Once the response has been acquired, you can gradually reinforce the
salivation response to make sure the behavior is well learned.

Extinction

Extinction is when the occurrences of a conditioned response decrease or disappear.

In classical conditioning, this happens when a conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with an unconditioned stimulus.
o For example, if the smell of food (the unconditioned stimulus) had been paired with the sound of a whistle (the
conditioned stimulus), it would eventually come to evoke the conditioned response of hunger. However, if the
unconditioned stimulus (the smell of food) were no longer paired with the conditioned stimulus (the whistle), eventually
the conditioned response (hunger) would disappear.

Spontaneous Recovery

Spontaneous Recovery is the reappearance of the conditioned response after a rest period or period of lessened response. If
the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus are no longer associated, extinction will occur very rapidly after a
spontaneous recovery.

Stimulus Generalization

Stimulus Generalization is the tendency for the conditioned stimulus to evoke similar responses after the response has been
conditioned.
o For example, if a child has been conditioned to fear a stuffed white rabbit, the child will exhibit fear of objects
similar to the conditioned stimulus.

Discrimination

Discrimination is the ability to differentiate between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that have not been paired with an
unconditioned stimulus.
o For example, if a bell tone were the conditioned stimulus, discrimination would involve being able to tell the difference
between the bell tone and other similar sounds.
Application:
1. A fear response
2. Dog trainings
3. Treatment of phobias or anxiety problems
2. Operant Conditioning- How Behavior Is Shaped by its Own Consequences
-Work hard at a job all week and the consequence is a paycheck
-study hard and you will get a high grade in the exam; an honor student at the end of the sem
- Specified action operates on the environment, changes in some way.
a learning process in which the probability of response occurring is increased or decreased due to
reinforcement or punishment
By Burrhus Frederick Skinner- B. F. Skinner
operant conditioning is that the consequences of our actions shape voluntary behavior.
o an association is made between a behavior and a consequence for that behavior.
o Skinner believed that internal thoughts and motivations could not be used to explain behavior.
Instead, he suggested, we should look only at the external, observable causes of human behavior.
Examples

children completing homework to earn a reward from a parent or teacher, or employees finishing projects to
receive praise or promotions.
o the promise or possibility of rewards causes an increase in behavior
but operant conditioning can also be used to decrease a behavior. The removal of a desirable outcome or the
application of a negative outcome can be used to decrease or prevent undesirable behaviors.
o For example, a child may be told they will lose recess privileges if they talk out of turn in class. This
potential for punishment may lead to a decrease in disruptive behaviors.

Components of Operant Conditioning

Reinforcement
is any event that strengthens or increases the behavior it follows. There are two kinds of reinforcers:

Positive reinforcers are favorable events or outcomes that are presented after the behavior. In situations
that reflect positive reinforcement, a response or behavior is strengthened by the addition of something,
such as praise or a direct reward.

Negative reinforcers involve the removal of an unfavorable events or outcomes after the display of a behavior.
In these situations, a response is strengthened by the removal of something considered unpleasant.
In both of these cases of reinforcement, the behavior increases.

Punishment, on the other hand, is the presentation of an adverse event or outcome that causes a decrease in the
behavior it follows. There are two kinds of punishment:

Positive punishment, sometimes referred to as punishment by application, involves the presentation of an

unfavorable event or outcome in order to weaken the response it follows.
o Example: like spanking a child after the childs display of an undesirable behavior
o Negative punishment, also known as punishment by removal, occurs when an favorable event or outcome is
removed after a behavior occurs.
o Ex: withholding of chocolate if the child does not eat vegetables.

In both of these cases of punishment, the behavior decreases.

2 Types of Reinforcers:
1. Primary reinforcers- they satisfy basic physiological needs ex: food, water
2. Secondary reinforcers- not innately reinforcing; ex: money, grades, praise and tokens
Both may have the same effectiveness depending on how they are used or managed in the conditioning
process.
Satiation- the process whereby the effectiveness of a reinforce decreases with repeated presentation.
o

3. Thorndikes Connectionism- Trial and Error Learning: Taking a Rocky Road

by Edward Thorndike
he associated sense impressions and impulses with action
Ex. Hungry cat in a puzzle box. How animals learn to escape.
o He observed that the cat tried many ways of reaching for the food; likewise, various methods of
trying to open the box until it was finally successful- the cats effort to open the box used trial and
error.
Same with humans, man learn by trial and error.
o In searching for the correct solution to problems confronting him, man uses the trial and error
process. From his experience, man learns the act which leads to a satisfactory state of affairs
and eliminates those which do not.
Law of exercise- stimulus- response (SR) connections are strengthened by practice or repetition.
Law of effect- SR bonds or connections is strengthened by rewards or satisfaction.

An organism willingly approaches a reward or satisfier.

Ex: drills exemplify the law of exercise, while giving of giving high grades and honors uses the law of effect.
4. Social Learning Theory- Observational Learning
- By Albert Bandura

is a process in which learning occurs through observing and imitating others. People will imitate the actions of
others without direct reinforcement.
"Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely on the
effects of their own actions to inform them what to do. Fortunately, most human behavior is learned
observationally through modeling: from observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviors are
performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action." Albert Bandura,
Social Learning Theory, 1977
arguing that people can learn new information and behaviors by watching other people. Known as observational
learning (or modeling)
Basic Social Learning Concepts
1. People can learn through observation/Observational Learning
Bandura demonstrated that children learn and imitate behaviors they have observed in other people. The children in Banduras
studies observed an adult acting violently toward a Bobo doll. When the children were later allowed to play in a room with the
Bobo doll, they began to imitate the aggressive actions they had previously observed.
Children often see aggressive behavior display more aggressive behavior than those are not exposed to such
behavior.
Studies show that the age, sex, and status of subjects are crucial factos.
Imitation
- involves copying the behavior of the model one is exposed to.
High status models tend to be imitated often.
2. Mental states are important to learning/ Intrinsic Reinforcement
Bandura noted that external, environmental reinforcement was not the only factor to influence learning and behavior. He
described intrinsic reinforcement as a form of internal reward, such as pride, satisfaction, and a sense of accomplishment.

This emphasis on internal thoughts and cognitions helps connect learning theories to cognitive developmental
theories.
3. Learning does not necessarily lead to a change in behavior.
While behaviorists believed that learning led to a permanent change in behavior, observational learning demonstrates
that people can learn new information without demonstrating new behaviors.
The Modeling Process
Both the model and the learner can play a role in whether social learning is successful. Certain requirements and steps must also
be followed. The following steps are involved in the observational learning and modeling process:

Attention:
In order to learn, you need to be paying attention. Anything that detracts your attention is going to have a negative effect on
observational learning. If the model interesting or there is a novel aspect to the situation, you are far more likely to dedicate
your full attention to learning.

Retention:
The ability to store information is also an important part of the learning process. Retention can be affected by a number of
factors, but the ability to pull up information later and act on it is vital to observational learning.

Reproduction:
Once you have paid attention to the model and retained the information, it is time to actually perform the behavior you
observed. Further practice of the learned behavior leads to improvement and skill advancement.

Motivation:
Finally, in order for observational learning to be successful, you have to be motivated to imitate the behavior that has been
modeled. Reinforcement and punishment play an important role in motivation. While experiencing these motivators can be
highly effective, so can observing other experience some type of reinforcement or punishment.
For example, if you see another student rewarded with extra credit for being to class on time, you might start
to show up a few minutes early each day.
Application

In the field of eduction. Today, both teachers and parents recognize the importance of modeling appropriate
behaviors.
Both prosocial and antisocial behavior can be acquired through observational learning.

o Prosocial- if an individual admires one or both parents, then the parents may be taken as role models.
o Antisocial- has an adverse impact on the long-run goals of a traditional reference group.
Social learning theory seemingly explain many of our behaviors- that way we talk, walk- our
gestures/mannerisms
o No wonder children talk like their parents and resemble those of their parents.
o Friends too
o Other forms f mass media- tv, radio, movies
o Teachers, they play a very important role as models to their pupils.

5.

Latent Learning When we learn something new, we do not always have the need or opportunity to demonstrate what we have
learned.
For example, you might learn a new route to work but might not actually put this knowledge to use until you
actually need it (like if you need to take a detour because there is construction on your usual route).
Psychologists refer to this "hidden" learning as latent learning.
Existing but not yet active/developed/visible
Latent learning occurs without any obvious conditioning or reinforcement of a behavior, illustrating a cognitive
component to learning.
By Edward Tolman
disproved the behaviorist idea that learning was solely a product of conditioning.
it occurs without obvious reinforcement to be applied later
reinforcement - the process whereby a behavior with desirable consequences comes to be repeated.
Latent learning implies that learning can take place without any behavioral changes being immediately present.
This means that learning can be completely cognitive and not instilled through behavioral modification alone
Experimentation with groups of rats
Tolman designed a study with three groups of rats placed in a maze. The first group received no reward for finishing,
the second received a reward, and the third received no reward for the first 10 days, but did for the final eight. The
first group consistently made errors in running the maze, and showed little improvement over the 18 day study. The
second group showed constant improvement in the number of errors made. The third group showed little to no
improvement over the first ten days, then dramatic improvement once a food reward was presented. The final group's
improvement was more pronounced then the constant reward group.
Tolman theorized that the rats in the final group had been learning the maze over the first ten days but had no
incentive to run the maze without any errors. Once a reward was presented, the learning that had remained latent
became useful and the rats ran the maze more efficiently. Tolman argued that the rats had formed a "cognitive map"
of the maze but did not demonstrate this knowledge until they received reinforcement.
Latent Learning in Humans
o One such experiment required children to explore a series of objects to find a key. After finding the key, the
children were asked to find "non-key" objects. The children found these objects faster if they had previously
been exposed to them in the first part of the experiment. Their ability to learn this way increased as they
became older
Examples of Latent Learning
A college student is taught how to teach, but is unable to demonstrate that knowledge until she
receives a teaching job.
A dolphin is trained to dance with its trainer by watching others, but does not do so until given fish as
a reward.
A student is taught how to perform a special type of addition, but does not demonstrate the
knowledge until an important test is administered.
6. Insightful Learning
occurs when a new behavior is learned through cognitive processes rather than interactions with the outside
world.
differs from the trial and error ideas that were proposed before it. There is no gradual shaping or trial and
error involved. Instead internal organizational processes occur which cause new behavior.
Experiment Conducted

Kohler's (1925) most famous study on insight learning involves Sultan the chimpanzee. It can be argued that Sultan had
an insight when he realized that rather than simply using a short stick to gather fruit, he could use it to get a longer

stick that would reach fruit that was further away.

An insight is realizing a new behavior to solve a problem

Power of acute observation and deduction; penetration; discernment; perception.

The power of looking into relationships involved in a problem and in coming up with a solution.

Involves a sudden restructuring or organization of the oragnisms perceptual world into a new pattern
or gestalt.

Organisms are capable of more complex forms of learning if given the opportunity.
Differences Between Insight Learning and Other Learning Theories
we learn not only by conditioning, but also by cognitive processes which cannot be directly observed.
learning does not directly involve using past experiences to solve a problem. While past experiences may
help the process, an insight or novel idea is necessary to solve the problem. Prior knowledge is of limited
help in these situations, and learning occurs through cognitive processes.
When solving a problem of this kind, the researcher often has a so called "AHA!" experience or "Eureka"
moment. This occurs when the solution pops up all of a sudden after there were no ideas about how to
answer the problem, and no progress was being made.
Characteristic of Insight Learning
a) The greater intelligence the greater are the possibilities of achieving insight
b) The stronger the experiences, the greater possibility it will have of achieving insight
c) Learning can be tested in the laboratory
d) Learning can be applied to new situations
e) Not the result of trial and error