UNIT 7

LEARNING
In this chapter, we study several simple and complex forms of learning that can be studied in the
laboratory and that provide a basis of understanding complicated phenomena on human behavior.
Rationale
Most of what we do or refrain from doing is influenced by what we learn and how we learn. Our
ability to learn and to profit from our experiences is a basic requirement for survival.
Learning is a critical process. It is a relatively permanent change behavior that occurs as the
result of prior practice. Studying this process will provide us a better understanding of mans
behavior.
OBJECTIVE:
1. Give the definition of learning and distinguish between the two major forms of associative
learning.
2. Describe Classical Conditioning and define its four clearly identifiable variables.
3. State the Laws of Classical conditioning; Acquisition, Extinction, Spontaneous Recovery.
4. Explain Operant Conditioning as other form of learning.
5. Explain what reinforcement means in Operant conditioning.
6. Explain the principle of reinforcement.
7. Distinguish between a positive and a negative reinforcer.
8. Explain how punishment differs from negative reinforcement and what its effect are when
used.
The nature of the Learning Process
Kelly, define learning as the process of acquiring, retaining, and utilizing knowledge,
skills, habits, attitudes, virtues and ideas which result in progressive adaptation, solidification
and modification of behavior. Learning is a situation in which a change in behavior has been
described or explained.
Types of Learning
1. Sensory-motor learning involves understanding of the external world through the use
of sense and muscle coordination. A basic factor in motor learning is accuracy of perception
which turn is dependent on the past experience of the learner. The need for the development of
this type will be found in laboratory sciences-chemistry and biology; in the vocational subject,
typewriting; and in extra-curricular activities such as gymnastics and sports.
2. Cognitive Learning Cognitive learning covers most of what is taught in school. It
involves everything from simple associations between stimuli and responses, often referred to as
association learning, to the development of complex insights as in problem solving.

Association Learning involves the development of association patterns by which

ideas and experiences are recognized, retained and recalled through the process of establishing
relationships among ideas and experiences.
3. Affective Learning involves acquisition of attitudes, ideas, judgment and knowledge
concerning values, which may result from participating two types of appreciative experiences:
(1) aesthetic appreciative experiences, and (2) intellectual appreciative experiences.
TWO FORMS OF ASSOCIATIVE LEARNING
1. Classical Conditioning- an organism learns that two stimuli tend to go together.
Example: a baby learns that the sight of a nursing bottle (one stimulus) is associated with
the taste of milk (another stimulus).
2. Operant Conditioning- an organism learns that some response it makes lead to a particular
consequence.
Example: a baby learns that raising a bottle to his or her mouth (the response) brings
milk (the consequence).

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Classical Conditioning is also known as PAVLOVIAN CONDITIONING, after Ivan Pavlov, the
Russian physiologist who developed the method partly by accident.
Pavlov was experimenting with dogs to learn more about their digestive and salivary
functions. He especially wanted to determine the connection between the presence of food in
a dogs mouth and the dogs salivary flow. Pavlov isolated the salivary glands, connected
tubes directly to them and created measuring devices to record the salivary flow. He then
noticed that the dogs salivated not only at the sight of food but also when they just heard or
saw the experiment who has been feeding them. These observations caused him to experiment
with new stimuli, such as the musical tone of a tuning fork before the dogs received food.
Eventually the sound of the tuning fork alone excited the salivating response.

There are four clearly identifiable variables in classical conditioning experiments. The first is the
conditioned stimulus (CS). This is a neutral stimulus that, after conditioning evokes a particular
response in the subject. In Pavlovs experiment, the CS was the tine produced by a tuning fork.
At first, the dog perked up its ears when it heard the tone. After several soundings of the tone,
however, the dog became accustomed to the situation and its responses to the tone became less
noticeable.
The second variable is the unconditioned stimulus (US). When this stimulus is presented to the
subject, it causes a reflexive unconditioned response (UR). In Pavlovs experiment, the US was
food placed in the dogs mouth and the UR was the dogs salivation.
The third variable, the CS (the tone produced by the tuning fork) is presented in association with
the US (food), which naturally causes the UR (salivation) to occur. Note that the CS is presented
first. After repeated trials, the US (food) is not presented and the CS (tone) is presented alone.
Salivation similar to that evoked by the US occurs, but it is now called the conditioned response
(CR), the fourth variable. We refer to motivating in response to the tone as a conditioned
stimulus (the CS) that did not originally elicit it.

Diagram of Pavlovs Classical Conditioning: Sequence of Learning

A. Under Ordinary Circumstances
CS (tone)
US (food)

does not elicit salivation

UR (salivation)

B. Conditioning (when CS and US are associated)

CS (tone)
US (food)

UR (salivation)

CR (salivation)

C. After Conditioning
CS (tone)

LAWS OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

(Acquisition, Extinction, Spontaneous Recovery)
Acquisition- each paired presentation of the CS and the US is called a trial and the period which
the organism is learning the association between the two is the Acquisition Stage of
Conditioning.
Extinction- is the process by which as established conditioned response is weakened. Extinction
results when the CS is presented frequently without being paired with the US.
Spontaneous Recovery- this is the phenomenon wherein a conditioned response that has been
extinguished can reappear without additional conditioning.
OPERANT CONDITIONING
To understand Operant Conditioning, we need to distinguish between a respondent and operant
behavior. Respondent behavior is a direct response to a stimulus, as in the unconditioned
responses of classical conditioning. In contrast, operant behavior simply happens that is, it
appears to be spontaneous, rather than a response to a specific stimulus. As in a baby kicking
and cooing spontaneously in a crib, in response to nothing in particular. He is not responding to
stimuli in the outside world, he is operating on that world.
Operant Conditioning is further explained by Burrhus Frederic Skinner the Skinners
Experiment
A hungry rat is placed in a box called Skinners box. The inside of the box is bare
except for a protruding bar with a food dish beneath it. A small light bulb above the bar can
be lighted at the experimenters decision. The rat moves about restlessly and by chance
occasionally presses the bar. The rat at which it first pushes on the bar defines it a
preconditioned or operant level bar pressing.
After establishing the operant level the experimenter activates a food magazine located
outside the box. Every time the rat pushes the bar a small amount of food pellet is released
down a chute into the food dish. The rat east and soon presses of pressing increases
dramatically; if the food magazine is disconnected so that pressing the bar no longer delivers
food.

The rate of bar pressing will diminish, that is the operant response undergoes extinction with
non-reinforcement just as a classical conditioned response does.
The experimenter can set up discrimination by presenting food if the bar is pressed while the
light is on, but not if the light is off. This selective reinforcement conditions the rat to press the
bar only in the presence of the light, serving as a discriminative stimulus that controls the
response.

PRINCIPLE OF REINFORCEMENT
The term reinforcement as applied in classical conditioning refers to the paired presentation of
the unconditioned stimulus and the conditioned stimulus.
In operant conditioning, it refers to the occurrence of an event. Although the reinforcement is
different in the two situations, the result in both cases is an increase in the likelihood of the
desired response. Reinforcement therefore is defined as any event that increases the probability
of a response.

POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT

A positive reinforcer is a stimulus which when presented following a response increases the
probability of the response while a negative reinforcer is a stimulus which when removed
following a response, increases the probability of the response.
Reinforcers are classified as positive and negative according to whether their presentation or
their removal strengthens the preceding response. Often the term reward is used as a synonym
for positive reinforcement. Punishment is not negative reinforcement.
PUNISHMENT AND NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT
Punishment refers to a situation where negative reinforce is delivered every time the organism
makes a designated response, thus decreasing the probability of that response.
Example: an animal is given an electric shock every time it presses a bar, the bar press
response is said to be punished.
UNSATISFACTORY EFFECT OF PUNISHMENT
1. The result of punishment, although they may include altered behavior are not as predictable as
the result of reward, even more undesirable response maybe substituted for the punished one.
2. Under some circumstances, punishment tends to fix the behavior rather than eliminate it.
3. Its by-products often leads to dislike of the punishing person.
USEFUL EFFECTS OF PUNISHMENT
1. Punishment can effectively eliminate an undesirable response if alternative responses
available are rewarded.
2. Punishment can be effective when we merely want the learner to respond to a signal to avoid
punishment.
3. Punishment maybe informative, redirecting behavior that the new behavior can be rewarded.