Diesel Trucks & Buses in India

Strictly Confidential
2012
2013
Petroleum Conservation Research Association
Market Survey leading to

Fuel Consumption norms
for
Market Survey leading to Fuel
Consumption
for
Diesel
(Enginenorms
Driven)
Diesel (Engine Driven) Trucks & Buses in
Trucks & Buses
in India
India
Draft
FinalReport
Report
ICRA
ICRAManagement
ManagementConsulting
ConsultingServices
ServicesLimited
Limited
IMaCS
IMaCS
December
March2012
2013
Final Report Market Survey for Fuel Consumption norms for Diesel Trucks & Buses in India
Disclaimer:- This report and the analysis herein is strictly for the use and benefit of Petroleum
Conservation Research Association (PCRA) and shall not be relied upon by any other person. This
report and the analysis herein are based on data and information collected by ICRA Management
Consulting Services Limited (IMaCS) from sources believed to be reliable and authentic. While all
reasonable care has been taken by IMaCS to ensure that the information and analysis contained herein
is not untrue or misleading, neither IMaCS nor its Directors shall be responsible for any losses, direct,
indirect, incidental or consequential that any user of this report may incur by acting on the basis of this
report or its contents. IMaCS makes no representations or warranties in relation to the accuracy or
completeness of the information contained in the report. IMaCS analysis in this report is based on
information that is currently available and may be liable to change. This report and the analysis herein
should not be construed to be a credit rating assigned by ICRA Limited for any securities of any entity.
Other than as expressly stated in this report, we express no opinion on any other issue. Our
analysis/advice/recommendations should not be construed as legal advice on any issue.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ............................................................................................................... 8

1
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 15
1.1
Background ........................................................................................................................................ 15
1.2
Scope of work ..................................................................................................................................... 16
1.3
Limitations of our study ..................................................................................................................... 16
MARKET OVERVIEW OF TRUCKS AND BUSES IN INDIA .................................................... 18

2.1
Market segmentation .......................................................................................................................... 18
2.2
Market size and Vehicle park ............................................................................................................. 21
2.3
Future vehicle projections ................................................................................................................. 26
2.4
Diesel consumption ............................................................................................................................ 28
OVERVIEW OF GLOBAL F UEL CONSUMPTION STANDARDS ............................................. 31

3.1
Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 31
3.2
International benchmarks for fuel consumption standards for Heavy Duty Vehicles (HDVs) ....... 33
3.2.1
United States ....................................................................................................................................... 33
3.2.2
Japan .................................................................................................................................................. 40
3.2.3
Canada ................................................................................................................................................ 47
3.2.4
European Union (EU) ........................................................................................................................ 54
3.3
Issues and challenges faced in Implementation of HDV regulations .............................................. 57
3.3.1
United States: ..................................................................................................................................... 57
3.3.2
Canada ................................................................................................................................................ 58
FRAMEWORK FOR DEFINING STANDARDS FOR DIESEL (ENGINE DRIVEN ) TRUCKS AND
BUSES IN INDIA ........................................................................................................................ 60

4.1
Fuel consumption roadmap vision .................................................................................................... 60
4.2
Approaches for defining fuel consumption standards ...................................................................... 61
4.2.1
Attributes for Attribute-based continuous curve approach ............................................................... 63
4.2.2
Categories for Attribute-based continuous curve approach (with categories) ................................. 65
4.2.3
Testing procedures and Test cycles for measuring fuel consumption .............................................. 65
4.3
Key Technology areas for improvement in fuel consumption .......................................................... 68
4.4
Developing Fuel consumption standards for India ........................................................................... 70
4.4.1
Vehicle standards ............................................................................................................................... 71
4.4.2
Engine standards ................................................................................................................................ 74
4.5
Estimation increase in fuel consumption by 2020, 2025................................................................... 77
4.5.1
Case I : Current fuel economy scenario ............................................................................................ 77
4.5.2
Case II : Fuel consumption standards regime .................................................................................. 79
4.5.3
Estimated diesel consumption in India (trucks and buses) ............................................................... 81
4.5.4
Estimation of Fuel savings ................................................................................................................ 81
4.6
Implementation roadmap - Draft time schedule for implementation of the program ...................... 83
OVERVIEW OF TESTING F ACILITIES IN INDIA .................................................................. 85

5.1
Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 85
5.2
Automotive Research Association of India (ARAI) .......................................................................... 85
5.3
National Automotive Testing and R&D Infrastructure Project (NATRiP) ...................................... 87
5.4
Vehicle Research & Development Establishment (VRDE) ............................................................... 91
ANNEXURE I: ILLUSTRATIVE SPECIFICATIONS OF DIESEL ENGINES FOR TRUCKS AND BUSES

IN INDIA .................................................................................................................................... 96
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1: Segmentation of trucks / goods carriers by Gross Vehicle Weight (GVW) or MM ................... 19
Table 2.2: Segmentation of buses by Gross Vehicle Weight (GVW) or MM............................................... 20
Table 2.3: Estimated diesel consumption by trucks and buses in India (2011-12) ...................................... 30
Table 3.1: Fuel consumption and Emission standards for Light Duty Vehicles (LDVs) ............................. 31
Table 3.2: Testing and simulation options for measurement of vehicle fuel economy ................................ 33
Table 3.3: Vehicle Weight Classes Defined by US Department of Transportation ..................................... 34
Table 3.4: US CAFE Standards For Light trucks ..................................................................................... 35
Table 3.5: US CAFE Standards for Class 2b8 Vocational Vehicles ........................................................ 37
Table 3.6: US CAFE Standards for Class 78 Combination Vehicles ...................................................... 37
Table 3.7: US CAFE MY 2017 Combination Tractor Standards ................................................................ 38
Table 3.8: MY 2017 Combination Tractor Standards ................................................................................. 38
Table 3.9: MY 2017 Combination Tractor Standards ................................................................................. 40
Table 3.10: 2015 Fuel Efficiency Targets for Mini Cargo Vehicles ............................................................. 41
Table 3.11: 2015 Fuel Efficiency Targets for Light Cargo Vehicles, GVW 1.7 t ...................................... 42
Table 3.12: 2015 Fuel Efficiency targets for diesel Medium Cargo Vehicles (1.7 t < GVW 3.5t) ............ 42
Table 3.13: 2015 Fuel Efficiency Targets for Heavy-Duty Transit Buses.................................................... 43
Table 3.14: 2015 Fuel Efficiency Targets for Heavy-Duty General (Non-Transit) Buses ........................... 43
Table 3.15: 2015 Fuel Efficiency Targets for Heavy-Duty Trucks (Excluding Tractors) ........................... 43
Table 3.16: 2015 Fuel Efficiency Targets for Heavy-Duty Tractors ............................................................ 44
Table 3.17: Driving Distance Proportion by Driving Mode ......................................................................... 45
Table 3.18: Fuel efficiency improvements in Freight Vehicles .................................................................... 46
Table 3.19: Fuel efficiency improvements in Passenger vehicles (Riding capacity > 11 persons) ............... 46
Table 3.20: Tax incentives on fuel-efficient and low-emissions vehicles ...................................................... 47
Table 3.21: Data for LDV and HDV (2011) ................................................................................................. 48
Table 3.22: For 2014 to 2017 model years .................................................................................................... 50
Table 3.23: For 2014 to 2018 model years .................................................................................................... 50
Table 3.24: CO2 Emission Standards for vocational vehicles ..................................................................... 51
Table 3.25: Vocational vehicles CO2 Emission Standards for compression-ignition engine (diesel) .......... 51
Table 3.26: Combination tractors CO2 Emission Standards ...................................................................... 51
Table 3.27: Combination tractors CO2 Emission Standards for engines (in g/BHP-hr) ............................ 52
Table 3.28: EU Emission Standards for Light Commercial Vehicles .......................................................... 54
Table 4.1: Pros and Cons of approaches to the way standards are defined ................................................ 62
Table 4.2: Comparison of attributes for Attribute-based continuous curve approach ............................... 64
Table 4.3: Categories for Attribute-based continuous curve approach ...................................................... 65
Table 4.4: Testing options for measurement of vehicle fuel economy ......................................................... 67
Table 4.5: Truck fuel economy improvement technology matrix ................................................................ 68
Table 4.6: Key Technology Areas for improvement in fuel consumption using off-the-shelf technologies
and technologies that will be available in the 2015-2020 timeframe ................................................... 70
Table 4.7: Targeted fuel economy improvement in 2020, 2025 (for illustrative purpose only) ................... 72
Table 4.8: Estimated annual diesel consumption by New trucks purchased from 2015-16 onwards
during 2015-16 and 2024-25 (under Current fuel efficiency scenario) ................................................ 77
Table 4.9: Estimated annual diesel consumption by New buses purchased from 2015-16 onwards
during 2015-16 and 2024-25 (under Current fuel efficiency scenario) ................................................ 78
Table 4.10: Targeted fuel economy improvement in 2020, 2025 (for illustrative purpose only) ................. 79
Table 4.11: Estimated annual diesel consumption by New trucks purchased from 2015-16 onwards
during 2015-16 and 2024-25 (under Fuel consumption standards regime) ......................................... 80
Table 4.12: Estimated annual diesel consumption by New buses purchased from 2015-16 onwards
during 2015-16 and 2024-25 (under Fuel consumption standards regime) ......................................... 80
Table 4.13: Estimated Fuel savings from the proposed program ................................................................ 82
Table 5.1: ARAI Testing facilities ................................................................................................................ 86
Table 5.2: List of NATRiP testing centers ................................................................................................... 87
Table 5.3: Details of testing facilities at iCAT, Manesar ............................................................................. 87
Table 5.4: Proposed testing facilities at Global Automotive Research Center, Chennai ............................ 89
Table 5.5: Proposed testing facilities at National Automotive Test Tracks, Indore .................................... 90
Table 5.6: Proposed facilities at NIAIMT, Silchar....................................................................................... 91
Table 5.7: Proposed testing facilities at National Center for Vehicle research and Safety, Rae Bareli ...... 91
Table 5.8: List of testing facilities at VRDE ................................................................................................. 92
Table 5.9: Details of testing tracks at VRDE ............................................................................................... 93
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1: Segmentation of Indian Automobile Industry ........................................................................... 18
Figure 2.2: Domestic Market Share for Indian Automotive Industry (2011-12)......................................... 18
Figure 2.3: Annual sales of Buses and Trucks in India................................................................................ 21
Figure 2.4: Annual sales of Trucks in India ................................................................................................. 21
Figure 2.5: Annual sales of Buses in India ................................................................................................... 22
Figure 2.6: Commercial vehicle sales break-up (2011-12) ........................................................................... 22
Figure 2.7: Trucks Changing sales mix (by weight categories) ................................................................. 23
Figure 2.8: Buses - Sales mix ........................................................................................................................ 23
Figure 2.9: Number of registered buses and goods vehicles in India (Cumulative) .................................... 24
Figure 2.10: Trucks Vehicle parc (by weight category) (as of March 31, 2012) .......................................... 24
Figure 2.11: Buses Vehicle parc (by weight category) (as of March 31, 2012) ............................................ 25
Figure 2.12: Trucks Fleet break-up by age (as of March 31, 2012) .......................................................... 25
Figure 2.13: Buses Fleet break-up by age (as of March 31, 2012) ............................................................ 25
Figure 2.14: Projected growth in sale of buses in India till 2025 ................................................................. 26
Figure 2.15: Projected sales mix of buses in 2019-20 and 2024-25 .............................................................. 27
Figure 2.16: Projected growth of trucks in India till 2025 ........................................................................... 27
Figure 2.17: Projected sales mix of trucks in 2019-20 and 2024-2025 ......................................................... 28
Figure 2.18: Consumption of HSDO in India (in 000 tonnes) .................................................................... 29
Figure 2.19: Diesel consumption mix in India.............................................................................................. 29
Figure 3.1: HDV policy timelines across the globe ...................................................................................... 32
Figure 3.2: EPA CO2 Target Standards and NHTSA Fuel Consumption Target Standards for Diesel HD
Pickups and Vans ................................................................................................................................. 36
Figure 3.3: Overview of Simulation method ................................................................................................ 44
Figure 3.4: Regulated category of vehicles in Canada ................................................................................. 48
Figure 4.1: Baseline fuel consumption data for trucks (for illustrative purpose only)................................ 71
Figure 4.2: Baseline fuel consumption data for buses (for illustrative purpose only) ................................. 72
Figure 4.3: Fuel consumption targets for trucks 2020, 2025 (for illustrative purpose only) ....................... 73
Figure 4.4: Fuel consumption targets for buses 2020, 2025 (for illustrative purpose only) ........................ 74
Figure 4.5: Baseline Engine efficiency data (for illustrative purpose only) ................................................. 75
Figure 4.6: Engine efficiency targets 2020 (for illustrative purpose only) ................................................... 76
Figure 4.7: Estimated increase in diesel consumption by trucks and buses in India .................................. 81
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Background
India is the fifth largest commercial vehicle manufacturer and one of the fastest growing commercial vehicle
markets in the world. Annual sales of trucks in India has grown from 111,485 trucks in 2001-02 to 682,300
trucks in 2011-12 at a Compounded Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of around 20 per cent while that of buses
has remained relatively flat, increasing from 89,812 buses in 2001-02 to 98,763 buses in 2011-12, growing
at a CAGR of around 1 per cent. An estimated 1.34 million buses and 4.17 million trucks are plying on the
roads in India. Rapid growth in number of trucks and buses in India during the last decade has significantly
increased diesel consumption in India. In 2011-12, Indias total diesel consumption stood at about 64.74
million tonnes; road transport accounted for about 64 per cent of diesel consumption, of which trucks and
buses consumed around 77 per cent diesel (trucks consuming 24.03 million tonnes and buses consuming
around 7.77 million tonnes). In future, truck sales is estimated to grow at around 8.9 per cent y-o-y between
2012-13 and 2024-45 from 0.80 million in 2012-13 to 2.23 million in 2024-25. Over the same period, bus
sales is expected to grow at a CAGR of 5.7 per cent to increase from 0.11 million in 2012-13 to 0.21 million
in 2024-25. The estimated diesel consumption by trucks and buses in India is expected to increase
from around 31.8 million tonne in 2011-12 to around 104.7 million tonne in 2024-25, thereby
registering a CAGR of 9.6%. Considering Indias dependence on imports of crude oil, it becomes
imperative for India to take steps to reduce diesel consumption by trucks and buses over medium to
long-term. However, fuel economy of trucks and buses has almost remained stagnant over the last five
years. Change in emission regime from BS III to BS IV in some of the cities of the country has made
the job of balancing emissions and fuel economy tougher for bus and truck manufacturers.
In this context, Petroleum Conservation Research Association (PCRA) has embarked upon the
process of preparation of Fuel Efficiency program for Diesel (Engine Driven) Trucks & Buses in
India. In this context, PCRA had mandated ICRA Management Consulting Services Limited (IMaCS)
to prepare a Report on market survey leading to fuel consumption norms for diesel (engine driven)
trucks & buses in India. We have prepared this report covering the findings of our exercise for
development of Fuel Consumption norms for Diesel Trucks & Buses in India.
Global fuel consumption standards for Heavy Duty Vehicles

With limited oil reserves, the Governments around the world have taken cognisance of the situation,
with several countries in the process of setting standards for regulating the fuel consumption by
Heavy-Duty vehicles (HDVs). HDVs have a relatively short history of fuel consumption regulations.
Establishing fuel efficiency norms for HDVs is significantly more challenging due to their diversity in
terms of vehicle size, configurations and usage patterns. Because of these challenges, HDV fuel
efficiency standards have just begun to be proposed and adopted in some of the major vehicle markets
in the world. Japan was the first country, which introduced such standards in 2005, providing a
roadmap for improvement in fuel efficiency of HDVs up to 2015. The US has finalized HDV fuel
efficiency standards in 2011, which begin with model year 2014, and increase in stringency through
2018. Canada has aligned its Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emission standards with the US HDV fuel
efficiency standards. Europe and China are in the process of designing HDV efficiency standards.
With increasing focus on the fuel efficiency/GHG emissions of M&HCV across the globe, a number
of countries are expected to introduce regulatory norms in the coming years.
An important consideration in designing and implementation of norms for HDV vehicles is defining
of duty cycle and testing conditions. Testing of HDV vehicles requires additional forethought given
the diversity of size and applications of the vehicles. Computer simulation of the whole truck
(typically in combination with engine testing on a bench dynamometer) seems to be the favoured
option by the Governments across the globe due to ease of implementation, accuracy of results and
cost-effectiveness. China is planning to use chassis dynamometer testing for main HDV vehicle
families and computer simulation for variants.
Testing and simulation options for measurement of vehicle fuel economy
S No
Type of test
Parts simulated
Cost of test
(1)
On-road
Computer
simulation
Engine
dynamometer
Chassis
dynamometer
None
Low
Countries
considering
fuel
consumption norms for HDVs
None
All
Low
US, EU, Japan, China
Road and non-engine

components
High
US, EU, Japan
Road
Very High
(2)
(3)
(4)
China
Source: IEA Technology Roadmap - Fuel Economy of Road Vehicles
Framework for defining standards for diesel (engine-driven) trucks and buses in India
India currently has standards to reduce air pollutants from motor vehicles; however, there are no
standards to reduce fuel consumption of motor vehicles in India. Efforts are already underway for
development of fuel consumption standards for passenger vehicles in India. Though passenger
vehicles in India are smaller in size and consume less fuel than their western counterparts, the Indian
commercial vehicles (trucks and buses) often consume more fuel.
In order to develop the framework for defining standards for diesel (engine driven) trucks and buses,
it is imperative to define a long-term objective or vision for setting up these standards and various
stakeholders shall jointly agree upon a Fuel Consumption Roadmap vision. For instance,
To reduce fuel consumption per kilometre by 12 per cent to 20 per cent in new diesel (engine driven)
trucks and buses in India by 2020, and by 30 per cent to 50 per cent by 2025, in order to significantly
reduce diesel consumption, compared with a baseline projection.
Fuel consumption standards are mainly set as fuel consumption targets based on the average of the
total fleet of vehicles sold (corporate average fuel economy). Fleet average fuel economy standards
provide flexibility to manufacturers to achieve the target across sales mix rather than with each
individual vehicle sold. Both Japan and the United States have adopted Attribute-based target HDV
standards based on vehicle categories. Attribute-based target values are estimated as a continuous
function of vehicle attributes i.e. corporate averaging across all categories of vehicles for each
manufacturer, where the target varies depending on the average weight or size of the vehicles sold by
a manufacturer. For trucks and buses, gross vehicle weight (GVW) and payload are more appropriate
attributes than vehicle weight for developing fuel consumption standards.
The attribute-based continuous curve approach (with separate standards for trucks and buses) is
the best option in the first phase of implementation of the standards for India. This approach will
provide enough flexibility for manufacturers without being unfair or cost ineffective to any
manufacturer, while ensuring that the target is achieved. Instead of targeting fuel consumption
reduction across all vehicle categories (i.e. across various GVW categories), the manufacturers can
focus on reducing fuel consumption based on a target value determined as the average of the attribute
(vehicle weight or footprint or others) of the vehicles that it sells, weighted by the sales of each model
using a continuous curve standard. Thereafter, in the second phase of fuel consumption standards,
attribute-based continuous curve approach can be implemented for various sub-categories of vehicles.
Accordingly, we have considered phase-in approach with two set of targets, one for the year 2019-20
(first phase) to be achieved between 2015-16 to 2019-20 and other for 2024-25 (second phase), to be
achieved between 2020-21 to 2024-25. These targets could focus on reducing fuel consumption in line
with Fuel Consumption Roadmap vision, say, by 12 to 20 per cent in new diesel (engine driven)
trucks and buses by 2019-20, and by 30 to 50 per cent by 2024-25, across various vehicle categories
defined by GVW of the vehicles, compared with a baseline projection. The targets for 2019-20 are
relatively less stringent and are primarily based on improvements in engine technology. The targets
increase in stringency after 2019-20 since additional suite of technologies would be considered for
achieving the target standards for 2024-25. In both the phases, yearly improvements at 15-20-40-60100 per cent across five years as compared to baseline data have been considered.
10
One of the pre-requisites for development of fuel consumption standards is collection of baseline data
for various models of buses and trucks under pre-defined test conditions. In India, the fuel economy
details of various vehicle models of trucks and buses are neither disclosed by the manufacturers nor
collected by testing agencies like ARAI. Therefore, setting up fuel consumption standards for trucks
and buses will require testing of various available models of buses and trucks prior to setting up the
standards. Moreover, test cycles will have to be standardised for various categories for which
standards are to be developed. As it is easier to establish test-cycles for engine testing, engine
standards for fuel consumption by trucks and buses could be developed and implemented in the first
phase, followed by vehicle standards for fuel consumption in subsequent phases.
In this report, we have illustrated the framework for fuel consumption standards (both for vehicle and
engine fuel consumption standards) based on baseline data gathered from end-users of trucks and
buses. Since the baseline data should be collected under pre-defined test conditions, the baseline data
used by us should be further refined by elaborate testing of different categories of trucks and buses.
Our illustrations for vehicle and engine fuel consumption standards in this report are limited by
availability of fuel efficiency data for trucks and buses in India. For our illustrations, we have defined
fuel consumption in Litre per 100-km for vehicle standards and fuel efficiency as km/l for engine
standards. The detailed framework for fuel consumption standards is provided in Section 4 of this
report.
Estimation of Fuel savings1

Under the current fuel economy scenario, the diesel consumption by trucks and buses in India is
expected to increase from around 31.8 million tonne in 2011-12 to around 104.7 million tonne in
2024-25, thereby registering a CAGR of 9.6%. Trucks will continue to account for major share of
diesel consumption with their share increasing from around 76% in 2011-12 to around 87% in 202425. Total diesel consumption by buses is expected to increase from 7.8 million tonne in 2012-12 to
13.7 million tonne in 2024-25.
In contrast, under fuel consumption standards regime, the estimated diesel consumption by trucks and
buses in India will increase from around 31.8 million tonne in 2011-12 to around 91.4 million tonne in
For estimation of diesel consumption in value terms, we have assumed the price of diesel as Rs 47 per litre
until 2025 (approximately equivalent to current diesel retail price in Delhi)
11
Based on the two scenarios - Current fuel efficiency scenario and Fuel consumption standards regime,
cumulative fuel savings due to the proposed program is estimated to be around 46.57 million tonne
(around Rs 2,630 billion in value terms) over the ten year period 2015-16 to 2024-25. Fuel savings
due to trucks contribute around 90 per cent of the savings under the proposed program. It should be
noted that the benefits from the proposed program will be derived primarily over medium to long term
(as vehicles on-road, purchased during duel consumptions norms regime achieve a sizeable share in
overall vehicle parc). The quantum of fuel savings will increase from 0.14 million tonne in 2015-16 to
Implementation roadmap - Draft time schedule for implementation of the program

The Implementation roadmap is summarised as follows:I
Planning Phase
1 Year
Development of a framework for fuel consumption standards, finalise strategy

for testing of fuel efficiency of trucks and buses under standard test conditions,
a)
development of test cycles, setting up of testing infrastructure for testing of

trucks and buses to collect fuel efficiency data under standard test cycles, design
of fuel consumption standards and finalisation of implementation plan and
policy measures for implementation
II
Consultation Phase
6 months
Consultation with various stakeholders on policies framed and schedule of

j)
implementation of fuel consumption standards and finalisation of fuel

consumption standards and finalisation of implementation plan and policy
measures for implementation
III
Implementation Phase
6 months
Decide fuel economy certification process and compliance monitoring

mechanisms and conduct vehicle testing and monitoring as per strategies
developed for implementation
Targeted enforcement of fuel consumption standards:- 2015-16
Since lack of availability of standardised data is the biggest challenge for development of fuel
consumption norms in India, therefore, the focus in initial phase i.e. the planning phase of the
Implementation roadmap should be on developing the fuel consumption framework and the testing
strategy for testing of diesel (engine) driven trucks and buses. This phase will involve defining the test
12
cycle and standard test conditions under which fuel economy data would be recorded. This phase will
also involve defining the policy measures for implementing the fuel consumption standards. In the
second phase i.e. the Consultation phase, focus shall be on bringing various stakeholders on board to
hold discussions on policies and schedule of implementation of fuel consumption standards and build
consensus across various stakeholders. Based on the feedback and concerns of various stakeholders,
the fuel consumption standards and policy measures for implementing the fuel consumption standards
shall be finalised. The Implementation phase will involve vehicle testing as per defined standards and
establishing a monitoring framework for the program.
13
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14
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Petroleum conservation Research Association (PCRA), established in 1978, is a non-profit registered
society (Societys Registration Act 1860) under the ministry of Petroleum & Natural Gas, Govt. of
India, with a mission of efficient energy utilization & environment protection leading to conservation
and improvement in quality of life. PCRAs mission is efficient utilization of fuel and energy and
environment protection leading to improvement in quality of life. Its mandate is to reduce the energy
intensity in various sectors of the economy leading to reduction in GHG emission.
PCRA is working in close coordination with Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) for formulation of
Standards leading to Efficiency Labels for appliances that use petroleum products as fuel.
Accordingly, it has been proposed to initially initiate work for developing fuel conservation norms for
the following equipment:
LPG Stoves
Diesel Generating sets up to 1250 kVA
Diesel Engine operated Agricultural pump
Diesel Engine driven Trucks and Buses
PCRA has proposed to initiate development of fuel consumption norms for Diesel (Engine Driven)
Trucks and Buses to facilitate consumers with the necessary data for making informed purchases.
Moreover, fuel efficiency performance standards for these vehicles will help in reducing diesel
consumption of India and will help buyers in making prudent, fuel-efficient purchases.
For this purpose, PCRA is embarking on the process of preparation of Fuel Efficiency program for
Diesel (Engine Driven) Trucks & Buses in India. The objective of the project is to
Transform the manufacture and sale of Diesel (Engine driven) Trucks & Buses to higher
levels of fuel efficiency, thereby achieving economic benefits and improving environmental
sustainability in the long run
Facilitate the buyers in making fuel-efficient purchase of these commercial vehicles
It is in this context that PCRA has mandated ICRA Management Consulting Services Limited
(IMaCS) to prepare a Status Report based on market survey leading to fuel consumption norms for
diesel (engine driven) trucks & buses in India. The primary objective of this project is to build upon
15
existing initiatives in India and other countries
to promote cost-effective adoption and
implementation of fuel consumption standards for Diesel (Engine driven) Trucks & Buses.
We have prepared this Final Report covering the findings of the market survey and supplementary
secondary research for development of Fuel Consumption norms for Diesel Trucks & Buses in India,
incorporating the feedback received from PCRA.
1.2 Scope of work

The Scope of Work of the engagement as mentioned in the tender document was as follows:
1. Preparation of Status Report on fuel consumption Performance Standards for Diesel (Engine
driven) Trucks & Buses in India based on a detailed market survey. The Status report will
encompass, but not be limited to the following issues:
a. The Market Overview of these vehicles in India
b. Fuel Consumption pattern of these vehicles in India
c. Estimated Growth Potential of these vehicles
d. Identification of Benchmarks in terms of fuel consumption
e. Estimated projection of increase in fuel consumption by 2020, 2025.
f.
Fuel Savings projections due to proposed programme
g. To compare the similar international initiatives to understand the different approaches

followed by countries like USA, Europe, China, Australia and Japan
h. Identification of Testing Standards & Facilities in India for these areas
i.
Applicable Indian and International Standards and codes
j.
Identification of All Stake holders
k. Minimum Fuel Consumption Performance Standards and criteria (fuel consumption

thresholds)
l.
Identify the Issues & Challenges in implementation
m. Develop a draft time schedule for implementation of this program
1.3 Limitations of our study

This Final Report is based on the market survey findings, review of various documents available in
public domain and discussions with various stakeholders, including clarifications, opinions,
representations, information and statements made by personnel of various stakeholder organisations
on fuel consumption norms for diesel (engine driven) trucks & buses in India, during the course of
16
discussions held with them. Accordingly, the findings and conclusions in this report is limited to the
following:
a. Public information data, estimates, industry and statistical information contained in this report
have been obtained from various sources considered reliable by us. However, we independently
did not verify such information and make no representation as to the accuracy or completeness of
such information obtained from or provided by such sources.
b. While preparing this Report, in addition to the documents and information provided to us by
various stakeholders, we have also relied on oral and written responses to our queries as received
from the stakeholders. We have not independently verified the accuracy or correctness of such
information or the veracity of such documents and presumed the authenticity of such documents
and information provided to us;
c. Neither the professionals who worked on this engagement nor IMaCS have any present or
contemplated future interest / personal interest with respect to the parties involved, or any other
interest that might prevent us from performing an unbiased assessment. Our compensation is not
contingent on an action or event resulting from the analyses, opinions, or conclusions in, or the
use of, this report.
d. IMaCS does not assume any liability, financial or otherwise, for any loss or injury that the user of
the views and comments in this report may experience in any transaction. Although reasonable
care has been taken to ensure that any information herein is true, such information is provided 'asis' without any warranty of any kind and IMaCS, in particular, makes no representation or
warranty, express or implied, to the accuracy, authenticity, timeliness or completeness of any such
information.
17
2 MARKET OVERVIEW OF TRUCKS AND BUSES IN INDIA
2.1 Market segmentation

The Indian Automotive industry is one the largest and fastest growing industries in the world. The industry
is divided into four segments: Passenger vehicles, Commercial vehicles, Three-wheelers and Two wheelers.
Figure 2.1: Segmentation of Indian Automobile Industry
Auto
Industry
Passenger
Vehicles
Commercial
Vehicles
Passenger Cars
Light
commercial
vehicles
Utility Vehicles
Medium and
heavy
commercial
vehicles
Threewheelers
Two-wheelers
Passenger
carriers
Mopeds
Scooters
Goods carriers
Motorcycles
Multi-purpose
Vehicles
Electric twowheelers
In 2011-12, around 17.38 million vehicles were sold in the domestic market, with two wheelers accounting
for more than 77 per cent of sales, while commercial vehicles accounting for around 4.7 per cent of the
sales. Annual sales of trucks and buses were 682,300 and 98,763, respectively, with estimated vehicle park
of 4,173,844 trucks and 1,344,870 buses (as on March 31, 2012).
Figure 2.2: Domestic Market Share for Indian Automotive Industry (2011-12)
Two Wheelers
77.3%
Passenger Vehicles
15.1%
Commercial
Vehicles
4.7%
Three Wheelers
3.0%
Source: SIAM
18
Commercial vehicles are classified into following categories:
Light Commercial Vehicles (LCVs) (Gross Vehicle Weight <7.5 tonne) and
Medium & Heavy Commercial vehicles (M&HCVs) (Gross Vehicle Weight >7.5 tonne)
For the purpose of our study, we have aligned our classification of vehicles as per SIAM weight categories2.
Segmentation of buses and trucks as per SIAM classification, major applications of vehicles and the key
players in each category are given below:
Table 2.1: Segmentation of trucks / goods carriers by Gross Vehicle Weight (GVW) or MM3
Vehicle Categories
Application
Key Players
Light Commercial Vehicles (LCVs)
3.5 MM
Intra-city goods
transportation
3.5<MM5
Inter-city and intra-city

goods transportation (Daily
deliver load - milk and fruit
crates, vegetables, bottled
water)
Tata Motors
Ashok Leyland
Mahindra & Mahindra
Force Motors
SML Isuzu
5<MM7.5
Inter-city and intra-city

goods transportation
Tata Motors
Force Motors
Mahindra Navistar
VE CVs Eicher
7.5<MM10
Parcel & courier, intercity

logistics, agri-perishables
Tata Motors
Ashok Leyland
Mahindra & Mahindra
VE CVs - Eicher
10<MM12
Parcel & courier, intercity

logistics, agri-perishables
Tata Motors
Ashok Leyland
Mahindra & Mahindra
VE CVs Eicher
12<MM16.2
Intra-city distribution,
market load, construction
Tata Motors
Ashok Leyland
Mahindra & Mahindra
VE CVs Eicher
Tata Motors
Force Motors
Mahindra & Mahindra
Hindustan motors
Piaggio Vehicles
Medium & Heavy Commercial Vehicles (M&HCVs)
SIAM classifies and collects data for commercial vehicles by sub-dividing them into finer weight categories.
Maximum Mass (MM) or Gross Vehicle Weight is the vehicle rating based on the combined weight of the
vehicle and its load.
19
Vehicle Categories
Application
Key Players
16.2<MM25
Market load, construction,

bulkers, minerals, tankers,
Stone , marble , re-fuellers
Tata Motors
Ashok Leyland
Mahindra & Mahindra
VE CVs Eicher
25<MM
Auto carriers, Market load,

cement, tankers, parcel &
white goods, construction,
bulkers, minerals, tankers
Tata Motors
Ashok Leyland
Mahindra & Mahindra
VE CVs Eicher
Daimler India Commercial Vehicles
Source: SIAM, IMaCS Analysis
Table 2.2: Segmentation of buses by Gross Vehicle Weight (GVW) or MM4

Vehicle Categories
Application
Key Players
Light Commercial Vehicles

Intra-city buses for School, Staff and
Executives
Tata Motors
Force Motors
Mahindra & Mahindra
5MM<7.5 tonnes

Executives
Tata Motors
Ashok Leyland
Mahindra & Mahindra
Force Motors
SML Isuzu
MM 5 tonnes (M2 (A1) ) (no. of

seats including the driver not
exceeding 13)

Executives
Tata Motors
Force Motors
Inter-City and Intra-city buses
Tata Motors
Ashok Leyland
Mahindra & Mahindra
VE CVs - Eicher
SML Isuzu
12<MM16.2 tonnes
Tata Motors
Ashok Leyland
JCBL
Mahindra & Mahindra
VE CVs - Eicher
SML Isuzu
Volvo Buses India
16.2<MM tonnes
Volvo Buses India
MM5 tonnes (M2 (A2) ) (no. of

seats including the driver exceeding
13)
Heavy Commercial Vehicles
7.5<MM12 tonnes
Source: SIAM, IMaCS Analysis
Maximum Mass (MM) or Gross Vehicle Weight is the vehicle rating based on the combined weight of the
vehicle and its load.
20
2.2 Market size and Vehicle park

Sales of trucks and buses
India is the fifth largest commercial vehicle manufacturer and one of the fastest growing commercial
vehicles markets in the world. Annual sales of trucks and buses in India has grown at a CAGR of over 14%
between 2001-02 and 2011-12.
Figure 2.3: Annual sales of Buses and Trucks in India
(in 000 vehicles)
in '000 vehicles
800
Buses
682
Trucks
563
600
390
400
200
0
111
90
149
261
209
89
110
312
288
108
437
399
107
111
99
109
93
99
118
Source: SIAM
Annual sales of trucks in India has grown from 111,485 trucks in 2001-02 to 682,300 trucks in 2011-12,
growing at a Compounded Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of around 20 per cent over this period.
Sales of trucks and buses (by segment)

Amongst trucks, LCV segment has grown at a CAGR of 25% between 2001-02 and 2011-12, significantly
faster than M&HCV segment, which has grown at CAGR of around 15% during the same period.
Figure 2.4: Annual sales of Trucks in India
(in 000 vehicles)
700
in '000 vehicles
600
271
500
246
400
222 211
300
200
100
0
68
43
92
57
129
80
161 167
183
M&HCV
139
168 188 174

100 121
253 317
411
LCV
Source: SIAM
21
The annual sales of buses in India has remained relatively flat over the last ten years, increasing from 89,812
buses in 2001-02 to 98,763 buses in 2011-12, growing at a CAGR of around 1 per cent over this period.
The major reason for this flat growth in buses is the drastic reduction in demand for vehicles in
MM 5 tonnes (M2 (A1)) category, which has gone down from 59,481 buses in 2001-02 to 8,650 buses
in 2011-12. Excluding this segment from our analysis, annual sales of buses in India has grown at a
CAGR of around 12 per cent. Amongst buses, LCV segment has registered a decrease in sales at a CAGR
of -3.8% between 2001-02 and 2011-12 due to decrease in demand for vehicles in MM 5 tonnes (M2
(A1)) category. However, the M&HCV segment of buses has grown at a CAGR of over 11% during the
same period.
Figure 2.5: Annual sales of Buses in India
(in 000 vehicles)
120
25
in '000 vehicles
100
80
17
73
28
29
39
20
69
35
43
48
60
40
26
85
20
93
49
M&HCV
80
79
72
64
66
LCV
45
49
Source: SIAM
Trucks accounted for about 88 per cent of the commercial vehicles sold in India 2011-12. Amongst the
various sub-segments, LCV trucks accounted for around 53 per cent of the total commercial vehicle sales in
2011-12.
Figure 2.6: Commercial vehicle sales break-up (2011-12)
MCV & HCV
Passenger
Carriers
6%
LCV Goods
Carriers
53%
MCV & HCV

Goods Carriers
35%
LCV Passenger
Carriers
6%
Source: SIAM
22
Sales of trucks and buses (by weight category)

Analysis of sales pattern of trucks over the last 5 years indicates increasing polarisation of demand towards
lighter (MM3.5 tonne) and heavier (MM>25 tonne) trucks segments. The share of vehicles in MM3.5
tonne category in the total domestic truck sales has grown from around 39.4 per cent in 2007-8 to around
52.9 per cent in 2011-12. Trucks in MM>25 tonne category accounted for 0.7 per cent of sales in 2007-08.
In 2011-12, about 9.5 per cent of trucks sold in India belonged to MM>25 tonne category.
Figure 2.7: Trucks Changing sales mix (by weight categories)
2007-08
2011-12
25<MM,
0.7%
16.2<M
M25
11.5%
16.2<M
M25,
26.8%
25<MM
9.5%
MM3.5 12<MM
, 39.4%
16.2
8.9%
12<MM
16.2,
15.1%
3.5<MM
5, 0.6%
5<MM7
.5 , 7.1%
7.5<MM
12,
10.2%
7.5<MM
12
9.8%
5<MM7
.5
6.1%
MM3.5
52.9%
3.5<M5
1.2%
Source: SIAM
In case of buses, the buses in the segment 5>MM (M2 (A2) ) and 7.5<MM12 have registered the fastest
growth indicating the increasing demand for intra-city travel.
Figure 2.8: Buses - Sales mix
2007-08
16.2<M
M
0.0%
12<MM
16.2
29.9%
2011-12
16.2<M
M
0.4%
5>MM(
M2(A2))
9.1%
5<MM7
.5
16%
5>MM(M
2(A2))
18.9%
12<MM
16.2
34.6%
5<MM7
.5
22%
7.5<MM
12
5.0%
5>MM(
M2(A1))
40.0%
7.5<MM
12
15.0%
5>MM(M
2(A1))
8.8%
Source: SIAM
23
Vehicle parc of trucks and buses

Between 2001 and 2011, number of registered buses and goods vehicles in India has grown at a CAGR of
9.7 per cent and 9.1 per cent respectively. Although the number of registered goods vehicles and buses in
India in 2011 were 7.1 million and 1.6 million, respectively, the no. of on-road trucks and buses are
estimated at 4.17 million and 1.34 million, respectively (as on March 31, 2012).
No. of vehicles in million
Figure 2.9: Number of registered buses and goods vehicles in India (Cumulative)
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
7.1
5.6
5.1
0.6
2001
0.6
2002
4.0
0.8
0.9
3.5
3.0
2.9
3.7
0.7
2003
2004
2005
6.4
6.0
Goods
Vehicles
Buses
4.4
1.4
1.0
2006
2007
1.5
1.4
2008
2009
1.5
2010
1.6
2011
Source: Road Transport Year Book 2009-10 & 2010-11, Ministry of Road Transport & Highways
In order to estimate the vehicle parc, we have assumed that the average age of trucks and buses as 15 years.
Vehicle parc of trucks and buses (by weight category)
Trucks with MM 3.5 form about 36.5 per cent of total on-road trucks in India. This segment is one of the
fastest growing sub-segments in trucks due to increasing demand for intra-city goods transportation. With
higher mileage and low turning radius, vehicles in this category are ideally suited to traverse through narrow
city lanes and traffic in India. Going forward, the demand for this segment is expected to remain strong,
which is evident from the slew of new launches in this segment by the commercial vehicle manufacturers.
There is an evident trend of increasing demand of Heavy-duty trucks, which are used in construction and
mining industries. This is also an indicator of increasing economic activity in India.
Figure 2.10: Trucks Vehicle parc (by weight category) (as of March 31, 2012)
MM3.5
36.5%
25<MM
8.4%
3.5<MM5
5<MM7.5
0.9%
10.4%
7.5<MM12
9.5%
12<MM16.2
18.2%
16.2<MM25
16.0%
Source: PCRA, IMaCS Analysis
24
Of the total on-road buses, about 45% are in the 5>MM (M2(A1)) category. Vehicles in this category are
mainly used for intra-city travel, especially for catering to travel needs of staff and employees. In absolute
terms, the number of on-road vehicles in this category is estimated at over 0.6 million.
Figure 2.11: Buses Vehicle parc (by weight category) (as of March 31, 2012)
12<MM16.2
27.0%
16.2<MM
0.1%
5>MM
(M2(A2))
9.9%
7.5<MM12
4.8%
5>MM
(M2(A1))
45.1%
5<MM7.5
13.1%
Age of Vehicles
The trucks fleet in India is relatively young; around 57% of the trucks have age below 5 years. This can be
attributed to sharp increase in sales of trucks, specifically in the MM3.5 segment, during last five years.
in '000 vehicles
Figure 2.12: Trucks Fleet break-up by age (as of March 31, 2012)
3000
2,393
2000
1,297
1000
484
0
0-5 years
5-10 years
Over 10 years
Source: IMaCS Analysis, SIAM
Out of 1,344,870 buses plying on the roads in India, around 38% or 510,212 buses are less than 5 years old.
About 22% of the bus fleet in India is older than ten years.
Figure 2.13: Buses Fleet break-up by age (as of March 31, 2012)
in '000 vehicles
600
533
510
400
302
200
0
0-5 years
5-10 years
Over 10 years
Source: IMaCS Analysis, SIAM
No. of trucks and buses to be scrapped5 in 2011-12 is estimated at around 1,52,000 and 83,000, respectively.
5
Assuming average age of trucks and buses as 15 years
25
2.3 Future vehicle projections

Rising incomes, increasing government focus on infrastructure development and increasing economic
activity are the key drivers, which are expected to fuel the demand for commercial vehicles in India. Also,
road transport is considered to be one of the most cost effective and preferred mode of transport for both
passengers and transportation of goods in India. Therefore, demand for both freight and passenger
movement in India is expected to remain firm, which will fuel sale of buses and trucks in India. Thus, strong
growth trend in Indias commercial vehicle industry is expected to continue in future as well.
The major reason for flat growth in buses in the last decade is the drastic reduction in demand for
vehicles in MM 5 tonnes (M2 (A1)) category, which has gone down from 59, 481 buses in 2001-02 to
8,650 buses in 2011-12. Eliminating this segment from our analysis, annual sales of buses in India has
grown at a CAGR of around 12 per cent. With rapid urbanisation and improving infrastructure, the
demand for passenger transport is expected to remain positive in India. Between 2012-13 and 2024-25, sale
of buses is expected to grow at a CAGR of 5.7 per cent to increase from 0.11 million to 0.21 million.
Figure 2.14: Projected growth in sale of buses in India till 2025
0.25
CAGR = 5.7%
in million
0.20
0.15
0.21
0.17
0.14
0.13 0.14
0.12
0.10 0.11
0.10
0.05
0.00
Amongst the various sub-segments, buses with MM > 16.2 tonne (luxury buses), is expected to register
highest annual growth of around 12 per cent. This can be directly attributed to increasing per capita income
and growing ease of inter-city travel due to development of world-class highways. Another buses segment
which is expected to grow faster is 7.5t < MM < 12t. The demand for this segment will be driven by travel
needs of employees of various corporates and other institutions, which will be predominantly utilised for
intra-city travel.
26
Figure 2.15: Projected sales mix of buses in 2019-20 and 2024-25

2019-20
2024-25
16.2<M
M, 0.8%
16.2<M
M, 1.0%
5>MM(M
2(A2)),
21.5%
12<MM
16.2,
27.5%
12<MM
16.2,
29.3%
5<MM7
.5, 21.0%
7.5<MM
12,
20.6%
5>MM(
M2(A1)),
6.8%
5>MM(M
2(A2)),
22.4%
5<MM7
.5, 20.5%
7.5<MM
12,
22.3%
5>MM(2
(A1)),
6.3%
Increasing purchasing power, government focus on improving infrastructure and a relatively young
population has increased the demand for transportation of goods in the country. Roads are the dominant
mode of transportation of freight in the country today. With improvement in highways and other roads in
the country, road transportation is expected to remain the preferred mode of goods transportation, which in
turn will fuel the demand for trucks in India. Trucks are estimated to register strong growth of around 8.9
per cent between 2012-13 and 2024-45. In absolute terms, the total volume of truck sales is expected to
grow from 0.80 million in 2012-13 to 2.23 million in 2024-25.
Figure 2.16: Projected growth of trucks in India till 2025
2.50
CAGR = 8.9%
in million
2.00
1.50
2.23
1.00
0.50
0.68 0.80
1.16
0.92 1.04
1.28
1.63
0.00
27
With Hub & Spoke model increasingly adopted across India, there is clear evidence of polarization of
tonnage in the CV segment towards heavy and lower tonnages. Amongst the various sub-segments, trucks
with Gross vehicle weight 3.5 tonne and greater than 25 tonnes are expected to grow faster than other subsegments. Sales of trucks in the category Gross vehicle weight 3.5 tonne is expected to grow at a CAGR of
around 10 per cent to increase from 0.36 million in 2011-12 to around 1.27 million in 2024-25. Truck sales
in category Gross vehicle weight> 25 tonne is expected to register fastest growth amongst the various subsegments at a CAGR of over 11 per cent to increase to about 0.3 million in 2024-25.
Figure 2.17: Projected sales mix of trucks in 2019-20 and 2024-2025

2019-20
25<MM,
11.6%
16.2<M
M25,
7.9%
12<MM
16.2,
7.2%
7.5<MM
12,
10.5%
5<MM7
.5 , 5.5% 3.5<MM
5, 1.4%
2024-25
MM3.5
, 56.0%
16.2<M
M25,
7.1%
25<MM,
12.1%
MM3.5
, 56.7%
12<MM
16.2,
6.7%
7.5<MM
12,
10.6%
5<MM7
.5 , 5.3%
3.5<MM
5, 1.4%
2.4 Diesel consumption

Rapid economic development, diesel subsidies and preference of road transportation for goods and
passengers has led to dieselisation of Indian economy. With road being the preferred mode of transportation
in India, the increasing demand for passenger and freight movement has in turn fuelled the growth of trucks
and buses in India. Since most of the buses and trucks run on diesel, the increase in number of buses and
trucks plying on the roads has significantly augmented the diesel consumption in India. This is evident from
the fact that the consumption of High Speed Diesel Oil (HSDO) in India during the last decade has
increased at an average annual rate of 5.9%. With relatively stagnant production of crude oil in the country,
this increase in demand for oil will further increase our dependence on exports.
28
Figure 2.18: Consumption of HSDO in India (in 000 tonnes)
CAGR = 5.9%
70,000
in 000 tonnes
60,000
50,000
40,000
42,894
39,651 40,192
36,548 36,644 37,073
47,669
51,711
56,243
59,990
64,740
30,000
20,000
10,000
0
Source: Energy Statistics 2012, CSO, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, GoI
In 2011-12, Indias total diesel consumption stood at about 64.74 million tonnes. Road transport is the
biggest diesel-consuming segment accounting for about 64 per cent of diesel consumption. Of the total
diesel consumed by road transport, trucks and buses accounted for about 77 per cent of the fuel
consumption, amounting to 31-32 million tonnes approx.
Figure 2.19: Diesel consumption mix in India
Railways
6%
Cars
15%
Agriculture
12%
Industry
10%
Power
8%
Roads
64%
Trucks
37%
Buses
12%
Source: Petroleum Planning and Analysis Cell
In absolute terms, the estimated consumption of diesel by buses and truck in India stood at around 7.77
million tonnes and 24.03 million tonnes, respectively. The detailed break-up fuel of consumption by various
segments is given in the table below:
29
Table 2.3: Estimated diesel consumption by trucks and buses in India (2011-12)6
Diesel
Total diesel
Total diesel
Fuel
consumed
consumed per consumed per
Efficiency per vehicle
annum
annum
(km/l) per annum
(in mn litres) (in mn tonnes)
(litres)
Sales
Vehicle Park
Distance
Travelled
p.a. per
vehicle
Trucks
682,300
4,173,844
37,782
5.5
6,919
28,880
24.03
Buses
98,763
1,310,762
33,236
4.7
7,120
9,333
7.77
ALL TRUCKS
and BUSES
781,063
5,484,606
36,696
5.3
6,967
38,213
31.79
LCV
460,831
2,907,678
16,866
15.5
1,092
3,174
2.64
M&HCV
320,232
2,576,929
59,071
4.3
13,597
35,039
29.15
ALL TRUCKS
and BUSES
781,063
5,484,606
36,696
5.3
6,967
38,213
31.79
Vehicle
Segment
Segmental break-up of diesel consumption indicates that more than 90 per cent of the diesel is consumed by
M&HCV segment. This indicates the urgent need to improve diesel consumption in this segment by
formulating stringent fuel efficiency norms for these segments. In most of the countries around the world,
road transport is one of the major oil-consuming sectors. With limited oil reserves, the Governments around
the world have taken cognisance of the situation, which is evident from the fact that more and more
countries are proposing standards for regulating the Heavy-Duty vehicles.
Assumptions:
1. For trucks, distance travelled per annum per vehicle:a. MM7.5 tonne 20,000 km
b. 7.5<MM12 tonne 50,000 km
c. MM>12 tonne 55,000 km
2. For buses, distance travelled per annum per vehicle:a. MM7.5 tonne 10,000 km
b. 7.5<MM12 tonne - 65,000 km
c. 12<MM- 90,000 km
30
3 OVERVIEW OF GLOBAL FUEL CONSUMPTION STANDARDS
3.1 Introduction
Light-duty vehicles (LDVs) have a long history of regulations with formulation of energy regulations in
the United States in 1970s as a response to the global oil crisis. Since then, improvement in LDV fleet was
relatively steady with improved technology being utilised to offset increase in vehicle weight and power.
However, over the last one decade, the largest vehicle markets have resumed ambitious, mandatory fuel
efficiency and emission standards for LDVs. More than 70 per cent of the global new-vehicle markets have
mandatory fuel efficiency and emission standards for LDVs in effect. This has led to development and
introduction of new energy-efficient technologies, smaller engines, lighter vehicles, and improved
aerodynamics and tires.
Table 3.1: Fuel consumption and Emission standards for Light Duty Vehicles (LDVs)
Country/
Standard
Measure
Structure
Region
Targeted
Fleet
Test Cycle
Implementation
New
US CAFE
Mandatory
New
JC08
Mandatory
Fuel consumption standards

United
States
Fuel
mpg
Japan
Fuel
km/l
Single standard for

cars and size-based
standards for light
trucks
Weight-based
China
Fuel
l/100-km
Weight-based
New
NEDC
Mandatory
Australia
South
Korea
Taiwan
Fuel
l/100-km
Single standard
New
Voluntary
Fuel
km/l
Engine-size based
New
Mandatory
Fuel
km/l
Engine-size based
New
NEDC
US EPA
City
US CAFE
g/km
Single standard
New
NEDC
Voluntary
l/100-km
Vehicle class-based
In-use
and new
US CAFE
Voluntary
g/mile
Vehicle class-based
New
US CAFE
Mandatory
Mandatory
Emission standards
European
Union
CO2
GHG
Canada
(CO2, CH4,
N2O, HFCS)
GHG
California
(CO2, CH4,
N2O, HFCS)
31
In India, fuel efficiency norms for passenger cars are being framed by Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE),
which are based on the Kerb weight of the vehicle and include mandatory labelling norms. However, strong
opposition from the auto industry has led to delay in notification of these standards.
Heavy-duty vehicles (HDVs), including both heavy-duty trucks and buses, have a relatively brief
history of regulations. Establishing fuel efficiency norms for HDVs is significantly more challenging
due to their diversity in terms of vehicle size, configurations and usage patterns. Because of these
challenges, HDV efficiency standards have just begun to be proposed and adopted in some of the
major vehicle markets in the world. Japan was the first country, which introduced such standards in
2005, providing a roadmap for improvement in fuel efficiency of HDVs up to 2015. The US has
finalized HDV fuel efficiency standards in 2011, which begins with model year 2014, and increases in
stringency through 2018. Canada has aligned its Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emission standards with the
US HDV fuel efficiency standards. Europe and China are in the process of designing HDV efficiency
standards. With increasing focus on the fuel efficiency/GHG emissions of M&HCV across the globe,
a number of countries are expected to introduce regulatory norms in the coming years.
Figure 3.1: HDV policy timelines across the globe
Country/
Region
Regulation
Type
Japan
Fuel
Economy
2010
Standard
proposal
2011
2012
2013
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
Phase 1 regulation implemented,

starting MY2015
Regulation implemented starting MY 2014
(Mandatory DOT program starts MY 2016)
Phase 2
proposal and
final rule?
Final
rule
United
States
GHG/ Fuel
efficiency
Canada
GHG/ Fuel
efficiency
Standard
proposal and
final rule?
Mexico
Fuel
Efficiency
Standard
proposal?
China
Industry
Test
Industry
standard
Fuel
Final
procedure standard implemented
Consumption
Rule?
finalised proposal Standard
proposal?
European
Union
GHG
California
End-user
Requirements for new tractors and
purchase
trailers (MY 2011+)
requirements
Technical studies
2014
Impact
Assessment
Regulation implemented starting MY 2014 ?

Regulation implemented
starting MY 2016 ?
2020
Phase 2
implementation?
Phase 2
implementation?
Phase 2
implementation?
Regulation implemented starting MY 2015 ?
Test procedure
finalised?
Additional requirements for
existing tractors and trailers
(<MY 2010)
Policy implementation?
Additional requirements for existing
tractors and reefers (<MY 2010)
Note: Shaded and/or italics text represents the ICCTs estimate of regulatory action and timing
Source: ICCT- Anup Bandivadekar presentation on Heavy-Duty Vehicle Fuel Efficiency Regulatory
Developments around the World- 3rd July, 2012
An important consideration in designing and implementation of norms for HDV vehicles is defining
of duty cycle and testing conditions. Testing of HDV vehicles requires additional forethought given
32
the diversity of size and applications of the vehicles. Computer simulation of the whole truck
(typically in combination with engine testing on a bench dynamometer) seems to be the favoured
option by the Governments across the globe due to ease of implementation, accuracy of results and
cost-effectiveness. China is planning to use chassis dynamometer testing for main HDV vehicle
families and computer simulation for variants.
Table 3.2: Testing and simulation options for measurement of vehicle fuel economy
S No
Type of test
Parts simulated
Cost of test
(1)
On-road
Computer
simulation
Engine
dynamometer
Chassis
dynamometer
None
Low
Countries considering fuel

None
All
Low
Road and nonengine components
High
US, EU, Japan
Road
Very High
(2)
(3)
(4)
China
Source: IEA Technology Roadmap - Fuel Economy of Road Vehicles
3.2 International benchmarks for fuel consumption standards for Heavy Duty
Vehicles (HDVs)
3.2.1 United States

In September 2011, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) and the US
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) announced the First-ever federal regulations mandating
improvements in fuel economy among heavy-duty commercial vehicles (HDVs). Each of the agencies
have adopted complementary standards under their respective authorities, which together form a
comprehensive HD National Program, beginning with model year 2014 and increasing in stringency
through model year 2018, thereby providing a lead-time to all vehicle manufacturers. The norms set
separate standards for engines and vehicles and ensure improvements in both. The federal regulation
also sets separate standards for fuel consumption, CO2, N2O, CH4 and HFCs. However, the fuel
consumption and emission standards are aligned. The agencies are also considering next phase of
rules, as there are more opportunities to reduce GHG emissions and fuel usage by heavy-duty vehicles
fleet for model years beyond 2018.
The principal performance metric for determining compliance with the NHTSAs fuel consumption
standards is the fuel consumption rate in gallons per 1,000 ton-miles (for vehicles) and gallons per
horsepower-hour (for engines). For EPAs carbon emissions standard, it is grams CO 2 per tonne-mile
33
(vehicles) or per horsepower-hour (engines). The performance standards in both metrics are chosen to
be consistent so that achievement of one implies achievement of other (with appropriate allowance
made for alternative fuels).
The Federal Highway Administration categorises trucks by gross vehicle weight as shown in the table
below:
Table 3.3: Vehicle Weight Classes Defined by US Department of Transportation
Class
Empty weight
range
Gross weight
range
Tons
Tons
Description/examples
Typical fuel intensities
1c
Passenger cars
1.22.5
<3
Gallons per
thousand
miles
3040
Gallons per
thousand
ton-miles
67
1t
Small light-duty trucks
1.62.2
<3
4050
58
2a
Standard pickups, large SUVs
2.23
34.25
50
39
2b
Large pickups, utility vans
2.53.2
4.255
67100
39
Utility vans, minibuses
3.84.4
57
77125
33
Delivery vans
3.84.4
78
83140
24
Large delivery vans, bucket

trucks
9.210.4
89.75
83166
26
School buses, large delivery

vans
5.87.2
9.7513
83200
20
City bus, refrigerated truck, fire

engine
5.87.2
1316.5
125250
18
8a
Dump/refuse trucks, city buses,

fire engines
1017
16.540
160400
8b
Large tractor trailers, bulk

tankers
11.617
16.540
133250
Source : Winston Harrington and Alan Krupnick: Improving Fuel Economy in Heavy-Duty Vehicles
Vehicles in the category 2b to 8 are covered under the regulations. The vehicles are categorised such
that different products in the same subcategory must meet the same standard. Broadly, HDVs were
divided into three main regulatory categories:
1. Heavy-duty pickup trucks and vans (3/4 and 1 ton trucks and vans made primarily by Ford,
GM and Chrysler)
2. Combination tractors (largest heavy-duty tractors used to pull trailers, i.e. 18 wheelers)
3. Vocational trucks (everything else, buses, refuse trucks, concrete mixers, ambulances)
Trailers were not covered under these rules, due to the first-ever nature of this program and the
limited experience of agencies in this space.
Vehicles in the category Heavy-duty pickup trucks and vans (Class 2b and 3) consist of pickup trucks
and vans with a Gross Vehicle Weight Rating (GVWR) between 8,500 and 14,000 pounds. The
34
technologies that can be used to reduce fuel consumption and GHG emissions from this segment are
very similar to the ones used for lighter pickup trucks and vans (Class 2a), which are subject to the
GHG and fuel economy standards for light-duty vehicles. Vehicles in this category (Class 2b and 3)
are treated in the same manner as the CAFE standards for light-duty vehicles.
Table 3.4: US CAFE Standards For Light trucks
Light Trucks
Model
Year
"footprint": 41 sq ft (3.8 m ) or
smaller (e.g. Nissan Juke)
"footprint": 75 sq ft (7.0 m ) or
bigger (e.g. Ford F-150)
CAFE
EPA Window Sticker
CAFE
EPA Window Sticker
2012
30
23
22
17
2013
31
24
22.5
17
2014
32
24
23
18
2015
33
25
23.5
18
2016
34
26
24.5
19
2017
36
27
25
19
2018
37
28
25
19
2019
38
28
25
19
2020
39
29
25
19
2021
42
31
25
19
2022
44
33
26
20
2023
46
34
27
21
2024
48
36
28.5
22
2025
50
37
30
23
Source: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. "2017-2025 Model Year Light-Duty Vehicle GHG
Emissions and CAFE Standards: Supplemental"
For heavy-duty pickup trucks and vans, the agencies are setting corporate average standards similar to
the approach taken for LDV. This approach takes into account both the inherently higher GHG
emissions and fuel consumption of higher-capacity vehicles, and the importance of payload and
towing capacity to the owners of these work trucks and vans. EPA has established standards for this
segment in the form of a set of target standard curves, based on a work factor that combines a
vehicles payload, towing capabilities, and whether or not it has 4-wheel drive. The EPA standards
adopted for 2018 (including a separate standard to control air conditioning system leakage) represent
an average per-vehicle reduction in GHG emissions of 17 per cent for diesel vehicles and 12 per cent
for gasoline vehicles, compared to a common baseline.
35
Figure 3.2: EPA CO2 Target Standards and NHTSA Fuel Consumption Target Standards for
Diesel HD Pickups and Vans7
Source: NHSTA
EPAs and NHTSAs target standards are defined by the following formulae:
EPA CO2 Target (g/mile) = [a x WF] + b

NHTSA Fuel Consumption Target (gallons/100 miles) = [c x WF] + d
Where:
WF = Work Factor = [0.75 x (Payload Capacity + xwd)] + [0.25 x Towing Capacity]
Payload Capacity = GVWR (lb) Curb Weight (lb)
xwd = 500 lb if the vehicle is equipped with 4wd, otherwise equals 0 lb
Towing Capacity = GCWR (lb) GVWR (lb)
Coefficients a, b, c, and d are defined for each of the model years.
Combination trailers included largest heavy-duty tractors, which are used in intercity freight hauling.
Tractor cabs are further classified by two weight classes and three roof heights. In addition, for class 8
category of vehicles, there are both day cabs and sleeper cabs at each roof height, making a total
of nine tractor categories. These nine categories differ by weight and aerodynamic qualities, both of
which are adversely affected by height. The vocational vehicle category includes the wide range of
The NHTSA program provides voluntary standards for model years 2014 and 2015.
36
remaining trucks and buses of all sizes and functions with GVWR from 8,501 lb to greater than
33,000 lb.
Table 3.5: US CAFE Standards for Class 2b8 Vocational Vehicles
Engine standards (expressed as percentage emission rate reduction from baseline
Baseline
2014 MY
2017 MY
(gallons per Kbhp-hr)*
Standard**
Standard
Light heavy-duty engines
6.19
5.89 (5%)
5.57 (9%)
Medium-heavy duty engines
6.19
5.89 (5%)
5.57 (9%)
Heavy-heavy duty engines
5.74
5.57 (3%)
5.45 (5%)
Vehicle standards (expressed as percentage emission rate reduction from baseline)***

Baseline
2014 MY
2017 MY
(gallons per Kton-mi)
Standard
Standard
40
38.1 (4.8%)
36.7 (8.2%)
Medium heavy-duty class 67
24.3
23.0 (5.3%)
22.1 (9%)
Heavy heavy-duty class 8
23.2
22.2 (4.3%)
21.8 (6%)
Light heavy-duty class 2b5
Table 3.6: US CAFE Standards for Class 78 Combination Vehicles

Engine standards (expressed as percentage emission rate reduction from baseline), by model year (MY)
Baseline
2014 MY
2017 MY
(gallons per Kbhp-hr)
Standard
Standard
Medium-heavy duty engines (Class 7)
5.09
4.93 (3%)
4.78 (6%)
Heavy-heavy duty engines (Class 8)
4.81
4.67 (3%)
4.52 (6%)
Vehicle standards (expressed as percentage emission rate reduction from baseline)

Baseline
2014 MY
2017 MY
(gallons per Kton-mi)
Standard
Standard
Low roof
11.4
10.5(7.9%)
10.2 (10.5%)
Mid roof
12.6
11.7 (7.1%)
11.3 (10.3%)
High roof
13.6
12.2 (10.3%)
11.8 (13.2%)
Low roof
8.7
8.0 (8.0%)
7.8 (10.3%)
Mid roof
9.4
8.7 (7.4%)
8.4 (10.6%)
High roof
10.1
9.0 (10.9%)
8.7 ((13.9%)
Low roof
7.8
6.7 (14.1%)
6.5 (16.7%)
Mid roof
8.7
7.4 (14.9%)
7.2 (17.2%)
High roof
9.3
7.3 (21.5%)
7.1 (23.7%)
Class 7 day cab
Class 8 day cab
Class 8 sleeper cab
Source: Winston Harrington and Alan Krupnick: Improving Fuel Economy in Heavy-Duty Vehicles
37
For combination tractors, final standards seek to achieve from nine to 23 per cent reduction in
emissions and fuel consumption from affected tractors over the 2010 baselines. The standards will
phase in to the 2017 levels as shown in the table below:
Table 3.7: US CAFE MY 2017 Combination Tractor Standards
EPA Emissions Standards

(g CO2/ton-mile)
NHTSA Fuel Consumption Standards

(gal/1,000 ton-mile)
Low Roof
Mid Roof
High Roof
Low Roof
Mid Roof
High Roof
Day Cab Class 7
104
115
120
10.2
11.3
11.8
Day Cab Class 8
80
86
89
7.8
8.4
8.7
Sleeper Cab Class 8
66
73
72
6.5
7.2
7.1
Source: NHSTA
In case of vocational vehicles, final standards apply to manufacturers of chassis & engines, not
bodies. Consistent with the Engine classification, this segment has been divided into three regulatory
subcategories - Light Heavy (Class 2b through 5), Medium Heavy (Class 6 and 7), and Heavy Heavy
(Class 8). The standards as depicted in the Table below represent emission reductions from six to nine
per cent, from a 2010 baseline.
Table 3.8: MY 2017 Combination Tractor Standards
EPA Full Useful Life Emissions

Standards (g CO2/ton-mile)
NHTSA Fuel Consumption

Standards (gal/1,000 ton-mile)
Light Heavy Class 2b-5
373
36.7
Medium Heavy Class 6-7
225
22.1
Heavy Heavy Class 8
222
21.8
Vehicle Class
Source: NHSTA
In addition to the CO2 standards described above, EPA has adopted standards for N2O and CH4
emissions. EPAs standards will act to cap emissions to ensure that manufacturers do not allow the
N2O and CH4 emissions of their future engines to increase significantly above the currently
controlled low levels. For spark-ignition and compression ignition engines, the standards limit N2O
and CH4 emissions to 0.10 g/hp-hr.
For Class 2b vehicles and Class 3 pickup trucks, the National Academy of Science (NAS) committee
recommended a chassis dynamometer fuel consumption test similar to that used in LDVs. In case of
MD/HD category, NAS committee observed that physical chassis dynamometer testing was
impractical, given the wide variations in intended function (and thus, technology content) between
classes and between vehicles within classes, and even between vehicles that are nominally the same
38
model. Instead, the committee recommended combining engine or powertrain test data with vehicle
simulation models. In case of engine testing, engine dynamometer testing was recommended by the
NAS committee.
Program flexibilities:
The program has provisions to provide flexibilities to the manufacturers rendering them sufficient
lead-time to make necessary technological improvements and reduce the overall cost of the program.
Some of flexibility provisions under the program are:
1. An engine averaging, banking, and trading (ABT) program and a vehicle ABT program that
will allow for emission and fuel consumption credits to be averaged, banked, or traded within
each of the defined averaging sets. For example, in the subcategory of medium heavy-duty
engines for class 2b8 vocational vehicles, credits can be traded with other engines in the
subcategory, even across manufacturers, but they cannot be traded with other tractor, chassis,
or engine categories.
2. Engine manufacturers and heavy-duty pickup and van manufacturers can use CO2 credits to
offset CH4 or N2O emissions that exceed the applicable emission standards.
3. Credits for early adoption/demonstration of improvements before they become requirements,
and use of advanced or innovative technology such as hybrid powertrains, engines with
Rankine cycle waste heat recovery systems, and electric or fuel cell vehicles. In this category,
credits can be traded across subcategories.
4. Credits for alternative-fuelled vehicles according to the carbon content of their fuel relative to
diesel. Thus, a natural gas vehicle, with 30 per cent less CO2 emissions per gallon equivalent
than the identical vehicle fuelled by diesel, would be presumed to be 30 per cent more
efficient.
5. For manufacturers who exceeded the standards prior to the model year that they become
effective, an early credit option was conceptualised.
Estimated Benefits and Costs of proposed regulations:

The US HDV fuel efficiency program is expected to achieve fuel savings of 530 million barrels of oil
over the lifetime of the vehicles. The net benefits accrued from the program are estimated to be about
US$ 49 billion.
39
Table 3.9: MY 2017 Combination Tractor Standards

Particulars
Percent Reductions (2018)
Vehicle cost (2018)
Expected benefits
Tractors: 10-23%
Vocational Vehicles: 6-9%
Pickup Trucks & Vans: 12-17%
Tractors: US$6,220
Vocational Vehicles: US$380
Pickup Trucks & Vans: US$1,050
CO2eq Reduction
270 MMT
(2014-2018 lifetime, Upstream + Downstream)
Source: US Department of Energy
3.2.2 Japan
Japan was the first country to introduce fuel efficiency targets for heavy-duty vehicles in April 2006.
Japanese vehicle fuel economy regulations are part of the Law Concerning the Rational Use of
Energy (Energy Conservation Law). Fuel efficiency targets for 2010 and 2015, were adopted
through a number of amendments to the Energy Conservation Law, as follows8:
1999Adoption of 2010 fuel efficiency targets for gasoline passenger cars and light commercial
vehicles (effective 2005 for diesel vehicles).
2003Fuel efficiency standards for LPG cars (2010 targets).
2006New fuel efficiency standards for heavy vehicles above 3.5 t (2015 targets).
2007Adoption of 2015 fuel efficiency targets for light vehicles, including revisions to
passenger car and light commercial vehicles standards, and new standards for small buses.
The regulations mandated the vehicle manufacturers to ensure that in each financial year the average
fuel economy of their vehicles in each weight category meets the standard. When the targets are fully
met, the fleet average fuel economy is estimated at:
Light trucks (3.5 t): 15.2 km/L, a 12.6 per cent increase over 2004 performance of 13.5 km/L.
Small buses: 8.9 km/L, a 7.2 per cent increase over 2004 performance of 8.3 km/L
For trucks: 7.09 km/L (369.6 g CO2/km), a 12.2 per cent increase over 2002 performance of 6.32
km/L (414.6 g CO2/km)
For buses: 6.30 km/L (416.0 g CO2/km), a 12.1 per cent increase over 2002 performance of 5.62
km/L (466.3 g CO2/km)
The target of these regulations were diesel fuelled freight and passenger vehicles (riding capacity of
11 persons or more) having a gross vehicle weight of 3.5 tons or larger. Vehicles were categorised
8
Source: http://www.dieselnet.com/standards/jp/fe.php#hd - Japan fuel economy targets
40
based on various factors such as vehicle structure, intended use, transmission type, GVW. For e.g.
Buses used for public transportation service on a fixed route other than expressway and those for
other use (ordinary bus) are quite different in terms of use and driving conditions. Therefore, they
were categorised into:
i.
Route bus a passenger vehicle having a riding capacity of 11 persons or more, used for
offering regular public transport service on a fixed route other than expressways.
ii.
Ordinary bus - a passenger vehicle having a riding capacity of 11 persons or more, excluding
those in the category of Route bus, small and light passenger cars.
Japanese fuel economy targets are based on the top-runner approach and expressed in kilometres per
litre of fuel (km/L). The approach involved selecting a vehicle among all commercially available
heavy vehicles in each category in 2002 that has achieved the highest fuel efficiency as a basic. The
target standard values shall be determined based on it, after evaluating fuel efficiency improvement
due to technological development and effect of working around exhaust gas emission regulation on
fuel efficiency. Fuel efficiency targets for various categories of vehicles for 2015 are given below:
Table 3.10: 2015 Fuel Efficiency Targets for Mini Cargo Vehicles
Category
Structure
Transmission
MT
Vehicle
Weight, kg
740
FE Target, km/L
23.2
741
20.3
740
20.9
741-855
19.6
856
20.5
740
18.2
741-855
18
856-970
17.2
971
16.4
740
16.4
741-855
16
856-970
15.4
971
14.7
AT
7
MT
8
9
10
11
12
13
B
AT
Source: http://www.dieselnet.com
Vehicle structure - The vehicle structures refer to cab-behind-engine (bonnet type) vans for Structure A, cab-
over-engine vans for Structure B1, and cab-over-engine trucks for Structure B2. Structure B refers to vehicles of
Structure B1 and B2 combined.
41
Table 3.11: 2015 Fuel Efficiency Targets for Light Cargo Vehicles, GVW 1.7 t
Category
Transmission
Vehicle
Weight, kg
1080
FE
Target, km/L
18.5
MT
1081
17.1
1080
17.4
1081-1195
15.8
1196
14.7
2
3
AT
Table 3.12: 2015 Fuel Efficiency targets for diesel Medium Cargo Vehicles (1.7 t < GVW 3.5t)
Category
Structure
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
MT
A & B1
AT
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
Transmission
MT
B2
AT
Vehicle
Weight, kg
1420
1421-1530
1531-1650
1651-1760
1761-1870
1871-1990
FE Target, km/L
14.5
14.1
13.8
13.6
13.3
12.8
1991-2100
2101
1420
1421-1530
1531-1650
1651-1760
12.3
11.7
13.1
12.8
11.5
11.3
1761-1870
1871-1990
1991-2100
2101
1420
1421-1530
11
10.8
10.3
9.4
14.3
12.9
1531-1650
1651-1760
1761-1870
1871-1990
1991-2100
2101
12.6
12.4
12
11.3
11.2
11.1
1420
1421-1530
1531-1650
1651-1760
1761-1870
1871-1990
12.5
11.8
10.9
10.6
9.7
9.5
1991-2100
9
2101
8.8
42
The 2015 fuel consumption testing is performed over the JC08 cycle, which fully replaces the 10-15
mode test by 2011. The higher average speed, quicker acceleration, and the cold start requirements of
the JC08 test increase the stringency of the new fuel economy targets by about 9 per cent.
Table 3.13: 2015 Fuel Efficiency Targets for Heavy-Duty Transit Buses
Category
GVW, t
FE Target, km/L
6 < GVW 8
6.97
8 < GVW 10
6.3
10 < GVW 12
5.77
12 < GVW 14
5.14
14 < GVW
4.23
Table 3.14: 2015 Fuel Efficiency Targets for Heavy-Duty General (Non-Transit) Buses
Category
GVW, t
FE
Target, km/L
3.5 < GVW 6
9.04
6 < GVW 8
6.52
8 < GVW 10
6.37
10 < GVW 12
5.7
12 < GVW 14
5.21
14 < GVW 16
4.06
16 < GVW
3.57
Table 3.15: 2015 Fuel Efficiency Targets for Heavy-Duty Trucks (Excluding Tractors)
Category
GVW, t
Max Load
(L), t
FE
Target, km/L
3.5 < GVW 7.5
L 1.5
10.83
1.5 < L 2
10.35
2<L3
9.51
3<L
8.12
7.5 < GVW 8
7.24
8 < GVW 10
6.52
10 < GVW 12
12 < GVW 14
5.69
14 < GVW 16
4.97
10
16 < GVW 20
4.15
11
20 < GVW
4.04
43
Table 3.16: 2015 Fuel Efficiency Targets for Heavy-Duty Tractors

Category
GVW, t
FE Target, km/L
GVW 20
3.09
GVW > 20
2.01
For heavy vehicles shipped in Japan in each of the target fiscal year and subsequent years,
manufacturers shall ensure that weighted and averaged energy consumption efficiency (fuel
efficiency) by their shipped units shall not be below the relevant standard target value for each of
vehicle categories.
For measuring fuel efficiency four methods were considered: Vehicle-based actual measurement,
Engine-based actual measurement, Stand-alone engine actual measurement with the assumed vehicle
body and Simulation method. Simulation method was found to be more advantageous than other
methods in terms of various factors such as testing facilities, labor and time resources, measuring
accuracy, and factor-by-factor analysis.
Figure 3.3: Overview of Simulation method
Source: Presentation by Atsuto KAJIWARA on HDV fuel efficiency regulation background and implementation
to date - 2011
To simulate on-road usage as accurately as possible, based on proportion of usage, a combination of

following two driving cycles was employed:
i.
urban driving mode (JE05 mode)
ii.
interurban driving mode (80 km/h constant speed mode with longitudinal grade)
44
Table 3.17: Driving Distance Proportion by Driving Mode
Vehicle type
GVW
Passenger vehicles
(riding capacity : 11 persons or more)
Ordinary bus
Route bus
Other than tractor
14 tons or
less
Over 14
tons
20 tons
or less
Over 20
tons
20
tons
or less
Over
20
tons
0.9
0.65
0.9
0.7
0.8
0.9
Freight vehicles
Tractor
Drive proportion
Upper: urban mode
Lower: interurban mode

0.1
0.35
0
0.1
0.3
0.2
0.1
Source: Final Report by Heavy Vehicle Fuel Efficiency Standard Evaluation Group, Heavy Vehicle Standards
Evaluation Subcommittee, Energy Efficiency Standards Subcommittee of the Advisory Committee for Natural
Resources and Energy
A combination of these two modes is referred to as heavy vehicle mode. Energy efficiency (fuel
efficiency) is a weighted harmonic average of measurements in both driving modes which can be
calculated as follows:
E10=/ (u/Eu + h/Eh
Where,
E : Heavy vehicle mode fuel efficiency (km/l)
Eu : Urban driving mode fuel efficiency (km/l)
Eh : Interurban driving mode fuel efficiency (km/l)
u : Proportion of urban driving mode
h : Proportion of interurban driving mode
This method converts a given drive mode (travel speed vs. time) into an engine operating mode
(engine revolution & torque vs. time) by inputting the specs (technical data) of a vehicle into a
conversion program.
Fuel efficiency under the drive mode is then calculated using an actual-
measurement based fuel efficiency map (representing the relationship between the engine revolutiontorque combination and fuel efficiency for each engine).
Assuming that the proportion of the number of shipped units for each vehicle category remains
unchanged in the target fiscal year (FY2015) from FY2002, the improvement ratio of average fuel
efficiency (weight-averaged fuel efficiency by the number of shipped units) from the actual values in
FY2002 to the estimate values in FY2015 shall be calculated as shown below:
10
45
Table 3.18: Fuel efficiency improvements in Freight Vehicles
FY2002, actual values
FY2015, estimate values
Improvement ratio
of fuel efficiency
Other than tractor
6.56(km/l)
7.36(km/l)
12.20%
Tractor
2.67(km/l)
2.93(km/l)
9.70%
Total
6.32(km/l)
7.09(km/l)
12.20%
Table 3.19: Fuel efficiency improvements in Passenger vehicles (Riding capacity > 11 persons)
FY2002, actual values
FY2015, estimate values
Improvement ratio
of fuel efficiency
Route Bus
4.51(km/l)
5.01(km/l)
11.1
Ordinary Bus
6.19(km/l)
6.98(km/l)
12.8
Total
5.62(km/l)
6.30(km/l)
12.1
Japan followed an integrated approach for reduction in CO2 emissions with focus on:
Vehicle performance
Usage
Infrastructure
This approach aimed at coordinating all the relevant measures to maximise CO2 reduction and
minimise social and economic cost. Fiscal incentives such as progressive taxes levied on the vehicle
weight and engine displacement were introduced to promote purchase of lighter vehicles. The
regulations also proposed a vehicle labelling system that allows customers to identify vehicles that
exceed standards. The norms had built in flexibilities wherein manufacturers can use credits
accumulated in one weight category to offset deficit in other weight category. Penalties for missing
the targets were also not significant.
46
Table 3.20: Tax incentives on fuel-efficient and low-emissions vehicles
Category
Fuel Efficiency
Compliant + 25%
compared to fuel
efficiency standards
Passenger Cars and Minivehicles

Compliant + 15%
compared to fuel
efficiency standards
Trucks and buses

(2.5t<GVW3.5t)
Heavy-duty vehicles
(GVW>3.5t)
Compliant with 2015

fuel efficiency
standards
Compliant with 2015

fuel efficiency
standards
Emissions
Performance
Incentives
Automobile Acquisition
Tax
Tax
Tonnage
Tax
50%
reduction
75%
reduction
75%
reduction
50%
reduction
50%
reduction
Compliant with
2009 emissions
standard
75%
reduction
75%
reduction
Compliant with
2009 emissions
standard
75%
reduction
75%
reduction
Complaint with
2005 emissions
standard, with
Nox and/or PM
emissions down
by 10% from
those standards
50%
reduction
50%
reduction
Emissions down
by 75% from
2005 standards
Note: The above acquisition and tonnage tax incentives will be in effect for three years, as follows:
From April 1, 2009 through March 31, 2012 for the acquisition tax (imposed once only, at the time of
vehicle purchase)
From April 1, 2009 through April 30, 2012 for the tonnage tax(with reductions applicable only once,
upon first payment of the tax at the time of the very first mandatory inspection)
Source: 2011 Report on Environmental protection efforts by Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association, Inc.
3.2.3 Canada
The CanadaUnited States Automotive Products Agreement, also known as the Auto Pact or APTA
signed in 1965 laid the foundation for integration of automobile market in United States and Canada.
The agreement established a conditional free trading zone by removing tariffs on both vehicles and
automotive parts. It was followed by 1988 Canada US Free Trade Agreement (FTA) and North
American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). As a result, today the US and Canadian automotive
markets are highly integrated. Auto trade represents 18 per cent of the total US Canada trade.
47
Table 3.21: Data for LDV and HDV (2011)

US
Canada
13.1 million units sold
1.61 million units sold
1.87 million (15%) produced in Canada
608,000 (38%) produced in US
8.61 million units produced
2.13 million units produced
10% (777,000) exported to Canada
87% (1.78 million) exported to the US
Source: Mark A. Nantais, President, Canadian Vehicle Manufacturers Association presentation on

Vehicle Standards Harmonization & Future Canada US cooperation 30th April, 2012
Highly integrated automobile market makes it imperative for Canada to achieve vehicle regulatory
harmonisation along with alignment of technical regulations (safety and emissions) with US In April
2012, Government of Canada announced the proposed Heavy-duty Vehicle and Engine Greenhouse
Gas Emission Regulations, which were fully aligned with the GHG emission standards of US EPA.
The proposed regulations apply to companies manufacturing and importing new on-road heavy-duty
vehicles and engines for the purpose of sale in Canada. As per the norms, the companies will be
subjected to progressively more stringent standards during the 2014 to 2018 model year period. The
proposed regulations include separate engine and vehicle emission standards for combination tractors
and vocational vehicles.
The regulations are aimed at vehicles with a gross vehicle weight rating of more than 3856 kg (8500
lb.), except those vehicles that are subject to the Passenger Automobile and Light Truck Greenhouse
Gas Emission Regulations. Similar to the US, the Canadian regulations have divided vehicles into
three different categories:
i.
Class 2B and Class 3 heavy-duty vehicles (full-size pick-up trucks and vans)
ii.
Vocational vehicles
iii.
Tractors
Trailers and vehicles that are not designed for highway use, such as farm equipment, off-road
machinery, and heavy equipment were not covered under the proposed regulations.
Heavy-duty vehicles span several GVWR classes: tractors (often called combination tractors) are
contained mainly within classes 7 and 8, and vocational vehicles span from class 2B through class 8.
Vocational vehicles also comprise a range of vehicle types, including various types of buses. Please
refer to the figure below for the regulated category of vehicles:
Figure 3.4: Regulated category of vehicles in Canada
48
For Class 2B and Class 3 heavy-duty vehicles, the proposed regulations would include emission
standards for CO2, N2O and CH4. For CO2 emissions, the standard would be a fleet average CO2
emission standard for all vehicles of a companys fleet. CO2 emission standard is based on a work
factor which can be defined for each vehicle sub-configuration as:
Work Factor = 0.75 (GVWR curb weight + xwd) + 0.25 (GCWR GVWR)11
where
GVWR is the gross vehicle weight rating
xwd is 500 pounds if the vehicle has four-wheel drive or all-wheel drive and is 0 pounds for all other
vehicles
GCWR is the gross combined weight rating
In case of vehicles equipped with spark-ignition and compression-ignition engines, a company may
elect to use the CO2 emission target values based on one of the following formulas, whichever is
applicable:
(a) for vehicles equipped with a spark-ignition engine: (0.0440 WF) + 339
(b) for vehicles equipped with a compression-ignition engine and vehicles that operate without an
internal combustion engine: (0.0416 WF) + 320
where WF = work factor as described above
11
Source: http://www.gazette.gc.ca/rp-pr/p1/2012/2012-04-14/html/reg1-eng.html
49
Alternatively, a company may elect to use the CO2 emission target values set out in the one of the
following tables:
Table 3.22: For 2014 to 2017 model years
Model Year
Engine Cycle
Alternate CO2 Emission

Target (grams per mile)
Spark-ignition engine
(0.0482 WF) + 371
Compression-ignition engine
(0.0478 WF) + 368
(0.0479 WF) + 369
(0.0474 WF) + 366
(0.0469 WF) + 362
(0.0460 WF) + 354
(0.0460 WF) + 354
(0.0445 WF) + 343
2014
2015
2016
2017
Table 3.23: For 2014 to 2018 model years

Model Year
Engine Cycle
Alternate CO2 Emission

Target (grams per mile)
(0.0482 WF) + 371
(0.0478 WF) + 368
(0.0479 WF) + 369
(0.0474 WF) + 366
(0.0456 WF) + 352
(0.0440 WF) + 339
2014
2015
2016 to 2018
In case a company elects to use the CO2 emission target values set out in one of the tables above, the
applicable targets continue to apply for all the model years referred to in that table.
For vocational vehicles and tractors, the proposed regulations would include heavy-duty engine
standards for CO2, N2O and CH4, and separate vehicle standards for CO2.
50
Table 3.24: CO2 Emission Standards for vocational vehicles
CO2 Emission Standard (grams

of CO2 per ton-mile) for the
2014 to 2016 Model Years
CO2 Emission
Standard (grams of CO2 per
ton-mile) for the 2017 and
Subsequent Model Years
Classes 2B, 3, 4 and 5
388
373
Classes 6 and 7
234
225
Class 8
226
222
Class of Vocational
Vehicle
Engine emission standards for vocational vehicles vary based on vehicle class and fuel type and are
measured in g/bhp-hr.
Table 3.25: Vocational vehicles CO2 Emission Standards for compression-ignition engine
(diesel)
Vocational compression-ignition engine (g/BHP-hr)
Model Year
Light heavy-duty
Medium heavy-duty
Heavy heavy-duty
2014 to 2016
600
600
567
2017 and after
576
576
555
Combination tractors are further categorised by vehicle weight class, roof height and cab type.
Emissions are measured grams of CO2 per cargo ton-mile (g/ton-mile).
Table 3.26: Combination tractors CO2 Emission Standards
Class of Tractor
Class 7
CO2 Emission Standard

(grams of CO2 per tonmile) for the 2014 to 2016
Model Years
CO2 Emission Standard (grams of

CO2 per ton-mile) for the 2017
and Subsequent Model Years
Low-roof (all cab styles)
107
104
Mid-roof (all cab styles)
119
115
High-roof (all cab styles)
124
120
Low-roof day cab
81
80
Low-roof sleeper cab
68
66
Mid-roof day cab
88
86
Mid-roof sleeper cab
76
73
Characteristics
Class 8
51
Class of Tractor
CO2 Emission Standard

(grams of CO2 per tonmile) for the 2014 to 2016
Model Years
CO2 Emission Standard (grams of

CO2 per ton-mile) for the 2017
and Subsequent Model Years
High-roof day cab
92
89
High-roof sleeper cab
75
72
Characteristics
Table 3.27: Combination tractors CO2 Emission Standards for engines (in g/BHP-hr)
Medium heavy-duty
engines
Heavy heavy-duty
engines
2014 to 2016
502
475
2017 and after
487
460
Model Year
As per the norms, Class 2B and Class 3 heavy-duty vehicles and heavy-duty incomplete vehicles of
the 2014 and subsequent model years - excluding vocational vehicle - must have N2O and CH4
emission values that do not exceed 0.05 g/mile for N2O and 0.05 g/mile for CH4 for the applicable
useful life of the vehicle. Also, every heavy-duty engine that is a compression-ignition engine of the
2014 and a spark-ignition engine of the 2016 and subsequent model years must have N2O and CH4
emission values that do not exceed an emission standard of 0.10 g/BHP-hr for N2O and 0.10 g/BHPhr for CH4 for the applicable useful life of the engine.
The norms have also set standards for refrigerant leakage. In case of a heavy-duty vehicle, which is
equipped with an air conditioning system that uses a refrigerant other than HFC134a, the adjusted per
cent leakage rate of that refrigerant, rounded to the nearest one-hundredth of a per cent, must not
exceed 1.5 per cent per year. This would apply to pickup trucks, vans and tractors for systems with
refrigerant capacity greater than or equal to 734 grams. For systems with a refrigerant capacity of less
than 734 grams, the standard would equal 11.0 grams per year.
Conformation to the standards for different category of vehicles would be measured as follows:
Class 2B and Class 3 heavy-duty vehicles : using prescribed test cycles on a chassis
dynamometer, similarly to existing procedures for light-duty vehicles
Engines: using prescribed test cycles on an engine dynamometer
Tractors and vocational vehicles: computer simulation model (GEM)
Compliance with the vehicle standards for tractors and vocational vehicles and tractors would be
assessed using a computer simulation model (Greenhouse gas Emissions Model). The simulation
model testing is conducting by assigning a pre-determined payload and engine size to vehicles. As a
52
result, Canadian manufacturers will not be disadvantaged compared to US manufacturers due to the
higher average payloads in Canada. EPA Certificates would also be accepted to demonstrate
compliance with the emissions standards.
CO2 emission credit system

The proposed regulations would include a system of emission credits to help meet overall
environmental objectives in a manner that provides the regulated industry with compliance flexibility.
The CO2 emission credit system:
i.
Companies can generate, bank and trade emission credits
ii.
Companies would be allowed to manufacture or import vehicles and engines with emission
levels worse or better than the standard, provided that their average fleet emission level does
not exceed the applicable emission standard
iii.
Credits would be obtained by companies whose average fleet emission levels fall below the
applicable standard, while deficits would be incurred by companies whose fleet emissions
exceed the applicable standard
iv.
Credits may be applied by a company to offset a past deficit for up to three model years prior
to the year in which the credits were earned, or may be banked to offset a future deficit for up
to five model years after the year in which the credits were obtained
v.
Credits may also be transferred to another company
vi.
Optional early credits for all 2013 model year vehicles and electric vehicles of 2011-2013
model years
vii.
Credit multiplier of 1.5 for advanced technology vehicles and early credits
A company would not be allowed to obtain additional credits more than once for the same type of
GHG emission reduction technology. Other features of the regulations include:
Alternative phase-in requirements for pick-up trucks and vans and for engines
Low-volume exemption (imported or manufactured less than 100 vehicles)
Under the proposed regulations, manufacturers and importers would be responsible for ensuring that
their products comply with the proposed regulations and would be required to produce and maintain
evidence of such conformity. The policy sets out the range of possible responses to violations,
including warnings, directions, environmental protection compliance orders, ticketing, ministerial
orders, injunctions, prosecution, and environmental protection alternative measures.
53
3.2.4 European Union (EU)

EU has set ambitious climate and energy targets for 2020. These targets, known as the "20-20-20"
targets, set three key objectives for 2020:
A 20 per cent reduction in EU greenhouse gas emissions from 1990 levels
Raising the share of EU energy consumption produced from renewable resources to 20 per
cent
A 20 per cent improvement in the EU's energy efficiency
As a part of this program, in 2011, EU announced setting stringent emission performance standards
for new light commercial vehicles. The regulation applies to new motor vehicles of category N1, i.e.,
vehicles designed and constructed for the carriage of goods having a gross vehicle weight of less than
3,500 kg (7,716 lb) and a reference mass of less than 2,610 kg (5,754 lb). M2 and N2 vehicles were
included for monitoring purposes only. N1 vehicles in Europe account for approximately 10 per cent
of all light-duty vehicles. EU regulations introduce different emission limits for compression ignition
(diesel) and positive ignition (gasoline, NG, LPG, ethanol,...) vehicles. Diesel vehicles have more
stringent CO standards but are allowed higher NOx. This regulation sets the average CO2 emissions
for new light commercial vehicles at 175 g CO2 /km in 2017 and 147 g CO2 /km in 2020 as
compared to average emission level of approximately 185 g CO2/km in 2009. EU is currently
conducting extensive studies for development of emission standards for HDV.
Table 3.28: EU Emission Standards for Light Commercial Vehicles

Category
Stage
CO
Date
HC
HC+NOx
NOx
PM
PN
g/km
#/km
Compression Ignition (Diesel)
N1, Class I
1305 kg
N1, Class II
1305-1760
kg
Euro 1
1994.1
2.72
0.97
0.14
Euro 2 IDI
1998.01
0.7
0.08
Euro 2 DI
1998.01
0.9
0.1
Euro 3
Euro 4
2000.01
2005.01
0.64
0.5
0.56
0.3
0.5
0.25
0.05
0.025
Euro 5a
2009.09
0.5
0.23
0.18
0.005
Euro 5b
2011.09
0.5
0.23
0.18
0.005
Euro 6
2014.09
0.5
0.17
0.08
0.005
Euro 1
1994.1
5.17
1.4
0.19
Euro 2 IDI
1998.01
1.25
0.12
Euro 2 DI
1998.01
1.25
1.3
0.14
Euro 3
2001.01
0.8
0.72
0.65
0.07
6.010
11
6.010
11
54
Category
Stage
CO
Date
HC
HC+NOx
NOx
PM
PN
g/km
Compression Ignition (Diesel)
Euro 4
2006.01
c
Euro 5a
2010.09
N1, Class III

>1760 kg
N2
#/km
0.63
0.63
0.39
0.295
0.33
0.235
0.04
e
0.005
Euro 5b
2011.09
0.63
0.295
0.235
0.005
6.010
11
Euro 6
2015.09
0.63
0.195
0.105
0.005
6.010
11
Euro 1
1994.1
6.9
1.7
0.25
Euro 2 IDI
1998.01
1.5
1.2
0.17
Euro 2 DI
1998.01
1.5
1.6
0.2
Euro 3
2001.01
0.95
0.86
0.78
0.1
Euro 4
2006.01
0.74
0.46
0.39
0.06
0.74
0.35
0.28
0.005
Euro 5a
2010.09
Euro 5b
2011.09
0.74
0.35
0.28
0.005
Euro 6
2015.09
0.74
0.215
0.125
0.005
Euro 5a
2010.09
0.74
0.35
0.28
0.005
6.010
11
6.010
11
Euro 5b
2011.09
0.74
0.35
0.28
0.005
Euro 6
2015.09
0.74
0.215
0.125
0.005
6.010
11
6.010
11
For Euro 1/2 the Category N1 reference mass classes were Class I 1250 kg, Class II 1250-1700 kg, Class III
> 1700 kg
a. until 1999.09.30 (after that date DI engines must meet the IDI limits)
b. 2011.01 for all models
c. 2012.01 for all models
d. 2013.01 for all models
e. 0.0045 g/km using the PMP measurement procedure
Source: http://www.dieselnet.com/standards/eu/ld.php
As per the regulations, the indicative specific emissions of CO2 for each light commercial vehicle,
measured in grams per kilometre, will be determined in accordance with the following formulae12:
From 2014 to 2017:
Indicative specific emissions of CO 2 = 175 + a (M M 0)
where:
M = mass of the vehicle in kilograms (kg)
M0 = 1,706 kg
a = 0.093
12
REGULATION (EU) No 510/2011 OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL of 11 May
2011
55
From 2018, the value of M0 will be adjusted annually to reflect the average mass of new light
commercial vehicles in the previous three calendar years. The specific emissions target for a
manufacturer in a calendar year shall be calculated as the average of the indicative specific emissions
of CO 2 of each new light commercial vehicle registered in that calendar year of which it is the
manufacturer. For the calendar year commencing 1 January 2014 and each subsequent calendar year,
each manufacturer of light commercial vehicles shall ensure that its average specific emissions of CO
2 do not exceed its specific emissions target. As per the regulations, manufacturers must meet their
average emission targets in 70 per cent of their vehicle fleet in 2014, 75 per cent in 2015, 80 per cent
in 2016 and 100 per cent from 2017 onwards.
Other features of the regulation:
Super credits: Vehicles of CO2 emissions below 50 g/km will receive super-credits. Each
such new light commercial vehicle will be counted as:
3.5 light commercial vehicles in 2014
1 light commercial vehicle from 2018
The regulation limited the maximum number of new light commercial vehicles, with specific
emissions of CO 2 of less than 50 g CO 2 /km to 25,000 per manufacturer for calculation of
super-credits.
Pooling: Several auto manufacturers may form a pool to jointly meet their CO2 emission
targets. The duration of agreement for a pool was limited to five calendar years. Commission
should be informed of any changes to the membership of the pool or the dissolution of the
pool.
Excess emission premium: Excess emissions refers to positive number of grams per
kilometre by which a manufacturer's average specific emissions of CO2 , taking into account
CO2 emissions reductions due to approved innovative technologies, exceeded its specific
emissions target in the calendar year. In case a manufacturers average specific emission of
CO2 exceeds its specific emissions target, excess emission premium will be imposed on a
manufacturer or pool manager. The excess emissions premium will be calculated as:
(a) from 2014 until 2018:
(i) for excess emissions of more than 3 g CO 2 /km:
56
((Excess emissions 3 g CO 2 /km) EUR 95 + EUR 45) number of new light commercial
vehicles
(ii) for excess emissions of more than 2 g CO 2 /km but no more than 3 g CO 2 /km:
vehicles
(iii) for excess emissions of more than 1 g CO 2 /km but no more than 2 g CO 2 /km:
vehicles
(iv) for excess emissions of no more than 1 g CO 2 /km:
(Excess emissions EUR 5) number of new light commercial vehicles
(b) from 2019:
(Excess emissions EUR 95) number of new light commercial vehicles
3.3 Issues and challenges faced in Implementation of HDV regulations

Diverse configurations and applications of HDV makes it difficult to set their fuel efficiency
standards. In order to inform the development of the regulations and build consensus amongst a range
of stakeholders such as industry representatives (manufacturers, carriers and other vehicle owners and
operators), environmental non-governmental organizations, provinces and territories, as well as other
government departments, a number of stakeholder working group meetings were organised. With
interest of each stakeholder different from the other, governments around the world faced stiff
questions from various stakeholders, mostly industry concerning regulations.
3.3.1 United States:13

i.
Baselines: Navistar raised its concern regarding inclusion of Selective Catalytic Reduction
(SCR) in the baseline technology, stating that SCR-equipped engines used to construct the
baseline do not meet the NOx standard and therefore do not comply with the 2007 HeavyDuty Highway Rule. Therefore, standards built on this baseline technology are infeasible.
EPA responded by stating that feasibility requirement implied that all designated technology
had to be available before the effective date of regulations. In addition, Navistar and other
manufacturers could resort to the alternative standards for an engine, which required a 3 per
cent improvement over the engines performance by the effective date. The agency also
pointed out that sufficient lead-time is available with the manufacturers for compliance.
13
57
ii.
Technologies in vocational vehicles: For class 2b7 vocational vehicles, the proposed
standards were associated with improvements in engine fuel intensity and anticipated
improvement in rolling resistance. Some stakeholders observed that fuel-saving technologies
potentially could apply to other vehicle components, including transmissions, advanced drive
trains, weight reduction and improved auxiliary systems and urged the agencies to set the
standards, which will force adoption of these technologies for new vehicles. The agencies
declined, because to do so would be tantamount to picking technological winners.
The agencies also received comments from vehicle and tire manufactures that development of
new tire designs and proving they were safe and effective on the wide range of vocational
vehicle types required at least six years. The agencies left the requirements unchanged in the
final regulations stating that sufficient range of products was available to lead to significant
reductions in rolling resistance.
iii.
Categorisation: In the notice of proposed rulemaking, in order to prevent vocational vehicles

from being modified to serve as intercity combination trailers, the agencies classified all
vocational vehicles with sleeper cabs as tractors. This classification was removed based on
numerous objection raised by various stakeholders arguing that the agency had
underestimated the cost and difficulty of making vocational sleeper cabs suitable for intercity
use. The dissenters pointed out that the associated costs were at least as great as the savings
available from access to the less stringent regulation.
iv.
Alternative-fuelled vehicles: Producers of alternative fuelled trucks stated that credits for
some alternative-fuelled vehicles, such as all-electrics or natural gas vehicles, should be much
larger as compared to their diesel counterparts since they use no petroleum. The agencies
stated that this issue will be revisited in the future.
3.3.2 Canada
i.
GHG-reducing technologies: Environment Canada received comments that Canada can have
more stringent regulations than US by adopting additional technologies, such as automatic
transmissions that were not considered under the US regulations. However, the agency
proposed the same suite of technologies as the US
Post finalisation of US regulations, the agency conducted a study of the Canadian fleet to
assess whether the proposed regulations take into consideration the range of applications of
heavy-duty vehicles and their alignment with the US norms.
ii.
Low-volume importers: Some stakeholders raised concerns that in case of companies

importing small number of vehicles and engines, it is difficult to meet standards even with
inherent flexibilities of the program. Taking a note of this, Environment Canada is seeking
58
comments on a proposal to provide CO2 exemption to companies importing or manufacturing

less than 100 vocational vehicles and tractors. For engines that have CO2 emission levels
greater than applicable emission standard, the agency is allowing companies to import them if
these engines are covered by a US EPA certificate and are concurrently sold in greater
number in the United States than in Canada.
iii.
Low rolling resistance tires: A number of stakeholders expressed concerns with regards to
safety in usage of low rolling resistance tires, especially in winters, to comply with the
proposed standards. However, there was no data, which suggested that low rolling resistance
tires bear any additional safety risk than conventional tires. Transport Canada, is proactively
undertaking additional tests to measure the safety performance of low rolling resistance tires
and will, in consultation with Environment Canada, undertake safety activities, if required.
iv.
Applicable regulated entities: Since many importers were importing engines built by a
different company, some engine manufacturers and importers expressed the desire to have the
engine manufacturer be the responsible regulatee even in cases where the importer on record
is not the manufacturer. However, the proposed regulations apply to all importers of engines,
regardless of who manufactured the engine, or where it was manufactured.
v.
Less stringent payload restrictions: Environment Canada received queries on whether the
fact that Canadian province have less stringent payload restrictions for tractor trailers
compared to the US interstate limit should be taken into account for development of
regulations. The agency responded that since the proposed standards do not constrain the size
and power of vehicles and compliance with the proposed standards will be assessed with a
simulation model that uses a fixed payload, Canadian manufacturers will not be
disadvantaged compared to US manufacturers due to potentially higher average payloads in
Canada.
59
4 FRAMEWORK FOR DEFINING STANDARDS FOR DIESEL

(ENGINE DRIVEN ) TRUCKS AND BUSES IN INDIA
India currently has standards to reduce air pollutants from motor vehicles. However, there are no
standards to reduce fuel consumption of motor vehicles in India. Efforts are already underway for
development of fuel consumption standards for passenger vehicles in India. Though passenger
vehicles in India are smaller in size and consume less fuel than their western counterparts, the Indian
commercial vehicles (trucks and buses) often consume more fuel. Further, the commercial vehicles
consume around 31 million tonnes of diesel (equivalent to retail value of approximately Rs 180,000
crore) every year. Therefore, PCRA has embarked the process of development of similar fuel
consumption norms for diesel (engine driven) trucks and buses.
In order to develop the framework for defining standards for diesel (engine driven) trucks and buses,
it is imperative to understand the long term objective or vision for setting up these standards, the
various approaches which could be adopted to define these standards, the pros and cons of various
approaches, limitations or constraints in setting up the standards using these approaches and
implementation challenges.
4.1 Fuel consumption roadmap vision

More fuel efficient vehicles lead to fuel savings for the country in general.
Mandatory fuel
consumption standards are meant to encourage manufacturers to prioritise the improvement of fuel
efficiency in vehicle development. Moreover, the provision of information on vehicle fuel economy to
prospective vehicle buyers should also be central to any strategy to encourage improvements in
average fuel economy of the country. In addition, fuel consumption standards programme should
motivate the manufacturers to improve fuel efficiency beyond the target values required as per fuel
economy standard and induce consumers to purchase fuel-efficient vehicles. Accordingly, the
objectives of fuel consumption standards for diesel (engine driven) trucks and buses are two-fold:1)
Fuel savings or Economic benefits for the country by reducing fuel consumption
2)
Facilitate the buyers in making fuel-efficient purchase of these commercial vehicles
As a first step, various stakeholders shall jointly agree upon a Fuel Consumption Roadmap vision. For
instance,
60
To reduce fuel consumption per kilometre by 12 per cent to 20 per cent in new diesel (engine driven)
trucks and buses in India by 2020, and by 30 per cent to 50 per cent by 2025, in order to significantly
reduce GHG emissions and diesel consumption, compared with a baseline projection.
In US, the proposed NHTSA standards represent an average per-vehicle improvement in fuel
consumption of 15 per cent for diesel vehicles (6 per cent to 24 per cent range) and 10 per cent for
gasoline vehicles, by 2017.
4.2 Approaches for defining fuel consumption standards

Fuel consumption standards are mainly set as fuel consumption targets based on the average of the
total fleet of vehicles sold (corporate average fuel economy). Fleet average fuel economy standards
provide flexibility to manufacturers to achieve the target across the sales mix rather than with each
individual vehicle sold. The fuel consumption standards typically include
Approaches to the design of fuel consumption target values,
Stringency of the target,
Timing of introduction,
Compliance roadmap
Within this general approach based on the corporate average of the total fleet of vehicles sold, there
are two main categories of possible approaches to the way standards are defined:
1) Absolute target value across all vehicles and all manufacturers regardless of size, weight,
etc. of the vehicle fleet, represented as:
a single target for all manufacturers; or
a uniform percentage improvement for all manufacturers with separate target for each
manufacturer
2) Attribute-based target values across all vehicles for each manufacturer, where the target
varies depending on the average weight or size of the vehicles sold by a manufacturer. The
different ways to align the targets with vehicle attributes are:
Continuous function or curve: target values are estimated as a continuous function of

vehicle attributes i.e. corporate averaging across categories
Target value in each category: Vehicles are separated into discrete categories by vehicle
attribute and manufacturers must meet separate standards for their vehicles in that
category i.e. no corporate averaging within each class of vehicles.
61
Table 4.1: Pros and Cons of approaches to the way standards are defined
S No
(1)
Approach
Pros
Absolute target - Absolute
across all vehicles and all
Easier to
manufacturers regardless of
implement
size, weight, etc. of the
vehicle fleet
a) Single Standard Approach
b)
Uniform
Percentage
Improvement Approach
Attribute-based target
(2)
Attribute-based target values

across all vehicles for each
manufacturer, where the
target varies depending on
the average weight or size of
the vehicles sold by a
manufacturer
Cons
develop
and Perceived to discriminate between

manufacturers
Focuses on improvement of
the average fuel efficiency of
each manufacturers fleets,
and thereby the total fleet,
regardless of a possible shift
in the sales-mix over time
Focuses
on
significant
improvement
from
all
manufacturers, regardless of
their starting point or relative
position in the market
Provides greater fairness

among
manufacturers,
because the targets are linked
to a particular vehicle
attribute regardless of the
average weight or size of
their vehicles
Provides more flexibility to

Continuous function or curve manufacturers, allowing them
a)
Approach
to improve fuel efficiency
more cost-effectively
b)
Target value
category
in
Addresses
inequalities
each because of single target value
curve
for
all
vehicle
categories
Perceived to discriminate between

manufacturers - Manufacturers selling
larger or heavier (and typically less
fuel efficient) vehicles must make
greater changes to meet the standards
Perceived to discriminate between
manufacturers
Unfair
to
manufacturers that have already made
significant efforts to improve fuel
efficiency
Average fuel economy of new vehicles
can still increase if the vehicle sales
mix shifts towards bigger and/or
heavier vehicles (depending upon
slope of the target value curve).
Implicitly encourages manufacturers to
increase the size or weight of vehicles
to take advantage of less stringent
targets.
Inequalities may exist depending on
how the target value curve is set for
the continuous curve approach, or if
differences exist in applicable
technologies and marginal costs for
improving fuel efficiency along the
target value curve.
May be inefficient to reduce fuel
consumption in certain vehicle
categories where fuel economyimproving technologies may be
costlier.
Target values need to be determined
based on detailed technology analysis
across vehicle categories, leading to
higher
costs
for
governments
developing these standards.
62
Both Japan and the United States have adopted Attribute-based target HDV standards based on
vehicle categories. For India, based on the pros and cons of approaches to the way fuel consumption
standards are defined, the attribute-based continuous curve approach (with separate standards for
trucks and buses) is the best option in the first phase of implementation of the standards. This
approach will provide enough flexibility for manufacturers without being unfair or cost ineffective to
any manufacturer, while ensuring that the target is achieved. Instead of targeting fuel consumption
reduction across all vehicle categories (i.e. across various GVW categories), the manufacturers can
focus on reducing fuel consumption based on a target value determined as the average of the attribute
(vehicle weight or footprint or others) of the vehicles that it sells, weighted by the sales of each model
using a continuous curve standard. Thereafter, in the second phase of fuel consumption standards,
attribute-based continuous curve approach can be implemented for various categories of vehicles.
4.2.1 Attributes for Attribute-based continuous curve approach

To develop fuel consumption standards based on Attribute-based continuous curve or category-based
attribute standards, an appropriate attribute for developing standards is required. Vehicle weight and
footprint14 are commonly used attributes for designing fuel consumption standards of passenger
vehicles (footprint used as an attribute in US while vehicle weight used as an attribute in EU and
Japan). Other vehicle attributes which could be used are engine power and interior volume, but they
are not widely used.
For trucks and buses, gross vehicle weight (GVW) and payload are more appropriate attribute than
vehicle weight for developing fuel consumption standards. However, fuel consumption norms based
on GVW as an attribute do not give manufacturers an incentive to reduce vehicle weight, because
reduction in vehicle weight will be offset by an increase in payload and thus would not change GVW.
In fact, payload can also be an appropriate attribute for developing fuel consumption standards as it is
more easily understood by consumers.
Possible attributes for Attribute-based continuous curve approach for fuel consumption standards for
diesel trucks and buses are:1) Vehicle Weight
2) GVW
3) Footprint
4) Payload
14
Footprint indicates vehicle size and is equal to wheelbase times track width.
63
Table 4.2: Comparison of attributes for Attribute-based continuous curve approach

S No
(1)
Attribute
b) Footprint
a)
Cons
Countries
using
Light Duty Vehicles

(LDVs)
a) Vehicle Weight
(2)
Pros
Strong correlation between Implicitly

encourages
vehicle weight and fuel
manufacturers to increase
consumption
the weight of vehicles
Implicitly
encourages
the size or footprint of
Can
encourage
vehicles
manufacturers to reduce
Not directly proportional
weight of vehicles
to fuel consumption
Difficult to set up target
values based on footprint
US, EU,
Japan
US
Heavy Duty Vehicles

(HDVs)
Gross Vehicle Weight

(GVW)
b) Payload
Strong correlation with

fuel consumption as GVW
reflects
Parameter reflects usage of

vehicle
More easily understood by
consumers
Can
encourage
weight of vehicles and
increase payload carrying
capacity
No
incentive
for
vehicle weight, because
reduction
in
vehicle
weight will be offset by
an increase in payload
and thus would not
change GVW
Implicitly
encourages
the size or footprint of
vehicles
Not directly proportional
to fuel consumption
Potential for unfairness to
manufacturers
selling
vehicles
with
low
payloads
US, Japan,
China
64
4.2.2 Categories
for
Attribute-based continuous curve
approach (with
categories)
Both Japan and the United States have adopted Attribute-based target HDV standards based on
vehicle categories. As there are large differences in applicable technologies for light, medium and
heavy commercial vehicles, categories can reasonably be assigned according to gross vehicle weight.
However, creating too many categories is not a good option because the number of vehicle types in
each category would be too small to develop appropriate target values. Further, the administrative
costs for developing target values would also increase for a larger number of categories.
The recommended categories for developing preliminary fuel consumption standards for diesel
(engine driven) trucks and buses are:Table 4.3: Categories for Attribute-based continuous curve approach
Vehicle Categories
Trucks
Category - I
Category II
Category III
Buses
Category - I
Category II
Category Name
Category details
Light Duty Vehicles

Medium Duty Vehicles
Heavy Duty Vehicles
GVW 7.5t
7.5t < GVW 16t
GVW > 16t
Light Duty Vehicles

Medium & Heavy
Vehicles
GVW 7.5t
Duty
GVW > 7.5t
4.2.3 Testing procedures and Test cycles for measuring fuel consumption
Commercial vehicles (trucks and buses) are typically classified by attributes Gross Vehicle Weight
(GVW) and footprint. Introducing Attribute-based target fuel consumption standards for trucks and
buses is a complex task because fuel consumption of trucks and buses depends on many factors apart
from the sheer vehicle weight or footprint, such as average transported payload, road gradients, drag
and rolling resistance from vehicle, engine characteristics, gear ratios and type of transmission, and
auxiliary power demand. Further, fuel savings and the impacts of technologies on fuel consumption
are highly dependent on whether these vehicles are mainly used for urban driving (such as delivery
trucks or intra-city buses) or long-haul (mainly highway) shipments or inter-city buses. Urban and
regional delivery and transportation services are dominated by small and medium freight trucks and
buses, typically up to a gross vehicle weight of 16t; long-haul trucking and inter-city transportation
are mostly carried out with large trucks and buses up to a gross vehicle weight of 40t. Urban and
regional delivery is characterised by lower average speeds, frequent acceleration and deceleration, and
65
frequent stops. Long-haul services are mostly carried out at high and fairly constant speeds, so
improving aerodynamics and reducing rolling resistance are key measures.
In order to define reasonable and meaningful fuel consumption standards, all these factors need to be
taken into account for each segment of vehicles. Therefore, standard driving test cycles are required to
test the vehicles for fuel consumption and pollutant emissions incorporating many, if not all, of these
factors for various categories of vehicles.
The basic input for comparison of fuel economy and development of fuel consumption standards is
fuel economy data of various models of vehicles. In order to compare fuel economy of different
vehicles in a consistent and unbiased manner, a systematic approach must be used. The fuel economy
and pollution emissions15 estimates are usually measured in a homologation laboratory under
predefined test conditions for a range of standardised driving cycles or test cycles to simulate typical
driving conditions. There are numerous possible configurations of trucks and buses; homologating
each vehicle configuration is not realistic. Further, the layout of a vehicle in the testing laboratory
requires substantial investment. Therefore, several other methods are used to test vehicles for fuel
efficiency and pollutant emissions. In order to measure fuel economy, typically four different
approaches are considered:
(1) Vehicle testing using chassis dynamometer in a homologation laboratory
(2) Engine testing using engine or bench dynamometer in a homologation laboratory Given the size and weight of trucks and buses, often only the engine is tested on a bench
dynamometer to measure fuel economy and pollutant emissions.
(3) Computer Simulation - Computer simulation of the whole truck (typically in combination
with engine testing on a bench dynamometer) is a favoured option by industry. The
Greenhouse Gas Emissions Model (GEM) simulation tool developed in the US adopts this
strategy, complementing the vehicle modelling tool with engine dynamometer tests.
(4) On-road testing of vehicles
15
Such as carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons (HC), particulate matters (PM) and
nitrogen oxides (NOx)
66
Table 4.4: Testing options for measurement of vehicle fuel economy

S No
Type of test
Parts simulated
Cost of test
(1)
On-road
Computer
simulation
Engine
dynamometer
Chassis
dynamometer
None
Low
Countries considering fuel

None
All
Low
Road and nonengine components
High
US, EU, Japan
Road
Very High
(2)
(3)
(4)
China
The unit for measuring fuel consumption need not only be Litre per kilometre. For vehicle standards,
Litre per tonne-kilometre can also be used to measure fuel consumption for trucks and buses. For
engine standards, Litre per kWh can also be used to measure fuel consumption for trucks and buses.
Further, fuel economy standards can also be developed instead of fuel consumption standards with
units as inverse of fuel consumption units (like kmpl, tonne-km per litre, etc.).
The fuel economy of the entire fleet of vehicles, in actual on-road conditions, depends on many
factors and is difficult to measure. The difference between tested and in-use fuel economy is due to
attributes of the vehicle, the driver and the road. In India, vehicles average age and road conditions
are the main factors that keep average fuel economy lower. However, vehicle average size and
embedded technologies also play an important role for the average on-road fuel economy. Isolating
the exact impact of each factor is difficult because of limited data, therefore, the tested fuel economy
of new vehicles based on various methods above is a good indicator of their performance in-use, but
is likely to underestimate fuel consumption.
The fuel economy details of various vehicle models of trucks and buses are neither disclosed by the
manufacturers nor collected by testing agencies like ARAI. ARAI, however, collects data for engine
testing of trucks and buses models using engine or bench dynamometer. Therefore, setting up fuel
consumption vehicle standards will require testing of various available models of buses and trucks
prior to setting up the standards. Moreover, test cycles will have to be standardised for various
categories for which standards are to be developed. On the other hand, engine test data (in Litre /
kWh) could be used to setup engine standards for fuel consumption in the first phase, followed by
vehicle standards for fuel consumption in subsequent phases.
67
4.3 Key Technology areas for improvement in fuel consumption

For establishing the fuel consumption standards for trucks and buses, a detailed consultation process
with vehicle and engine manufacturers in India is required to be undertaken to evaluate various engine
and other automotive technologies, which are commercially available or will be available in the next
5-10 years. These technologies have to be evaluated on the parameters such as impacts on fuel
economy, ease of integration into the MD/HD truck manufacturing process and associated costs.
Some important considerations while evaluating these technologies are the road conditions and
emission standards in India, which might limit the impact of technologies due to practical reasons.
International Energy Agency (IEA) has classified some of the technological measures to improve fuel
efficiency into:
Engine: including auxiliary aggregates such as cooling, power steering and the braking
system;
Drive-train: transmission, including any hybridisation system;
Vehicle: chassis, bodywork (including fairings and other aerodynamic devices), trailer and
tyres;
ITS/ICT: intelligent transport systems and information/communication technologies to help

drivers optimise in-use fuel economy.
Driving pattern of commercial vehicles employed for inter-city use is characterised by lower average
speeds, frequent acceleration and deceleration, and frequent stops. Optimisation of fuel efficiency in
such cases can be achieved by improving engine and drive-train efficiency and introducing
technologies such as idle-off and hybridisation. Long-haul services are mostly carried out at high
and fairly constant speeds, so improving aerodynamics and reducing rolling resistance are key
measures.
Table 4.5: Truck fuel economy improvement technology matrix
Category
Technology
Engine
Variable valve actuation
1% to 2%
Technology
cost range
(USD)
300 to 600
Engine
Sequential turbo/downsizing
Up to 5%
NA
Engine
Speed control (injection)
Up to 5%
NA
Engine
Oil and water pump with variable speed
1% to 4%
NA
Engine
Controllable air compressor
3.50%
~200
Engine
Smart alternator, battery sensor electric

accessory drive
2% to 10%
NA
Engine
Start/stop automatic
5% to 10%
600 to 900
Engine
Dual fuel systems
10% to 20%
~33 000
Fuel improvement
potential
Market
ready
68
Up to 4%
Technology
cost range
(USD)
800 to 1 000
Turbocompound (mechanical/electric)
4%/7%
~3 000/8 000
Bottoming cycles/waste heat recovery

(e.g. organic Rankine)
1.5% to 10%
15 000 to 16 000
1%
NA
4% to 6%
4 500 to 6 000
Category
Technology
Engine
Pneumatic booster: air hybrid
Engine
Engine
Drive
Train
Drive
Train
Eco roll freewheel function

Automated manual transmission
Fuel improvement
potential
Market
ready
Drive
Train
Full hybrid
15% to 30% urban

4% to 10% long haul
30 000 to 33 000
Drive
Train
Flywheel hybrid
15% to 22% urban

5% to 15% long haul
~4 500
Drive
Train
Hydraulic hybrid
12% to 25% urban

Avg 12% long haul
~13 000
Vehicle
Low rolling resistance tyres
5%
300 to 500
Vehicle
Aerodynamic fairings
0.5% to 5%
1 500 to 1 700
Vehicle
Aerodynamic trailer/boat tail
12% to 15%
4 500 to 5 000
Vehicle
Single wide tyres
5% to 10%
~1 700
Vehicle
Light-weight materials
2% to 5%
~2 000 to 5 000
Vehicle
Active aerodynamics
Up to 5%
~1 600
ITS/ICT
Predictive cruise control
2% to 5%
~1 900
ITS/ICT
Driver support system
5% to 10%
NA
ITS/ICT
Acceleration control
Up to 6%
NA
ITS/ICT
Vehicle platooning
Up to 20%
NA
Notes: Text in italics indicates short-haul, medium freight trucks; shaded text indicates long-haul, heavy-duty
trucks; remaining pertains to all truck types.
NA = not applicable.
Sources: IEA, 2010a; Hill et al., 2011; Cooper et al., 2009; Duleep, 2011; Law, K. et al., 2011; NRC, 2010a.
Most of the technologies listed above are already commercially available or will be available within
the next five to ten years. The above table indicates there is sufficient scope for improvement in fuel
efficiency of trucks and buses by utilisation of commercially available technologies.
In US, M&HCV norms (for MY 2014-2018) are based only on improvement in engines and rolling
resistance of tyres. Even by considering only two attributes, the US is targeting improvement of
around 12 per cent - 17 per cent in pickup trucks and vans, 6 per cent - 9 per cent in vocational
vehicles and 10 per cent - 23 per cent in tractors. The US is working on next set of norms wherein
targets will be based on improvement in the whole vehicle, which will be significantly stringent than
the present norms. As per ICCT estimates, approximately 20 - 30% fuel consumption reduction is
possible using off-the-shelf technologies and technologies that will be available in the 2015-2020
timeframe.
69
Table 4.6: Key Technology Areas for improvement in fuel consumption using off-the-shelf
technologies and technologies that will be available in the 2015-2020 timeframe
Light HD
Truck
Medium HD
Truck
Heavy Combination
Tractor
Large Transit
Bus
Engine
2-5%
4-10%
8-12%
4-7%
Transmission
and driveline
3-7%
4-8%
2-5%
2-5%
Aerodynamics
< 2%
2-5%
8-12%
< 2%
Tires
2-5%
2-5%
8-12%
2-5%
Light weighting
1-2%
1-2%
1-3%
1-5%
Particulars
15-20%
15-25%
5-7%
20-25%
Hybridization
Note: For each vehicle type, the overall FC benefits that can be achieved are highly dependent on the assumed
baseline levels, drive cycles, payload, etc.
Source: ICCT- Anup Bandivadekar presentation on Heavy-Duty Vehicle Fuel Efficiency Regulatory
Developments around the World- 3rd July, 2012
4.4 Developing Fuel consumption standards for India

One of the pre-requisites for development of fuel consumption standards is collection of baseline data
for various models of buses and trucks under pre-defined test conditions. As discussed in the earlier
section, for establishing the baseline for fuel consumption standards, fuel consumption or fuel
economy data under standardised test conditions is required for each model of buses and trucks for all
manufacturers for the baseline year. The fuel consumption baseline data is required as per the selected
unit in which standards will be defined. For instance, units for vehicle standards can be Litre per
kilometre, Litre per tonne-kilometre, Litre per 100-km, etc. and for engine standards, Litre per kWh,
Litre per kilometre, Litre per 100-km, etc. Further, fuel economy standards can also be developed
instead of fuel consumption standards with units as inverse of fuel consumption units (like km per
litre, tonne-km per litre, etc.).
One of the biggest challenges for developing fuel consumption standards for trucks and buses is nonavailability of any reported fuel economy data of trucks and buses, either by manufacturers or
government bodies like ARAI (except engine testing data). For the purpose of illustrating the
framework for developing the fuel consumption standards for trucks and buses, we have relied on onroad data collected from our interactions with a few stakeholders (including fleet operators) and
secondary research of information available in public domain. However, this data is inconsistent in
terms of various parameters like payload under which fuel efficiency is measured (full-load / halfload), average driving route conditions, etc. and is only illustrative for the purpose of illustrating the
framework for developing the fuel consumption standards for trucks and buses.
70
Since the baseline data has to be collected under pre-defined test conditions, the data we have used to
indicate the baseline has to be further refined by elaborate testing of different categories of trucks and
buses as defined in the earlier section. Our illustrations for vehicle and engine fuel consumption
standards in this section are limited by the availability of fuel efficiency data for trucks and buses in
India. For our illustrations, we have defined fuel consumption in Litre per 100-km for vehicle
standards and fuel efficiency as km/l for engine standards.
4.4.1 Vehicle standards

Fuel consumption for various models of trucks and buses are plotted in the charts below based on the
on-road data collected for each of them. In case of trucks, we have plotted fuel consumption in
L/(100-KM) against GVW and payload of the corresponding vehicle. Trucks are designed to carry
freight and therefore, establishing standards based on payload for trucks is an appropriate attributebased fuel consumption metric. The green line at the top of data points in the charts above indicates
hypothetical standards for the baseline year. All data points below the green line indicate compliance
by each of the commercial vehicle manufacturer (for all models) in the baseline year.
Figure 4.1: Baseline fuel consumption data for trucks (for illustrative purpose only)16
16
Note: Data shown in the charts in this section is for illustration purpose only since it is based on the on-road
data for various models of buses and trucks. For defining of standards, the baseline data in above format has to
be collected for a particular model year of all categories of buses and trucks under defined test conditions.
71
Figure 4.2: Baseline fuel consumption data for buses (for illustrative purpose only)
L/(100-km) vs. GVW

L/(100-km)
40
y = 1.6406x + 3.312
30
20
10
0
0
GVW 10
15
20
Establishing fuel consumption standards for trucks and buses is significantly challenging because of a
wide range of tasks they are designed to perform. The proposed standards have to be structured such
that the size and power of heavy-duty vehicles is not constrained. The targeted fuel economy
improvement for various categories of trucks and buses is indicated in the table below:
Table 4.7: Targeted fuel economy improvement in 2020, 2025 (for illustrative purpose only)
Vehicle
Categories
Category Name
Category details
% improvement in
fuel economy till
2020
% improvement in
fuel economy till
2025
Trucks
Category I
Light Duty Vehicles
GVW 7.5t
12%-14%
30% - 35%
Category II
7.5t < GVW 16t
14% - 16%
35% -40%
Category III
Heavy Duty Vehicles
GVW > 16t
18% - 20%
45% -50%
Light Duty Vehicles

Medium & Heavy Duty
Vehicles
GVW 7.5t
12%-14%
30% - 35%
GVW > 7.5t
16%-20%
40% - 50%
Buses
Category I
Category II
We have indicated two set of targets, one for the year 2020 and other for 2025. The targets for 2020
are relatively less stringent since they are mainly based on improvements in engine technology. The
targets increase in stringency after 2020 since additional suite of technologies would be considered for
achieving the target standards for 2025. These targets are also in line with the ICCT estimates
regarding fuel consumption reduction using off-the-shelf technologies and technologies that will be
available in the 2015-2020 timeframe as discussed in previous section.
The fuel economy target for each manufacturer is determined from the sales-weighted average of the
attribute, e.g., fuel consumption target based on sales-weighted average GVW for the manufacturer.
72
The slope of this curve is the key factor in determining whether an incentive exists to sell heavier
vehicles. A relatively flat curve means that heavier vehicles are not given much leeway with their
targets. In general, a heavier vehicle has more scope for improvement in fuel consumption. The slope
should typically be set for creating an incentive to reduce vehicle weight. The slope of the
hypothetical standard line in 2020 and 2025 needs to be flatter for adequate stringency for all classes
of manufacturers.
Figure 4.3: Fuel consumption targets for trucks 2020, 2025 (for illustrative purpose only)
73
As indicated in the graphs above, the hypothetical standard line for trucks is:
For Fuel consumption vs. GVW:
Hypothetical standard line for 2020: Fuel consumption (L/(100-KM)) = 0.8943 x GVW + 8.502
For Fuel consumption vs. Payload:

Hypothetical standard line for 2020: Fuel consumption (L/(100-KM)) = 1.3659 x Rated Payload +
10.507
Hypothetical standard line for 2025: Fuel consumption (L/(100-KM)) = 0.6794 x Rated Payload +
12.797
Figure 4.4: Fuel consumption targets for buses 2020, 2025 (for illustrative purpose only)
As indicated in the graphs above, the hypothetical standard line for buses is:
The above charts indicate a much flatter hypothetical standard line for 2020 and 2025 indicating
progressively tighter norms for heavy-duty trucks and buses.
4.4.2 Engine standards

In case of HDVs, the engine is the largest user of energy and offers major scope for improvement in
fuel consumption. The US and Japanese HDV regulations are largely based on improvements in
74
engines. In addition, the US HDV regulations have separate standards for engine to ensure
improvements in both the engines and whole vehicle.
As discussed in the previous sub-section, collection of baseline data for development of engine
standards requires testing of various models of engines for all manufacturers for a baseline year under
pre-defined conditions. For engines, the fuel consumption data can be collected in in terms of Litres
per kWh, or Litres per km. An engine testing cycle typically consists of different modes with various
combination of Load and Engine speed. Each mode is then assigned a weighting factor to reflect the
actual on-road driving conditions to arrive at the engine performance.
The biggest challenge for defining the engine efficiency standards is the absence of any defined
testing cycle for the engines, which could be used as the basis for defining the engine efficiency
norms. For the purpose of illustrating the framework for developing the engine efficiency standards,
we have relied on secondary research of information available in public domain. Since the baseline
data has to be collected under pre-defined test conditions, the data we have used to indicate the
baseline has to be further refined by elaborate testing of different models of engine as defined in the
earlier sub-section.
Figure 4.5: Baseline Engine efficiency data (for illustrative purpose only)
Source: Mr. M.K.Chaudhari, Sr. Deputy Director, ARAI presentation on Fuel Economy
Measurements- Indian Perspective- 12th August, 2010
Data for various models of engines has to be collected and plotted as depicted above either in terms of
Fuel Economy in km/l vs. Engine Power in kW or Engine Efficiency in Litres per kWh vs. Engine
Power in kW for the baseline year.
75
Figure 4.6: Engine efficiency targets 2020 (for illustrative purpose only)
Taking cognisance of the HDV policies across the globe, we have considered that improvements in
engine technology will account for major share of fuel economy improvements until 2020.
As indicated in the graphs above, the hypothetical standard line for engine efficiency for 2020 is:
Hypothetical standard line for 2020
LCVs: Fuel economy (km/l) = 23.916 x exp (-0.01 x Engine Power kW)
M&HCVs: Fuel economy (km/l) = 8.2016 x exp (-0.003 x Engine Power kW)
76
4.5 Estimation increase in fuel consumption by 2020, 202517

4.5.1 Case I : Current fuel economy scenario18
Fuel economy of buses and trucks has almost remained stagnant over the last five years. Change in
emission regime from BS III to BS IV in some of the cities of the country has made the job of
balancing the emissions and fuel economy tough for the bus and truck manufacturers. For estimating
the diesel consumption in the country up to 2025 under Current fuel economy scenario, we have
considered no improvement in the fuel economy of buses and trucks as compared to baseline data.
Trucks, under Current fuel economy scenario
The table below provides estimates for the annual diesel consumption by new trucks sold from 201516 onwards (i.e. during the proposed period for fuel consumption regulatory regime, in case fuel
consumption standards are not implemented). As the number of new trucks on road (sold in or after
2015-16) increases, their share in diesel consumption will increase from 5.09 million tonne in 201516 to 72.76 million tonne in 2024-25 (Rs 287 billion in 2015-16 to Rs 4,110 billion in 2024-25, in
value terms).
Table 4.8: Estimated annual diesel consumption by New trucks purchased from 2015-16
onwards during 2015-16 and 2024-25 (under Current fuel efficiency scenario)
Year
2015-16
2016-17
2017-18
2018-19
2019-20
2020-21
2021-22
2022-23
2023-24
2024-25
17
Truck sales
1,156,771
1,276,046
1,395,322
1,514,597
1,633,873
1,753,148
1,872,423
1,991,699
2,110,974
2,230,250
Fuel consumed /
truck purchased
in the year p.a.
(in litres)
Total fuel
consumed by
trucks purchased
in the year p.a.
(in mn tonne)
5,284
5,248
5,219
5,194
5,173
5,155
5,139
5,125
5,112
5,101
5.09
5.57
6.06
6.55
7.03
7.52
8.01
8.49
8.98
9.47
Total fuel consumed

(trucks purchased from
FY16 onwards)
(in mn
(in Rs
tonne)
billion)
5.09
287
10.66
602
16.72
944
23.26
1,314
30.29
1,711
37.81
2,136
45.82
2,588
54.31
3,068
63.29
3,575
72.76
4,110
We have not assessed business as usual approach for estimation of fuel savings as we could not get any inputs
on expected fuel improvement over the next five to ten years from the vehicle or engine manufacturers.
18
77
Buses, under Current fuel economy scenario

The table below provides estimates for the annual diesel consumption by new buses sold from 201516 onwards (i.e. during the proposed period for fuel consumption regulatory regime, in case fuel
consumption standards are not implemented). As the number of new buses on road (sold in or after
2015-16) increase, their share in diesel consumption will increase from 0.74 million tonne in 2015-16
to 9.36 million tonne in 2024-25 (Rs 42 billion in 2015-16 to Rs 529 billion in 2024-25, in value
terms).
Table 4.9: Estimated annual diesel consumption by New buses purchased from 2015-16
onwards during 2015-16 and 2024-25 (under Current fuel efficiency scenario)
Year
2015-16
2016-17
2017-18
2018-19
2019-20
2020-21
2021-22
2022-23
2023-24
2024-25
Bus sales
132,071
140,596
149,120
157,644
166,169
174,693
183,218
191,742
200,267
208,791
Fuel consumed /
bus purchased
in the year p.a.
(in litres)
Total fuel
consumed by
buses purchased
in the year p.a.
(in mn tonne)
6,752
6,711
6,674
6,642
6,613
6,586
6,562
6,541
6,521
6,502
0.74
0.78
0.83
0.87
0.91
0.96
1.00
1.04
1.09
1.13
Total fuel consumed

(buses purchased from
FY16 onwards)
(in mn
(in Rs
tonne)
billion)
0.74
42
1.53
86
2.35
133
3.23
182
4.14
234
5.10
288
6.10
344
7.14
403
8.23
465
9.36
529
78
4.5.2 Case II : Fuel consumption standards regime19

For estimating the diesel consumption in the country up to 2025 under Fuel consumption standards
regime, we have considered phase-in approaches that get equivalent overall reductions with yearly
improvements at 15-20-40-60-100 per cent for both Phase I (2015-16 to 2019-20) and Phase II (202021 to 2024-25) as compared to baseline data.
Table 4.10: Targeted fuel economy improvement in 2020, 2025 (for illustrative purpose only)
Vehicle
Categories
Trucks
Category I
Category II
Category III
Buses
Category I
Category II
Category Name
Category details
% improvement in
fuel economy till
2020
% improvement
in fuel economy
till 2025
Light Duty Vehicles

Heavy Duty Vehicles
GVW 7.5t
7.5t < GVW 16t
GVW > 16t
12%-14%
14% - 16%
18% - 20%
30% - 35%
35% -40%
45% -50%
Light Duty Vehicles

Medium & Heavy Duty
Vehicles
GVW 7.5t
12%-14%
30% - 35%
GVW > 7.5t
16%-20%
40% - 50%
The estimates for annual diesel consumption by new trucks and buses sold from 2015-16 onwards
under Fuel consumption standards regime (during the proposed fuel consumption regulatory regime)
is discussed below.
Trucks, under Fuel consumption standards regime
The table below provides estimates for the annual diesel consumption by new trucks sold from 201516 onwards (i.e. during the proposed fuel consumption regulatory regime). As the number of new
trucks on road (from the fuel consumption norms regime) increase, their share in diesel consumption
will increase from 4.96 million tonne in 2015-16 to 60.7 million tonne in 2024-25 (Rs 280 billion in
2015-16 to Rs 3,429 billion in 2024-25, in value terms). Therefore, implementation of proposed
norms is expected to limit the consumption of diesel by trucks in 2024-25 to around 60.70 million
tonne as compared to 72.76 million tonne in absence of any norms.
19
79
Table 4.11: Estimated annual diesel consumption by New trucks purchased from 2015-16
onwards during 2015-16 and 2024-25 (under Fuel consumption standards regime)
Year
2015-16
2016-17
2017-18
2018-19
2019-20
2020-21
2021-22
2022-23
2023-24
2024-25
Truck sales
Average
Fuel
Efficiency
(km/l)
Fuel consumed /
truck purchased
in the year p.a.
(in litres)
Total fuel
consumed by
trucks purchased
in the year p.a.
(in mn tonne)
6.4
6.4
6.7
6.9
7.4
7.6
7.7
8.1
8.4
9.1
5,150
5,073
4,881
4,706
4,411
4,254
4,196
4,015
3,849
3,563
4.96
5.39
5.67
5.93
6.00
6.20
6.54
6.65
6.76
6.61
1,156,771
1,276,046
1,395,322
1,514,597
1,633,873
1,753,148
1,872,423
1,991,699
2,110,974
2,230,250
Total fuel consumed

(trucks purchased from
FY16 onwards)
(in mn
(in Rs
tonne)
billion)
4.96
280
10.34
584
16.01
904
21.94
1,239
27.94
1,578
34.14
1,929
40.68
2,298
47.33
2,674
54.09
3,055
60.70
3,429
Buses, under Fuel consumption standards regime

The table below provides estimates for the annual diesel consumption by new buses sold from 201516 onwards (i.e. during the proposed fuel consumption regulatory regime). As the number of new
buses on road (from the fuel consumption norms regime) increase, their share in diesel consumption
will increase from 0.73 million tonne in 2015-16 to 8.04 million tonne in 2024-25 (Rs 41 billion in
2015-16 to Rs 454 billion in 2024-25, in value terms). Therefore, implementation of proposed norms
is expected to limit the consumption of diesel by buses in 2024-25 to around 8.04 million tonne as
compared to 9.36 million tonne in absence of any norms.
Table 4.12: Estimated annual diesel consumption by New buses purchased from 2015-16
onwards during 2015-16 and 2024-25 (under Fuel consumption standards regime)
Year
2015-16
2016-17
2017-18
2018-19
2019-20
2020-21
2021-22
2022-23
2023-24
2024-25
Bus sales
132,071
140,596
149,120
157,644
166,169
174,693
183,218
191,742
200,267
208,791
Average
Fuel
Efficiency
(km/l)
Fuel consumed /
bus purchased
in the year p.a.
(in litres)
Total fuel
consumed by
buses purchased
in the year p.a.
(in mn tonne)
5.5
5.6
5.8
6.0
6.3
6.5
6.6
6.9
7.1
7.6
6,604
6,517
6,301
6,100
5,762
5,579
5,508
5,296
5,099
4,760
0.73
0.76
0.78
0.80
0.80
0.81
0.84
0.84
0.85
0.83
Total fuel consumed

(buses purchased from
FY16 onwards)
(in mn
(in Rs
tonne)
billion)
0.73
41
1.49
84
2.27
128
3.07
173
3.87
218
4.68
264
5.52
312
6.36
359
7.21
407
8.04
454
80
4.5.3 Estimated diesel consumption in India (trucks and buses)

Under the current fuel economy scenario, the diesel consumption by trucks and buses in India is
expected to increase from around 31.8 million tonne in 2011-12 to around 104.7 million tonne in
In contrast, under fuel consumption standards regime, the estimated diesel consumption by trucks and
buses in India is expected to increase from around 31.8 million tonne in 2011-12 to around 91.4
million tonne in 2024-25, thereby registering a CAGR of 8.5%. Trucks will continue to account for
major share of diesel consumption with their share increasing from around 76% in 2011-12 to around
86% in 2024-25. Total diesel consumption by buses is expected to increase from 7.8 million tonne in
2012-12 to 12.4 million tonne in 2024-25.
Figure 4.7: Estimated increase in diesel consumption by trucks and buses in India
100.0
CAGR = 8.5%
in million tonne
80.0
60.0
40.0
10.7
11.3
11.6
12.1
12.4
Buses
Trucks
74.4 78.9
60.7 64.8 69.2
56.4
47.6 52.1
38.3 42.9
34.0
30.3
24.0 26.9
7.8
20.0
9.9
10.3
11.0
11.9
12.3
8.3
8.9
9.5
0.0
4.5.4 Estimation of Fuel savings

Based on the two scenarios discussed above i.e. Current fuel efficiency scenario and Fuel
consumption standards regime, cumulative fuel savings due to the proposed program is estimated to
be around 46.57 million tonne (around Rs 2,630 billion in value terms) over the ten year period 201516 to 2024-25. Fuel savings due to trucks contribute around 90 per cent of the savings under the
proposed program. It should be noted that the benefits from the proposed program will be derived
primarily over medium to long term (as vehicles on-road, purchased during duel consumptions norms
81
regime achieve a sizeable share in overall vehicle parc). The quantum of fuel savings will increase
from 0.14 million tonne in 2015-16 to 13.37 million tonne in 2024-25.
Table 4.13: Estimated Fuel savings20 from the proposed program
Fuel savings from trucks
Year
Diesel savings
(in mn tonne)
Value at
constant price
(in Rs billion)
Fuel savings from buses

Value at
Diesel savings
constant
(in mn tonne)
price
(in Rs billion)
0.02
0.9
Total Fuel savings

Value at
Diesel
constant
savings (in
price
mn tonne)
(in Rs billion)
0.14
8.2
2015-16
0.13
7.3
2016-17
0.31
17.8
0.04
2.2
0.35
20.0
2017-18
0.71
39.9
0.09
4.8
0.79
44.7
2018-19
1.32
74.7
0.16
8.8
1.48
83.5
2019-20
2.36
133.2
0.27
15.5
2.63
148.7
2020-21
3.67
207.5
0.42
23.7
4.09
231.2
2021-22
5.14
290.5
0.58
32.8
5.72
323.3
2022-23
6.98
394.4
0.78
44.0
7.76
438.4
2023-24
9.20
519.8
1.02
57.4
10.22
577.2
2024-25
12.05
681.0
1.32
74.5
13.37
755.5
Total
41.88
2,366.0
4.69
264.7
46.57
2,630.7
India imports more than 80 per cent of its crude oil to meet the domestic demand, therefore, fuel
savings from the proposed program can have substantial positive impact on the economy of the
country over medium to long term. With transport sector being the major driver of oil demand, even a
small change in fuel consumption pattern in the sector can save substantial savings in terms of oil
consumption. The proposed program will also result in significant reduction in emissions as well.
With other countries around the globe formulating norms for HDVs and global automotive
marketplace becoming highly integrated, such programs are the need of the hour for a country like
India which is making significant efforts to establish the country as a major auto manufacturing hub in
the world.
20
82
4.6 Implementation roadmap - Draft time schedule for implementation of the

program
I
Planning Phase
a)
Preliminary study to develop a framework for fuel consumption standards
1 Year
Finalise strategy for testing of fuel efficiency of trucks and buses under standard
b)
test conditions (chassis dynamometer or engine dynamometer or computer

simulation or a combination of these three methods)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
Development of test cycles for testing of trucks and buses

Setup of testing infrastructure for testing of trucks and buses to collect fuel
efficiency data under standard test cycles
Design fuel consumption standards for trucks and buses - both engine standards
and vehicle standards
Decide schedule of implementation of fuel consumption standards
Develop methodology for measurement of fuel efficiency of trucks and buses
(post implementation)
h)
Define fuel economy information and labelling mechanism
i)
Define policy measures for implementing the fuel consumption standards
II
Consultation Phase
j)
k)
6 months
Consult with various stakeholders on policies framed and schedule of

implementation of fuel consumption standards
Based on consultations, finalise: Fuel consumption standards for trucks and buses - both engine standards and
vehicle standards
Schedule of implementation of fuel consumption standards
Fuel economy information and labelling mechanism
Policy measures for implementing the fuel consumption standards
III
Implementation Phase
6 months
Decide fuel economy certification process and compliance monitoring

mechanisms
Vehicle testing and monitoring as per strategies developed for implementation
Targeted enforcement of fuel consumption standards:- 2015-16
83
As discussed, lack of availability of standardised data is the biggest challenge for development of fuel
consumption norms in India. Fuel economy details of various vehicle models of trucks and buses are
neither disclosed by the manufacturers nor collected by testing agencies like Automotive Research
Association of India (ARAI). Implementation of vehicle and engine standards would require
collection of baseline data of all existing models of Diesel (Engine driven) trucks & buses as well as
diesel engines under pre-defined testing conditions. Therefore, the focus in the initial phase i.e. the
Planning phase should be on developing the fuel consumption framework and testing strategy for
testing of diesel (engine) driven trucks and buses. This phase will involve defining test cycles and
standard test conditions under which fuel economy data would be recorded. This phase will also
involve defining policy measures for implementing fuel consumption standards. ARAI, being the
premier automotive technology institution in India, will have to play a pivotal role in design,
implementation and enforcement of these standards.
In the Consultation phase, focus shall be on bringing various stakeholders including OEMs, testing
agencies, government bodies and other related institutions on board to hold discussions on policies
and schedule of implementation of fuel consumption standards and build consensus across various
stakeholders. This phase would involve detailed discussions on fuel consumption standards and
practical considerations in implementation of these standards. The discussions would also involve
review of policy measures, which would accelerate the process of acceptance of fuel consumption
standards. Tax incentives such as reduction in excise duty (currently at 12% for trucks and buses) for
models compliant with finalised fuel consumption standards will promote the use of fuel-efficient
vehicles in future. Japan had taken a similar approach wherein they offered incentives such as
reduction in Acquisition tax and Tonnage tax for vehicles, which were compliant with the 2015 fuel
efficiency standards (refer Table 3.20: Tax incentives on fuel-efficient and low-emissions vehicles for
details on tax incentives on fuel-efficient and low-emissions vehicles provided under HDV
regulations in Japan). Based on the feedback and concerns of various stakeholders, fuel consumption
standards and policy measures for their implementation shall be finalised.
The Implementation phase will involve vehicle testing as per defined standards and establishing a
monitoring framework for the program. Considering the existing number of diesel (engine driven)
trucks and buses, significant ramp of testing facilities in India is required for collection of baseline
data and monitoring the program in the Implementation phase. ARAI can be the key nodal agency for
coordinating with various testing facilities and other agencies to facilitate the collection of data and
enforcement of standards in India.
84
5 OVERVIEW OF TESTING FACILITIES IN INDIA
5.1 Introduction
During the last decade, India has emerged as an important auto-manufacturing destination for the
global vehicle manufacturers. In the light of demand for global safety, emission and performance
norms, development of world-class Testing, Certification and Homologation facilities was critical for
creating a globally competitive automotive ecosystem in India. Automotive Research Association of
India (ARAI) was the premier government institute providing expertise in the areas of design &
development and know-how for manufacturing & testing of vehicles. However, rapidly growing
automotive industry, along with development of major auto-hubs across India had created a major gap
in testing and R&D infrastructure, which could not be filled by existing government automotive
testing facilities. Since testing and validation infrastructure is critical to the product development,
OEMs started investing heavily in establishing their own testing facilities. Taking cognizance of the
fact and with the aim of addressing one of the most critical handicaps in the overall growth of
automotive industry in India, Department of Heavy Industry came with a program christened National
Automotive Testing and R&D Infrastructure Project (NATRiP). NATRiP is the most significant
initiative taken by the Department of Heavy Industry for establishing much-needed world-class
automotive testing, validation, R&D and homologation facilities in India. In addition, several other
engine manufacturers, component manufacturers and institutions have facilities for engine testing
including:
1. Indian Institute of Petroleum (IIP), Dehradun
2. Indian Oil Corporation (IOC)
3. Bosch Technical Center India, Bangalore
4. Dr B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar
5.2 Automotive Research Association of India (ARAI)

ARAI was set-up in 1966 as a co-operative industrial research association established by the
automotive industry with the Ministry of Industries, Government of India. ARAI is the leading
institute in India providing technical expertise in R&D, testing, homologation and framing of
vehicular regulations. Located in Pune (Maharashtra), ARAI has state-of-the-art technology,
equipment, laboratory facilities and highly qualified and experienced personnel. ARAI is amongst the
few institutes in India, which has capabilities of conducting Engine dynamometer, computer
simulation as well as chassis dynamometer testing of heavy-duty vehicles.
85
Table 5.1: ARAI Testing facilities

Testing Lab
Facilities
Vehicle Evaluation Laboratory
Emission Certification Laboratory
Safety & Homologation Laboratory
Automotive Materials Laboratory
Test and certification of all types of motor vehicles, as well as

Construction Equipment Vehicles as per Indian standards
Homologation of vehicles for expert as per International standards,
viz. EEC/ECE/ADR etc
Validation/ Endurance tests under Indian road, load and climatic
conditions
Performance evaluation of all types of vehicles with respect to
parameters like brakes/ ABS, max. speed, Pass-by-Noise, fuel
consumption, gradeability etc.
Emission testing of 2/3 wheelers, passenger cars, LCV and HCV
Export homologation
Engine certification for commercial vehicles, tractors, construction
equipment and genset
Particulate size measurement including nano-particles
After-treatment device evaluation
Mileage accumulation
Special projects like ambient air quality, emission inventory, source
apportionment etc.
Evaporative emission measurement in SHED facility
Full frontal crash
Air bag deployment
Side door intrusion
Head restraint impact
Helmet impact
Safety glass impact
Steering impact
Mirrors
Lighting and signalling devices
Wind screen/ wiper systems
Automotive bulbs
Speed limiting devices
Wheel rims
Horns
CNG/LPG components
Brake hoses
Chemical analysis of materials
Testing of fuels/oils/fluids/engine coolant
Vehicle exhaust/air quality analysis
Physical and mechanical properties
Metallurgical failure analysis
Electrical and thermal properties
Source: ARAI
86
5.3 National Automotive Testing and R&D Infrastructure Project (NATRiP)

NATRiP is one of the most ambitious programs in automotive sector on setting up of world-class
automotive testing and R&D infrastructure in India. The program aims to provide globally
competitive automotive ecosystem in India by deepening manufacturing, encouraging localized R&D,
boosting exports, converging Indias unparalleled strengths in IT and electronics with automotive
engineering sectors. NATRIP aims at facilitating introduction of world-class automotive safety,
emission and performance standards in India and also to ensure seamless integration of Indian
automotive industry with the global industry. NATRiP envisages an investment of Rs 1718 crore
(about USD 380 million) in independent automotive testing centres within the three automotive hubs
in the country, at Manesar in Northern India, Chennai in Southern India and Pune & Ahmednagar in
Western India.
Table 5.2: List of NATRiP testing centers
S. No.
Center
Location
International Center for Automotive Technology (iCAT)
Manesar
National Automotive Test Tracks
Indore
Global Automotive Research Center
Chennai
National Institute for Automotive Inspection, Maintenance & Training (NIAIMT)
Silchar
National Center for Vehicle Research and Safety (NCVRS)
Rae Bareli
Automotive Research Association of India (ARAI)
Pune
Vehicle Research & Development Establishment (VRDE)
Ahmednagar
Source: http://www.natrip.in
NATRiP has planned up-gradation of ARAI and VRDE facilities with and investment of Rs 270 crore
and Rs 46.50 crore respectively. Powertrain Vehicular Test Lab, Passive Safety Lab, Fatigue test lab,
Client Workshop and General store and Maintenance workshop are some of the facilities planned at
ARAI under NATRiP. Up-gradation of facilities at VRDE includes setting up a state-of-the-art
Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) lab and multi-friction braking test track (ABS testing). Details
of facilities at other centers are given in the tables below.
Table 5.3: Details of testing facilities at iCAT, Manesar

Lab
Powertrain
Vehicular test lab
Active & Passive

Safety
Facilities
Testing of vehicles, Engines and powertrains for their performance with
respect to power, efficiency and emissions etc.
Mileage accumulation, different types of engine/chassis dynamometers,
controlling and measuring equipment and instrumentation
Testing of vehicles for Active Safety requirements like brakes, speed
governors, lighting etc
Testing for Passive Safety requirements such as seats, seat belts, air bags,
crash, pedestrian safety, etc.
Schedule
Readiness
Dec-13
Jun-13
87
Lab
Component
Evaluation &
Fatigue
Materials
EMI / EMC
Noise Vibration
Harshness
Powertrain Lab
Vehicle
Evaluation
Laboratory
(VEL)
Testing Tracks
Schedule
Readiness
Facilities
Certification, Homologation/ development testing as per CMVR, OEMs
specific standards, national and other international standards. The facilities
available are broadly classified in the following major heads:
Jun-13
Photometry testing related to all Lighting & Signaling Devices intended for
use in automotive applications.
Mechanical, Environmental & Electrical testing related to active & passive
safety automotive components including all Lighting & Signaling Devices.
Physical and mechanical property testing of metallic and non-metallic
materials
Metallographic studies
Chemical analysis and identification of materials
Measurement of electrical and thermal properties
Testing of fuel, oil and brake fluid
Testing of engine coolants
Electro Magnetic Compatibility of electrical or electronic equipment fitted
in automobile
Semi-anechoic chamber for full vehicle capable to accommodating vehicle
upto 10 tonnes unladen weight
Semi-anechoic Chamber for Components and sub-systems
Full-vehicle internal and external noise analysis, from 2&3 Wheelers to
Heavy Duty Vehicles and buses
Full-vehicle squeaks & rattles analysis
Sub-system level NVH services, including:
Noise transmission losses and noise absorption
Stand-alone sub-system testing
Engine noises
Transmission noises
Engine + transmission
Sub-systems squeak & rattle analysis
Powertrain Lab carries out emission testing for certification and developmental
purpose. All categories of vehicle and engine can be tested
Vehicle Emission Test Cell
Chassis Dynamometer for 2/3 Wheeled vehicle Testing
Universal Dynamometer for 2/3/4 Wheeled Vehicle Testing
Engine Emission Test Cell
Engine Dynamometer testing
Type Approval testing of all types of vehicles including CNG / LPG and
Construction Equipment Vehicles, in accordance with the Rules laid down
under Central Motor Vehicles (Amendment) Rules,1989.
VEL also undertakes sponsored (developmental) testing, for Original
Equipment manufacturers /importers, as per National / International
Standards / Regulations.
Oval Track
Breaking Surface Track
Comfort Track
External Noise Track
Jun-13
Dec-13
Mar -13
April -13
April -13
Completed
88
Lab
Facilities
Steering Pad
Water (Flood) Track
Test Hill Track
Schedule
Readiness
Completed
Completed
June-13
Global Automotive Research Center, Chennai is proposed to have certification facilities to conduct
the performance testing of full range of vehicles. It will also house a centre for excellence for Passive
safety, EMC AND Automotive infotronics.
Table 5.4: Proposed testing facilities at Global Automotive Research Center, Chennai
Lab
Powertrain Lab
Advance safety
passive Lab
Infotronics Lab
CAE/CAD
Software Lab
Facilities
Mileage accumulation chassis dynamometer
Vehicle emission test cell

Engine emission test cell
Climatic vehicle test cell
Instrumentation
Shed and other supporting facilities
Crash core facility
Frontal impact testing
Offset impact testing
Side, rear and pole impact testing
Static, dynamics and corkscrew rollover testing
Car to car impact testing
Sled testing
Pedestrian and occupant safety Lab& airbag testing
Netintercomm Validation test bench

Generic tools for calibration, measurement and diagnostics of ECUs
and measurement from external sensors
Fleet validation test bench
Rapid prototyping
Single ECU test bench
Aiding the engineering tasks
Create, modify, analyse or optimise a design
Schedule
readiness
Commissioned
Dec-13
Dec-13
Mar-13
Dec-13
Jul-13
Components
Laboratory
Vehicle Semi Anechoic chamber for performing EMC test on Vehicle

from 2 wheelers upto HCV
Photometry Lab Testing and certification of lighting, light-signalling
devices for motor vehicles and reflex-reflectors for automotive vehicles
Bulb testing lab Testing, calibration and certification of bulbs
Certification safety related components and tilt test platform
Fatigue Lab
Electrodynamics vibration shaker with climatic chamber
Commissioned
MAST (Multi Axel Shaker Table) with climatic chamber and UTB
(Universal Test Benchs)
Jun-13
EMC Lab
Shipment will
arrive at
GARC in Jan2013
89
Lab
Facilities
Testing Tracks
Oval Track
Test Hill Track
Breaking Surface Track
Steering Pad
Schedule
readiness
Dec -13
March -13
May -13
Feb-13
Jan-13
National Automotive Test Tracks (NATRAX), Indore is envisaged to be a proving ground set-up on
4,140 acres for comprehensive testing and evaluation of all type of vehicles. The facility will have all
types of surface type to test vehicles against varying terrains and stringency.
Table 5.5: Proposed testing facilities at National Automotive Test Tracks, Indore
Kinematic and compliance test rig for testing of small cars and LCV
Schedule
readiness
Installation
and
commissioning
on-going at the
site
May-2013
Damper test rig and steering test rig
April-2013
Lab
Powertrain Lab
Vehicle Dynamics
Lab
Testing Tracks
Facilities
Vehicle test cell chassis dynamometer testing
Emission Analyser -
Elastomer test rig characterisation test for suspension bushes and

April-2013
engine mount
Steering test rig for performance testing, static strength test and
April-2013
endurance test on both manual and power steering
High speed track
Dec -14
Dynamic platform
Jun-13
Straight braking track
Jun-13
Hill Track
Jun-13
Fatigue track
Dec-13
Gravel and off-road
Dec-13
Dry handling circuit
Dec-13
Comfort track
Jun-13
Handling track 2 & 3 Wheelers
Mar-14
Sustainability track
Mar-14
Wet skid pad
Mar-14
Aqua Planning in curve
Mar-14
Noise track
Jun-13
General Road
Mar-14
At National Institute for Automotive Inspection, Maintenance & Training (NIAIMT), NATRiP has set
up a Hill Driving Training Institute, Mechanics Institute and Inspection & Maintenance Center (I&M)
at two campuses of Dholcura and Jaffirbund.
90
Table 5.6: Proposed facilities at NIAIMT, Silchar

Lab
Facilities
Diesel engine lab
Gasoline engine lab
Diagnostic and repair lab
Auto electronics and systems lab
Schedule readiness
Dec-12
Mechanical training
institute
Inspection and
Maintenance station
Inspection of fitness certification of Light and Heavy duty

vehicles
Dec-12
National Center for Vehicle Research and Safety (NCVRS), Rae Bareli is being planned to house a
full-fledged homologation and performance test facility for agricultural tractors and off-road vehicles,
develop capability for specialised vehicles driver training and the National Accident Data Analysis
Center.
Table 5.7: Proposed testing facilities at National Center for Vehicle research and Safety, Rae
Bareli
Lab
Schedule
readiness
Facilities
Powertrain Lab
Homologation and basic R&D of tractors and off-road vehicles
Noise Vibration
Harshness
Homologation (tractors)
Fatigue and
Certification Lab
Accidental Data
Analysis Centre
(ADAC)
Test Tracks
Homologation and basic R&D of tractors and off-road vehicles

Designed for regional research programs and creation of Regional Data
Accident compiling network
Oval Test Track

Braking Surface Track
Fatigue Track and Wet Immersion
Test Hill Track
Dry and Wet Field
Off-Road Circuit
Multipurpose Training Circuit for Tractors
Land
acquisition for
setting up of
facilities in
process
Commissioned
in Feb-11
Expected to be
ready after 24
months of
possession of
land
5.4 Vehicle Research & Development Establishment (VRDE)

Established in 1980, under the aegis of Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO),
VRDE was the first automotive testing facility in India. The institution is capable of undertaking
innovative development of vehicles incorporating latest technologies. The National Centre for
Automotive Testing (NCAT), a separate division of VRDE, provides one stop solution to all vehicles
testing and evaluation requirements of Defence Services as well as automotive industry. National
Centre for Automotive Testing (NCAT), consists of test tracks, emission, photometry, EMI / EMC
91
and safety laboratories with support infrastructure to provide a one stop solution to the testing
requirements of Indian Automotive Industry & Defence Services. NCAT is an approved agency for
testing and evaluation of vehicles and their sub systems / components for certification for compliance
to various national and international standards and regulations.
Table 5.8: List of testing facilities at VRDE
Testing Lab
Engine Testing Facility
Instrumentation
Emission Laboratory
Photometry Laboratory
EMI/ EMC Laboratory
Facilities
Facilities available for testing of engines and study of all parameters under
various test conditions and endurance
Hydraulic Dynamometers for testing up to 1000 hp
Eddy Current Dynamometers up to 1000 hp
Thrust cradles for measurement of thrust up to 200 kg
The NCAT maintains well-equipped Instrumentation laboratory for the
measurement of on-road performance parameters of the vehicles as per the
legislative requirements and custom specified tests. The major test
instrumentation facilities are.
Non-contact optical speed & distance measurement systems EEP-2,
EEP-3, Micro EEP-10 and DAS 1A
Pass by noise measurement system Ex. M/s Bruel & Kjaer,
Denmark
Gyro platform for pitch, roll and yaw measurement
Measurement of steering wheel Ex. M/s Datron Messtechnik,
Germany
Steering torque / angle measurement system
Dynamic simulation software ADAMS
Correlation software n code
Ride quality meter
Fuel flow meters (positive displacement type)
High speed multi-channel data acquisition systems
Draw bar pull measuring Equipment
8 Channel thermal array recorder
Electro-dynamic vibration shaker
Measurement of mass emission (HC, CO & Nox) of SI and CI
vehicles and heavy-duty CI engines
Measurement of particulates from diesel engine vehicles
Smoke level measurement of diesel engines.
Power & SFC measurements
Testing & certification of gas analyzers and smoke meters
Idling emission measurements
Evaporative emission determination from gasoline vehicles
Assessing photometric, Colorimetric and Visibility parameters like
luminous flux, reflectance / transmittance, haze, retro-reflection,
colour, luminance, illuminance, optical distortion, etc.
Evaluation of all types of automotive lamps, signalling devices and
reflex reflectors for certification as well as research and
development purposes
OATS measuring 60 meters diameter complying to ANSI C63.4
EMI receiver from frequency 5 Hz to 40 GHz for peak / quasi peak /
average measurements
92
Testing Lab
Facilities
TEM cell up to 250 MHz
Broad band dipole, log periodic, biconical, double ridge hom type of
antennae to cover from 5 Hz to 40 GHz frequency range
Signal generator
Tuned dipole set for site calibration
Vibration Test - for simulated test of automotive sub-systems for
vibration endurance as per standards including the MIL standards.
Calibration Lab - This lab consists of world-class calibration
equipment traceable to NIST/NPL standards for pressure, load,
Automotive and Allied Test Systems
temperature, acceleration, vibration & electric parameters. The lab
has become an important work center for checking sensors, gauges,
transducers, measuring and testing equipment for ensuring quality in
research, development and testing.
For testing related to the structural dynamics of the automotive
chassis systems and their components for structural rigidity in
endurance mode.
Testing of suspension units and running gear of infantry combat
Structural Dynamics Laboratory
vehicles (tracked) and vehicular systems of armoured wheeled
vehicles
Activities include testing of component stiffness, design validation,
vehicle component/subsystem acceptance, durability testing, and
fatigue
Source: http://drdo.gov.in/drdo/labs/VRDE/English/index.jsp?pg=facility.jsp
Various types of test tracks and facilities are available at NCAT for exclusive automotive testing.
These are spread over an area of 450 acres. The test tracks simulate a variety of ground/ road surface
conditions, which a vehicle normally encounters during its lifetime.
Table 5.9: Details of testing tracks at VRDE
Test Track
Automotive Performance
Accelerated Endurance
Details
Vehicle performance parameters like, maximum speed, acceleration, fuel
consumption, high speed braking efficiency, coast down and road load data
and noise levels of the vehicles are evaluated by using following tracks:
High speed track 4.2 km long circuit with suitable banking at bends
for speeds up to 150 kmph
Straight track 2 km long
Noise track conforming to IS 3028
Specially designed tracks have been created to check the overall ride
comfort and for accelerated endurance evaluation i.e. fatigue life prediction
of vehicles.
Belgian Pave Track
Pot Hole Track
Corrugated Track (50 mm & 100 mm)
Ride & Handling Evaluation
Long wave Pitching Track

Steering Pad
Serpentine Track (4 wheeler & 2 wheeler)
Mobility Evaluation
Mud track
93
Test Track
Details
Sand track
Wading Troughs
Gradient (7o, 10 o, 15 o, 25 o & 30 o)
Cross Country track
Step Climbing facility
Ditch crossing facility
Source: http://drdo.gov.in/drdo/labs/VRDE/English/index.jsp?pg=facility.jsp
94
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95
ANNEXURE I: ILLUSTRATIVE SPECIFICATIONS OF DIESEL

ENGINES FOR TRUCKS AND BUSES IN INDIA
Diesel Engine Classification
Engine
Size
Power
Rating
Small
less than 188

kilowatts,
or 252
horsepower
Medium
188 to 750
kilowatts,
or 252 to
1,006
horsepower
Large
greater than
750 kilowatts
Applications
Features
Automobiles and light trucks

Most commonly produced diesel
Agricultural and construction
engine type
applications
Typically direct-injection, in Small stationary electrical-power
line, four- or six-cylinder
generators
engines
Mechanical drives
Direct-injection, in-line, sixcylinder turbocharged and
aftercooled engines
Heavy-duty trucks
Marine
Locomotive and mechanical Direct-injection, turbocharged
drive applications
and aftercooled systems
Electrical-power generation
Illustrative specifications of Cummins diesel engines for trucks and buses in India
Engine
Bore x
Stroke
Rated
Power
(HP)
Peak Torque
(Nm / RPM)
Emission
Norms
102 x
120
130 @
2500
490 @ 1500
BS-III
102 x
120
155 @
2500
605 @ 1500
BS-III
Engine
Model
No. of
Cylinder
B5.9 130
B5.9 155
B5.9 Mechanical
BS III
ISBe
Displacement
5.9 Litre
B5.9 180
102 x
120
180 @
2500
675 @ 1500
BS-III
B5.9 215
102 x
120
215 @
2500
800 @ 1500
BS-III
ISBe 140
Euro
550 @ 1100
Euro 5
ISBe 150
580@ 1400
Euro 6
ISBe 160
600 @ 1700
Euro 3/4
ISBe 160
140 @
2500
140 @
2500
150 @
2300
160 @
2500
160 @
2500
550 @ 1700
ISBe 140
102 x
120
102 x
120
102 x
120
102 x
120
102 x
120
600 @ 1100
Euro 5
4.5 Litre
96
Engine
Bore x
Stroke
Rated
Power
(HP)
102 x
120
102 x
120
102 x
120
102 x
120
102 x
120
180 @
2500
180 @
2300
185 @
2500
205 @
2500
210 @
2300
107 x
127
ISBe 210
ISBe 225
Engine
Model
No. of
Cylinder
Peak Torque
(Nm / RPM)
Emission
Norms
ISBe 180
700 @ 1700
Euro 3/4
ISBe 180
700 @ 1400
Euro 6
ISBe 185
700 @ 1200
Euro 5
ISBe 205
760 @ 1400
Euro 5
ISBe 210
760 @ 1400
Euro 6
ISBe 160
160 @
2500
800 @ 12001700
Euro 4
107 x
127
210 @
2500
800 @ 12001700
Euro 4
107 x
127
225 @
2300
850 @ 12001700
Euro 5/6
ISBe 230
107 x
127
230 @
2500
900 @ 12001700
Euro 3
ISBe 245
107 x
127
245 @
2500
925 @ 12001700
Euro 4/5
Displacement
6.7 Litre
ISLe
ISBe 250
107 x
127
250 @
2300
950 @ 12001700
Euro 5/6
ISBe 270
107 x
127
270 @
2500
970 @ 12001700
Euro 3
ISBe 285
107 x
127
285 @
2500
970 @ 12001700
Euro 3/4
ISBe 285
107 x
127
285 @
2300
1020 @
1200-1700
Euro 5/6
ISBe 310
107 x
127
310 @
2300
1100 @
1200-1700
Euro 5/6
ISLe 280
114 x
144.5
280 @
2100
1055 @ 1100
Euro 5/4
ISLe 290
114 x
144.5
290 @
2100
1055 @
1200-1600
Euro 3
ISLe 310
115 x
144.5
310 @
2100
1200 @
1200-1600
Euro 3
8.9 Litre
97
Engine
Bore x
Stroke
Rated
Power
(HP)
Peak Torque
(Nm / RPM)
Emission
Norms
116 x
144.5
320 @
2100
1350 @ 1100
Euro 5/4
ISLe 340
117 x
144.5
340 @
2100
1445 @
1200-1400
Euro 3/4/5
ISLe 360
118 x
144.5
360 @
2100
1550 @ 1400
Euro 3/4/5
ISLe 375
114 x
144.5
375 @
2100
1550 @ 1400
Euro 3
ISLe 380
114 x
144.5
380 @
2300
1700 @ 1300
Euro 4/5
ISLe 400
114 x
144.5
400 @
2300
1700 @ 1300
Euro 5
ISMe
345
125 x
147
345 @
1900
1700 @ 1200
Euro 3/4/5
ISMe
380
125 x
147
380 @
1900
1825 @ 1200
Euro 3/4/5
Engine
Model
No. of
Cylinder
ISLe 320
ISMe
Displacement
11.0 Litre
ISMe
420
125 x
147
420 @
1900
2000 @ 1200
Euro 3/4/5
ISMe
440
125 x
147
440 @
1900
2080 @ 1200
Euro 3/4/5
ISF 107
Euro 4/5
107 @
3200
129 @
3200
148 @
3200
161 @
3200
141 @
2600
154 @
2600
168 @
3200
280 @ 1600
ISF 129
94 x
100
94 x
100
94 x
100
94 x
100
102 x
115
102 x
115
102 x
115
310 @ 1600
Euro 3/4/5
360 @ 1800
Euro 3/4/5
360 @ 1800
Euro 4/5
450 @ 1200
Euro 3/4/5
500 @ 1200
Euro 3/4/5
600 @ 1300
Euro 3/4/5
2.8 Litre
ISF
ISF 148
ISF 161
ISF 141
ISF 154
ISF 168
3.8 Litre
Source: Cummins India website
98

Diesel Trucks &amp; Buses in India

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Petroleum Conservation Research Association

Market Survey leading to

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ............................................................................................................... 8

Scope of work ..................................................................................................................................... 16

Limitations of our study ..................................................................................................................... 16

MARKET OVERVIEW OF TRUCKS AND BUSES IN INDIA .................................................... 18

Market segmentation .......................................................................................................................... 18

Market size and Vehicle park ............................................................................................................. 21

Future vehicle projections ................................................................................................................. 26

Diesel consumption ............................................................................................................................ 28

OVERVIEW OF GLOBAL F UEL CONSUMPTION STANDARDS ............................................. 31

United States ....................................................................................................................................... 33

European Union (EU) ........................................................................................................................ 54

Issues and challenges faced in Implementation of HDV regulations .............................................. 57

United States: ..................................................................................................................................... 57

BUSES IN INDIA ........................................................................................................................ 60

Fuel consumption roadmap vision .................................................................................................... 60

Approaches for defining fuel consumption standards ...................................................................... 61

Attributes for Attribute-based continuous curve approach ............................................................... 63

Categories for Attribute-based continuous curve approach (with categories) ................................. 65

Key Technology areas for improvement in fuel consumption .......................................................... 68

Developing Fuel consumption standards for India ........................................................................... 70

Vehicle standards ............................................................................................................................... 71

Engine standards ................................................................................................................................ 74

Estimation increase in fuel consumption by 2020, 2025................................................................... 77

Case I : Current fuel economy scenario ............................................................................................ 77

Case II : Fuel consumption standards regime .................................................................................. 79

Estimated diesel consumption in India (trucks and buses) ............................................................... 81

Estimation of Fuel savings ................................................................................................................ 81

OVERVIEW OF TESTING F ACILITIES IN INDIA .................................................................. 85

Automotive Research Association of India (ARAI) .......................................................................... 85

National Automotive Testing and R&D Infrastructure Project (NATRiP) ...................................... 87

Vehicle Research & Development Establishment (VRDE) ............................................................... 91

ANNEXURE I: ILLUSTRATIVE SPECIFICATIONS OF DIESEL ENGINES FOR TRUCKS AND BUSES

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Global fuel consumption standards for Heavy Duty Vehicles

US, EU, Japan, China

Road and non-engine

US, EU, Japan

Source: IEA Technology Roadmap - Fuel Economy of Road Vehicles

Estimation of Fuel savings1

Implementation roadmap - Draft time schedule for implementation of the program

Development of a framework for fuel consumption standards, finalise strategy

development of test cycles, setting up of testing infrastructure for testing of

Consultation with various stakeholders on policies framed and schedule of

implementation of fuel consumption standards and finalisation of fuel

Decide fuel economy certification process and compliance monitoring

Targeted enforcement of fuel consumption standards:- 2015-16

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Diesel Generating sets up to 1250 kVA

Diesel Engine operated Agricultural pump

Diesel Engine driven Trucks and Buses

Facilitate the buyers in making fuel-efficient purchase of these commercial vehicles

existing initiatives in India and other countries

to promote cost-effective adoption and

1.2 Scope of work

Fuel Savings projections due to proposed programme

g. To compare the similar international initiatives to understand the different approaches

Applicable Indian and International Standards and codes

Identification of All Stake holders

k. Minimum Fuel Consumption Performance Standards and criteria (fuel consumption

Identify the Issues & Challenges in implementation

m. Develop a draft time schedule for implementation of this program

Diesel Trucks & Buses in India

Diesel Trucks & Buses in India