Académique Documents
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Culture Documents
Edited by Dr Steve Galea, Associate Professor Wingkong and Professor Akira Mita
Institute of Materials Engineering Australasia Ltd
ABSTRACT
Several applications of Structural Health Monitoring and several techniques exists in order to assess the health state of a
civil engineering construction. Bridges and buildings are the structural typologies usually monitored: therefore,
currently the dynamic behaviour of a number of superstructures is extensively studied. Geotechnical aspects, instead,
are less investigated: in particular, the dynamic behaviour of a flexible retaining wall under seismic load conditions is
currently not fully understood. The Structural Health Monitoring system of Casa dello Studente at University of
Molise has been designed and is currently under construction in order to obtain a deeper knowledge of the dynamic
behaviour also of geotechnical structures. The above mentioned SHM system is an example of cooperation of several
different skills: geotechnical and structural engineers have worked together during all phases of design and installation
of the system and a large effort for a full integration of geotechnical and structural models is currently under
development. As regards geotechnical aspects, data coming from the SHM system, together with centrifuge tests and
numerical models, will be used to increase the knowledge about the dynamic behaviour of the soil-retaining wall system
in case of earthquake. On the other hand, data coming from the building of Casa dello Studente can be used for
classical SHM applications. Anyway, the most important aspect is related to the possibility of combining structural and
geotechnical knowledge and models and apply them in different fields.
In the present paper, the main aspects of an integrated SHM system at University of Molise will be described, pointing
out the targets which oriented its design and implementation. A specific sensor module, developed by PCB Piezotronics
Inc. under the supervision of the workgroup of University of Molise, will be described together with the phases of
installation within the instrumented piles.
1
INTRODUCTION
Country
Structure
Year
2004
N of
sensors
N.A.
Seismic
zone
No
Canada
Pipelines
Denmark
Wind turbine
2002
N.A.
No
USA
Prestressed
concrete pile
2008
8
(4 + 4)
No
USA
Golden Gate
Bridge
200006
64
nodes
Yes
Wireless
accelerometers
2006
Yes
GPS Antennas
2004
30
No
FOS, LVDTs
2005
10
Yes
Accelerometers
2006
30
Yes
Accelerometers
China
Sweden
Portugal
Italy
Donghai
Bridge
Grndal
Bridge
Historical
structures
School of
Engineering
Tower
405
Sensors type
Main features
FOS
FOS, MEMS
accelerometers
Accelerometers,
Strain gauges
N.A.
N.A.
Embedded
wireless sensors
The largest
wireless sensor
network for SHM
GPS-based SHM
system
Comparison FOSLVDT
SHM of historical
structures
Automated OMA
RETAINING WALLS: AN
OVERVIEW
Figure 1. Schematic view of flexible retaining wall and of the monitored pile location
407
This type of wall has been used for coastal flood walls.
It is ideal for wet areas because no excavation or
dewatering is required to construct the wall. The
disadvantage is that it is more indeterminate than other
wall types.
Steel sheet pile walls are constructed by driving steel
sheets into a slope or excavation. Their most common
use is within temporary deep excavations. They are
considered to be most economical where retention of
higher earth pressures of soft soils is required. They
have an important advantage in that they can be driven
to depths below the excavation bottom and so provide a
control to heaving in soft clays or piping in saturated
sands. This is not possible with the soldier pile which is
also a more permeable structure. However sheet piles
are more costly and less adaptable to hard driving
conditions particularly where boulders or irregular rock
surfaces occur.
Easy driving conditions are experienced in clays, sands,
and clay-sand mixture due to the comparatively small
displacement of soil. However they may permit large
movements in weak soils and also effective de-watering
is often required since they do not provide a watertight
boundary. Seepage commonly occurs through the
interlocks and this can be sufficient enough to cause
consolidation of organic soils and soft silty clays,
(compressible materials). For sandy soils ravelling will
not occur if the interlocks are tight, but driving sheet
piles into loose sand can cause subsidence.
Cantilever sheet pile walls are mainly used for
temporary excavations of moderate depth. Because of
the large earth pressures and deflections that may
develop they are rarely used to retain excavations
greater than a depth of 5 m. However even this may be
excessive where soft or loose soils occur in front of the
wall. Stiffer cantilever walls, of concrete or steel
including diaphragm walls and heavy composite walls,
may be satisfactory to heights of 12 m providing the
ground is string enough. The required penetration depth
is high because the support is totally derived from the
passive pressure exerted on the embedded portion of the
Figure 2. Scheme of the flexible retaining wall and of Casa dello Studente building foundations
408
method.
The retaining wall considered in this research is an
embedded wall, cantilever sheet pile type made of two
set of contiguous piles disposed along two lines (Figure
1). A top beam connects all the piles.
KA
z'
d
d'
KP
KA
KP
KA d
KP (h+d)
KA
d'
(KP - KA)
z'
kh =
S ag
r g
(1)
[K P (h+d) - KA d]
KA
d
d'
KP
0.2 d'
1
2
K A (h + d')
2
1
2
S AE = (K AE K A ) (h + d ')
2
SA =
410
(2)
1
K P d' 2
2
1
S PE = (K PE K P )d ' 2
2
SP =
(3)
S AE
d
d'
SA
S PE
SP
R
0.2 d'
a(z,t)
d=
1.2h
3K PE K P
3
1
3K AE K A
(4)
a(z,t)
kh =
Sa g
(5)
1.2
Ground type A
1.0
B
0.8
1.0
C
0.6
0.8
0.4
0.6
0.2
0.4
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
0.2
H (m)
0.1
0.2
0.3
us (m)
Figure 11. Scheme of developed sensor module (courtesy of PCB Piezotronics Inc.)
412
(a)
(b)
Figure 13. Conduit hub (a) and straight nipple (b) for pipe connection
to module
(b)
(a)
(c)
(d)
Figure 14. Scheme of monitored piles (a); details of head of piles and sensor housing (b), (c); layout of intermediate enclosures (d)
414
Section
Circular
(typical)
Circular +
4 lattices
Hollow
Moment of
inertia [cm4]
2.945.584
2.971.369
+ 0.9%
2.962.194
+ 0.6%
Figure 15. Comparison of flexural strength of the modified sections of the pile (1 t 10 kN).
415
SENSOR INSTALLATION
9
CONCLUSION
Several worldwide applications of Structural Health
Monitoring in civil engineering are reported in the
literature and several techniques exists in order to assess
the health state of a structure. Bridges and buildings are
the structural typologies usually monitored: therefore,
currently the dynamic behaviour of superstructures is
extensively studied. Geotechnical aspects, instead, are
less investigated: in particular, the dynamic behaviour of
a flexible retaining wall under seismic load conditions is
currently not fully understood.
The Structural Health Monitoring system of Casa dello
Studente at University of Molise has been designed and
is currently under construction in order to obtain a
deeper knowledge of the dynamic behaviour also of
geotechnical structures. It is an example of cooperation
of several different skills: geotechnical and structural
engineers have worked together during all phases of
design and installation of the system and a large effort
for a full integration of geotechnical and structural
models is currently under development.
As regards geotechnical aspects, data coming from the
SHM system, together with centrifuge tests and
numerical models, will be used to increase the
knowledge about the dynamic behaviour of the soilretaining wall system in case of earthquake. On the
other hand, data coming from the building of Casa
dello Studente will be used for classical SHM
applications and for studies in the field of soil-structure
interaction. Anyway, the most important aspect is
related to the possibility of mixing structural and
geotechnical skills and models and apply them in
different fields.
In this paper, the main aspects of design and
implementation of the integrated SHM system
developed at University of Molise have been illustrated.
A specific sensor module, developed by PCB
Piezotronics Inc. under the supervision of the
workgroup of University of Molise, has been described.
Since it is embedded into the piles, a specific design of
the instrumented piles has been necessary: the main
ideas underlying structural design of instrumented piles,
and the procedure and phases for installation of sensors
within the instrumented piles have been extensively
reviewed.
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
A. E. Aktan, S. K. Ciloglu, K. A.
Grimmelsman, Q. Pan and F. N. Catbas,
Opportunities and challenges in health
monitoring of constructed systems by modal
analysis, in Proceedings of the International
Conference on Experimental Vibration
Analysis for Civil Engineering Structures,
Bordeaux, France, 2005.
8.
9.
Acknowledgments
The research described in the present paper has been
promoted by University of Molise, whose primary
financial support is acknowledged. Contribution of
INTERREG CARDS-PHARE MEETING project has to
be recognized.
Many people and friends gave their contribution.
Authors would like to tank Dr. Carmine Salzano from
PCB Piezotronics for his support and competence, Mr.
419