Types of Steam Flowmeter

The operation, advantages and limitations of different types of steam flowmeter,

including orifice plate, variable area and vortex shedding devices.
There are many types of flowmeter available, those suitable for steam applications include:

Orifice plate flowmeters

Turbine flowmeters (including shunt or bypass types)

Variable area flowmeters

Spring loaded variable area flowmeters

Direct in-line variable area (DIVA) flowmeter

Pitot tubes

Vortex shedding flowmeters

Each of these flowmeter types has its own advantages and limitations. To ensure accurate and
consistent performance from a steam flowmeter, it is essential to match the flowmeter to the
application.
This Tutorial will review the above flowmeter types, and discuss their characteristics, their
advantages and disadvantages, typical applications and typical installations.

Orifice plate flowmeters

The orifice plate is one in a group known as head loss devices or differential pressure
flowmeters. In simple terms the pipeline fluid is passed through a restriction, and the pressure
differential is measured across that restriction. Based on the work of Daniel Bernoulli in 1738
(see Tutorial 4.2), the relationship between the velocity of fluid passing through the orifice is
proportional to the square root of the pressure loss across it. Other flowmeters in the
differential pressure group include venturis and nozzles.
With an orifice plate flowmeter, the restriction is in the form of a plate which has a hole
concentric with the pipeline. This is referred to as the primary element.
To measure the differential pressure when the fluid is flowing, connections are made from the
upstream and downstream pressure tappings, to a secondary device known as a DP
(Differential Pressure) cell.

Fig. 4.3.1
Orifice plate

Fig. 4.3.2
Orifice plate flowmeter
From the DP cell, the information may be fed to a simple flow indicator, or to a flow
computer along with temperature and/or pressure data, which enables the system to
compensate for changes in fluid density.
In horizontal lines carrying vapours, water (or condensate) can build up against the upstream
face of the orifice. To prevent this, a drain hole may be drilled in the plate at the bottom of the
pipe. Clearly, the effect of this must be taken into account when the orifice plate dimensions
are determined.
Correct sizing and installation of orifice plates is absolutely essential, and is well documented
in the International Standard ISO 5167.

Fig. 4.3.3
Orifice plate flowmeter installation

Installation
A few of the most important points from ISO 5167 are discussed below:
Pressure tappings - Small bore pipes (referred to as impulse lines) connect the upstream and
downstream pressure tappings of the orifice plate to a Differential Pressure or DP cell.
The positioning of the pressure tappings can be varied. The most common locations are:

From the flanges (or carrier) containing the orifice plate as shown in Figure 4.3.3.
This is covenient, but care needs to be taken with tappings at the bottom of the pipe,
because they may become clogged.

One pipe diameter on the upstream side and 0.5 x pipe diameter on the downstream
side.This is less convenient, but potentially more accurate as the differential pressure
measured is at its greatest at the vena contracta, which occurs at this position.

Corner tappings - These are generally used on smaller orifice plates where space restrictions
mean flanged tappings are difficult to manufacture. Usually on pipe diameters including or
below DN50.
From the DP cell, the information may be fed to a flow indicator, or to a flow computer along
with temperature and/or pressure data, to provide density compensation.
Pipework - There is a requirement for a minimum of five straight pipe diameters downstream
of the orifice plate, to reduce the effects of disturbance caused by the pipework.
The amount of straight pipework required upstream of the orifice plate is, however, affected
by a number of factors including:

The ratio; this is the relationship between the orifice diameter and the pipe
diaameter (see Equation 4.3.1), and would typically be a value of 0.7.

Equation 4.3.1

The nature and geometry of the preceding obstruction. A few obstruction examples
are shown in Figure 4.3.4:

Fig. 4.3.4
Orifice plate installations
Table 4.3.1 brings the ratio and the pipework geometry together to recommend the number
of straight diameters of pipework required for the configurations shown in Figure 4.3.4.
In particularly arduous situations, flow straighteners may be used. These are discussed in
more detail in Tutorial 4.5.

Table 4.3.1
Recommended straight pipe diameters upstream of an orifice plate for various ratios and
preceding obstruction

Advantages of orifice plate steam flowmeters:

Simple and rugged.

Good accuracy.

Low cost.

No calibration or recalibration is required provided calculations, tolerances and

installation comply with ISO 5167.

Disadvantages of orifice plate steam flowmeters:

Turndown is limited to between 4:1 and 5:1 because of the square root relationship
between flow and pressure drop.

The orifice plate can buckle due to waterhammer and can block in a system that is
poorly designed or installed.

The square edge of the orifice can erode over time, particularly if the steam is wet or
dirty. This will alter the characteristics of the orifice, and accuracy will be affected.
Regular inspection and replacement is therefore necessary to ensure reliability and
accuracy.

The installed length of an orifice plate flowmetering system may be substantial; a

minimum of 10 upstream and 5 downstream straight unobstructed pipe diameters may
be needed for accuracy.

This can be difficult to achieve in compact plants. Consider a system which uses 100 mm
pipework, the ratio is 0.7, and the layout is similar to that shown in Figure 4.3.4(b):
The upstream pipework length required would be = 36 x 0.1 m = 3.6 m
The downstream pipework length required would be = 5 x 0.1 m = 0.5 m
The total straight pipework required would be = 3.6 + 0.5 m = 4.1 m

Typical applications for orifice plate steam flowmeters:

Anywhere the flowrate remains within the limited turndown ratio of between 4:1 and
5:1.
This can include the boiler house and applications where steam is supplied to many
plants, some on-line, some off-line, but the overall flowrate is within the range.

Turbine flowmeters
The primary element consists of a multi-bladed rotor which is mounted at right angles to the
flow and suspended in the fluid stream on a free-running bearing. The diameter of the rotor is
slightly less than the inside diameter of the flowmetering chamber, and its speed of rotation is
proportional to the volumetric flowrate.
The speed of rotation of the turbine may be determined using an electronic proximity switch
mounted on the outside of the pipework, which counts the pulses, as shown in Figure 4.3.5.

Fig. 4.3.5
Turbine flowmeter
Since a turbine flowmeter consists of a number of moving parts, there are several influencing
factors that need to be considered:

The temperature, pressure and viscosity of the fluid being measured.

The lubricating qualities of the fluid.

The bearing wear and friction.

The conditional and dimensional changes of the blades.

The inlet velocity profile and the effects of swirl.

The pressure drop through the flowmeter.

Because of these factors, calibration of turbine flowmeters must be carried out under
operational conditions.
In larger pipelines, to minimise cost, the turbine element can be installed in a pipework
bypass, or even for the flowmeter body to incorporate a bypass or shunt, as shown in Figure
4.3.6.
Bypass flowmeters comprise an orifice plate, which is sized to provide sufficient restriction
for a sample of the main flow to pass through a parallel circuit. Whilst the speed of rotation of
the turbine may still be determined as explained previously, there are many older units still in
existence which have a mechanical output as shown in Figure 4.3.6.
Clearly, friction between the turbine shaft and the gland sealing can be significant with this
mechanical arrangement.

Fig. 4.3.6
Bypass or shunt turbine flowmeter

Advantages of turbine flowmeters:

A turndown of 10:1 is achievable in a good installation with the turbine bearings in

good condition.

Accuracy is reasonable ( 0.5% of actual value).

Bypass flowmeters are relatively low cost.

Disadvantages of turbine flowmeters:

Generally calibrated for a specific line pressure. Any steam pressure variations will
lead to inaccuracies in readout unless a density compensation package is included.

Flow straighteners are essential (see Tutorial 4.5).

If the flow oscillates, the turbine will tend to over or under run, leading to
inaccuracies due to lag time.

Wet steam can damage the turbine wheel and affect accuracy.

Low flowrates can be lost because there is insufficient energy to turn the turbine
wheel.

Viscosity sensitive: if the viscosity of the fluid increases, the response at low
flowrates deteriorates giving a non-linear relationship between flow and rotational
speed. Software may be available to reduce this effect.

The fluid must be very clean (particle size not more than 100 m) because:

o Clearances between the turbine wheel and the inside of the pipe are very
small.
o Entrained debris can damage the turbine wheel and alter its performance.
o Entrained debris will accelerate bearing wear and affect accuracy, particularly
at low flowrates.

Typical applications for turbine flowmeters:

Superheated steam.

Liquid flowmetering, particularly fluids with lubricating properties. As with all

liquids, care must be taken to remove air and gases prior to them being metered.

Variable area flowmeters

The variable area flowmeter (Figure 4.3.7), often referred to as a rotameter, consists of a
vertical, tapered bore tube with the small bore at the lower end, and a float that is allowed to
freely move in the fluid. When fluid is passing through the tube, the float's position is in
equilibrium with:

The dynamic upward force of the fluid.

The downward force resulting from the mass of the float.

The position of the float, therefore, is an indication of the flowrate.

In practice, this type of flowmeter will be a mix of:

A float selected to provide a certain weight, and chemical resistance to the fluid.
The most common float material is grade 316 stainless steel, however, other materials
such as Hastalloy C, aluminium or PVC are used for specific applications.
On small flowmeters, the float is simply a ball, but on larger flowmeters special
shaped floats are used to improve stability.

A tapered tube, which will provide a measuring scale of typically between 40 mm

and 250 mm over the design flow range.
Usually the tube will be made from glass or plastic. However, if failure of the tube
could present a hazard, then either a protective shroud may be fitted around the glass,
or a metal tube may be used.
With a transparent tube, flow readings are taken by observation of the float against a
scale. For higher temperature applications where the tube material is opaque, a
magnetic device is used to indicate the position of the float.
Because the annular area around the float increases with flow, the differential pressure
remains almost constant.

Fig. 4.3.7
Variable area flowmeter

Advantages of variable area flowmeters:

Linear output.

Turndown is approximately 10:1.

Simple and robust.

Pressure drop is minimal and fairly constant.

Disadvantages of variable area flowmeters:

The tube must be mounted vertically (see Figure 4.3.8).

Because readings are usually taken visually, and the float tends to move about,
accuracy is only moderate. This is made worst by parallax error at higher flowrates,
because the float is some distance away from the scale.

Transparent taper tubes limit pressure and temperature.

Typical applications for variable area flowmeters:

Metering of gases.

Small bore airflow metering - In these applications, the tube is manufactured from
glass, with calibrations marked on the outside. Readings are taken visually.

Laboratory applications.

Rotameters are sometimes used as a flow indicating device rather than a flow
measuring device.

Fig. 4.3.8
Variable area flowmeter installed in a vertical plane

Spring loaded variable area flowmeters

The spring loaded variable area flowmeter (an extension of the variable area flowmeter) uses
a spring as the balancing force. This makes the meter independent of gravity, allowing it to be
used in any plane, even upside-down. However, in its fundamental configuration (as shown in
Figure 4.3.9), there is also a limitation: the range of movement is constrained by the linear
range of the spring, and the limits of the spring deformation.

Fig. 4.3.9
Spring loaded variable area flowmeters
However, another important feature is also revealed: if the pass area (the area between the
float and the tube) increases at an appropriate rate, then the differential pressure across the
spring loaded variable area flowmeter can be directly proportional to flow.
To recap a few earlier statements
With orifice plates flowmeters:

As the rate of flow increases, so does the differential pressure.

By measuring this pressure difference it is possible to calculate the flowrate through

the flowmeter.

The pass area (for example, the size of the hole in the orifice plate) remains constant.

With any type of variable area flowmeter

The differential pressure remains almost constant as the flowrate varies.

Flowrate is determine from the position of the float.

The pass area (the area between the float and the tube) through which the flow passes
increases with increasing flow.

Figure 4.3.10 compares these two principles.

Fig. 4.3.10
Comparing the fixed area and variable area flowmeters
The spring loaded variable area principle is a hybrid between these two devices, and either:

The displacement of the float - Option 1

or

The differential pressure - Option 2

...may be used to determine the flowrate through the flowmeter.

In Option 1 (determining the displacement of the float or 'flap'). This can be developed for
steam systems by:

Using a torsion spring to give a better operating range.

Using a system of coils to accurately determine the position of the float.

This will result in a very compact flowmeter. This may be further tailored for saturated steam
applications by incorporating a temperature sensor and programming steam tables into the
computer unit. See Figure 4.3.11 for an example of a flowmeter of this type.

Fig. 4.3.11
Spring loaded variable area flowmeter monitoring the position of the float

Advantages of spring loaded variable area flowmeters:

Robust.

Turndowns of 25:1 are achievable with normal steam velocities (25 m/s), although
high velocities can be tolerated on an intermittent basis, offering turndowns of up to
40:1.

Accuracy is 2% of actual value.

Can be tailored for saturated steam systems with temperature and pressure sensors to
provide pressure compensation.

Relatively low cost.

Short installation length.

Disadvantages of spring loaded variable area flowmeters:

Size limited to DN100.

Can be damaged over a long period by poor quality (wet and dirty) steam, at
prolonged high velocity (>30 m/s).

Typical applications for spring loaded variable area flowmeters:

Flowetering of steam to individual plants.

Small boiler houses.

Fig. 4.3.12
Typical installation of a spring loaded variable area flowmeter measuring steam flow
In Option 2 (Figure 4.3.10), namely, determining the differential pressure, this concept can be
developed further by shaping of the float to give a linear relationship between differential
pressure and flowrate. See Figure 4.3.13 for an example of a spring loaded variable area
flowmeter measuring differential pressure. The float is referred to as a cone due to its shape.

Fig. 4.3.13
Spring Loaded Variable Area flowmeter (SLVA) monitoring differential pressure

Advantages of a spring loaded variable area (SLVA) flowmeter:

High turndown, up to 100:1.

Good accuracy 1% of reading for pipeline unit.

Compact - a DN100 wafer unit requires only 60 mm between flanges.

Suitable for many fluids.

Disadvantages of a variable area spring load flowmeter:

Can be expensive due to the required accessories, such as the DP cell and flow
computer.

Typical applications for a variable area spring load flowmeter:

Boiler house flowmetering.

Flowmetering of large plants.

Fig. 4.3.14
Typical installation of a SVLA flowmeter monitoring differential pressure

Direct In-Line Variable Area (DIVA) flowmeter

The DIVA flowmeter operates on the well established spring loaded variable area (SLVA)
principle, where the area of an annular orifice is continuously varied by a precision shaped
moving cone. This cone is free to move axially against the resistance of a spring.
However, unlike other SLVA flowmeters, the DIVA does not rely on the measurement of
differential pressure drop across the flowmeter to calculate flow, measuring instead the force
caused by the deflection of the cone via a series of extremely high quality strain gauges. The
higher the flow of steam the greater the force. This removes the need for expensive
differential pressure transmitters, reducing installation costs and potential problems (Figure
4.3.15).
The DIVA has an internal temperature sensor, which provides full density compensation for
saturated steam applications.

Flowmetering systems will:

Check on the energy cost of any part of the plant.

Cost energy as a raw material.

Identify priority areas for energy savings.

Enable efficiencies to be calculated for processes or power generation.

Fig. 4.3.15 Traditional flowmetering system versus a DIVA flowmetering system

The DIVA steam flowmeter (Figure 4.3.16) has a system uncertainty in accordance with EN
ISO/IEC 17025, of:

2% of actual flow to a confidence of 95% (2 standard deviations) over a range of

10% to 100% of maximum rated flow.

0.2% FSD to a confidence of 95% (2 standard deviations) from 2% to 10% of the

maximum rated flow.

As the DIVA is a self-contained unit the uncertainty quoted is for the complete system. Many
flowmeters claim a pipeline unit uncertainty but, for the whole system, the individual

uncertainty values of any associated equipment, such as DP cells, need to be taken into
account.
The turndown of a flowmeter is the ratio of the maximum to minimum flowrate over which it
will meet its specified performance, or its operational range. The DIVA flowmeter has a high
turndown ratio of up to 50:1, giving an operational range of up to 98% of its maximum flow.

Fig. 4.3.16 The DIVA flowmeter

Flow orientations
The orientation of the DIVA flowmeter can have an effect on the operating performance.
Installed in horizontal pipe, the DIVA has a steam pressure limit of 32 bar g, and a 50:1
turndown. As shown in Figure 4.3.17, if the DIVA is installed with a vertical flow direction
then the pressure limit is reduced, and the turndown ratio will be affected if the flow is
vertically upwards.

Fig. 4.3.17 Flow orientation

Pitot tubes
In large steam mains, the cost of providing a full bore flowmeter can become extremely high
both in terms of the cost of the flowmeter itself, and the installation work required.
A Piot tube flowmeter can be an inexpensive method of metering. The flowmeter itself is
cheap, it is cheap to install, and one flowmeter may be used in several applications.
Pitot tubes, as introduced in Tutorial 4.2, are a common type of insertion flowmeter. Figure
4.3.18 shows the basis for a Pitot tube, where a pressure is generated in a tube facing the
flow, by the velocity of the fluid. This 'velocity' pressure is compared against the reference
pressure (or static pressure) in the pipe, and the velocity can be determined by applying a
simple equation.

Fig. 4.3.18 A diagrammatic pitot tube

In practice, two tubes inserted into a pipe would be cumbersome, and a simple Pitot tube will
consist of one unit as shown in Figure 4.3.19. Here, the hole measuring the velocity pressure
and the holes measuring the reference or static pressure are incorporated in the same device.

Fig. 4.3.19 A simple pitot tube

Because the simple Pitot tube (Figure 4.3.19) only samples a single point, and, because the
flow profile of the fluid (and hence velocity profile) varies across the pipe, accurate
placement of the nozzle is critical.
Note that a square root relationship exists between velocity and pressure drop (see Equation
4.2.13). This limits the accuracy to a small turndown range.

Equation 4.2.13
Where:
The averaging Pitot tube
The averaging Pitot tube (Figure 4.3.20) was developed with a number of upstream sensing
tubes to overcome the problems associated with correctly siting the simple type of Pitot tube.
These sensing tubes sense various velocity pressures across the pipe, which are then averaged
within the tube assembly to give a representative flowrate of the whole cross section.
u1 =
The fluid velocity in the pipe
p =
Dynamic pressure - Static pressure
=
Density

Fig. 4.3.20 The averaging pitot tube

Advantages of the Pitot tube

Presents little resistance to flow.

Inexpensive to buy.

Simple types can be used on different diameter pipes.

Disadvantages of the Pitot tube:

Turndown is limited to approximately 4:1 by the square root relationship between

pressure and velocity as discussed in Tutorial 4.2.

If steam is wet, the bottom holes can become effectively blocked. To counter this,
some models can be installed horizontally.

Sensi