Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
GAS RESERVOIRS
& INTRODUCTORY TOPICS
Gordon R. Petrie,
Thru-u.com.
Contents:
Page
1.1
Introduction
1.2
Estimation of GIIP
1.3
1.4
10
1.5
12
1.6
13
1.7
20
1.8
26
1.9
Gas Condensation
31
Section 1
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1
Rev 1.0
1
-
For nearly a century there was remarkable oil price stability at around $3-$4 per
barrel. In this situation most fields were exploited with a minimum of
technology:
-
Once the pressure dropped below the bubble-point, then free gas evolved
from the oil within the reservoir; due to the preferential flow of gas to the
wellbore the technique was known as Solution Gas Drive.
In such a low technology era there was a modest role for Reservoir
Engineers as part of the overall exploration & production team.
NOTE -
Since the oil price rise, from 1973 onwards, high technology recovery
techniques and the advent of computer simulation have dramatically
increased the importance of Reservoir Engineers.
Section 1
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2
Rev 1.0
1.1
-
INTRODUCTION
From 1973-1986 oil prices ranged from $30-$40 per barrel. These high prices
stimulated exploration in high cost regions and encouraged the adoption of
Secondary Recovery methods (water and gas drive).
Reservoir Engineers now play a central role throughout both field appraisal and
development phases. Briefly, their pivotal relationship with the rest of the
exploration & production team can be summarised below:
GEOLOGISTS:
- Preparation of subsurface
maps.
- Location of faults and
fractures.
- Inspection of core samples,
drilling logs; lithology
determination.
- Development of depositional
and geological models.
PETROPHYSISTS:
- Inspection of drilling logs;
lithology determination.
- Log & core interpretation and
deveolopment of correlations.
- Determination of lithology, pore
fluids and saturations.
- Estimation of porosity,
permeability and net rock volume.
RESERVOIR ENGINEERS:
- Central co-ordination role for data collection and
interpretation, i.e. collection of cores and running logs.
- Fluid sampling, GIIP or STOIIP determination.
- Selection of rock and fluid input property data for reservoir
simulator runs. Well testing, pressure-depth data and analysis.
- Flowrates, PI, number/location of wells, recovery factor and
recovery timescale.
- Determination of drive mechanisms, pressure communication,
vertical layering and permeability distribution.
- History matching reservoir simulator output. Use of simulator
to predict production profiles.
- Operational and production decisions, i.e. high WOR/GOR.
ECONOMISTS:
- Project equipment costings.
- Economic studies and
determination of project viability.
- Sensitivity analysis to identify
critical factors for profitability.
- Cash flow projections, financial
controls and budget preparation.
Section 1
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FACILITY ENGINEERS:
- Engineering of downhole and
surface production facilities.
- Engineering of Secondary
Recovery plant.
- Engineering of export facilities.
- Engineering of infrastructural
requirements.
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1.2
-
ESTIMATION OF GIIP
For gas reservoirs, the equation used to estimate, G , the Gas Initially In Place,
expressed in terms of standard surface volumes, is as follows:
G = Vb (1 SWC ) Ei
................................................(1.1)
where,
G = Gas Initially In Place (SCF).
The net bulk volume (rcf) is Vb . The Pore Volume, PV (rcf), is the product Vb .
The Hydrocarbon Pore Volume, HCPV (rcf), is the product Vb (1 S wc ) .
The gas expansion factor ( Ei ) simply converts reservoir volumes (rcf) into
surface volumes at standard conditions (SCF). Its definition, and how to
calculate its value, will be discussed later in this section.
NOTE -
Section 1
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Rev 1.0
The Volumetric Method for finding Vb starts with a contour plot shown below:
GWC
From isopachous map Vb is found. However, errors in locating the GWC will
cause errors in Vb . This will lead to knock-on errors in GIIP or G. Consider two
types of trapping structure below:
WELL
WELL
Sealing
Fault
GWC
GWC
(a)
(b)
In the case of (a) most wells penetrating this structure will pass through the
GWC. Hence cores/logs will identify the GWC. However, in the case of
structure (b) the GWC cannot be located by logs/cores.
NOTE -
In such cases only the Gas Down To depth (GDT) is known. The GWC
must be inferred by pressure-depth measurements.
Section 1
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Rev 1.0
dp
pW = W D + 14.7 .....(1.2)
dD
where,
pW = Pressure in water bearing sand at any depth (psia).
dD
dp
pW = W D + ( p A + 14.7) ....(1.3)
dD
where,
p A = Abnormal pressure factor (psi).
NOTE -
Once the pressure-depth line for water is constructed, the pressuredepth line for the gas column may also be constructed.
Where the two lines intersect identifies the depth of the GWC.
Section 1
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Consider some typical values for fluid hydrostatic pressure gradients. Obviously
actual values will be affected by a variety of factors such as depth, GOR,
temperature, salinity, composition, etc.
dpW
= 0.44 .............................(1.4)a
dD
dpO
= 0.32 .....................(1.4)b
dD
dpg
= 0.07 .............................(1.4)c
dD
Consider the case where an exploration well has been drilled up-dip in a target
structure shown below. A DST survey has been carried out at 5900 ft; the
measured pressure and density of the gas was 2721.7 psia, and 0.07 psi/ft
respectively.
5800 ft
2566.7 psia
Sealing
Fault
2714.7 psia
5900 ft
WELL
0.07 psi/ft
pg = 2721.7 psia
dp g
= 0.07 psi/ft
dD
D = 5900 ft
GDT
6020 ft
0.44 psi/ft
6200 ft
Section 1
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2742.7 psia
GWC
7
Rev 1.0
From the DST test the pg = 2721.7 psia @ 5900 ft. From the gas sample the
Hence, since any hydrocarbon column must be overpressured with respect to the
surrounding water-bearing sands, the constant for the hydrostatic pressure
gradient equation can be found. The equation for pg is therefore
At GWC, pg = pW , and depth of the GWC is easily found by equating (A) and
(B); assuming only gas below the GDT depth. The GWC is at 6200 ft.
NOTE -
Section 1
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The crest of the structure is at 5800 ft. The pressure immediately above the
sealing shale, in the water bearing sand, can be found from equation (B).
Substituting D = 5800 ft into (B) yields pW = 2566.7 psia.
The pressure immediately below the sealing shale in the gas reservoir can be
found from equation (A). Substituting D = 5800 ft into (A) yields
pg = 2714.7 psia; neglecting for the time being the shale thickness.
On drilling a crestal well through the sealing shale the formation pressure will
rise suddenly from 2566.7 psia to 2714.7 psia.
Hence, the drilling overbalance will be reduced by 148 psi, which may be
sufficient for the well to kick and take an influx.
If drilling were taking place in a new region the water pressure gradient may be
unknown. Consider now that the surrounding water bearing sands are actually
overpressured by 10 psi. Equation (B) now yields
NOTE -
In this case the GWC would be at 6173 ft instead of 6200 ft. Ignoring
this overpressure would have the effect of overestimating Vb & G .
One significant question from this exercise is how can the presence or
absence of an oil column be determined below the GDT depth?
Section 1
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1.4
-
Later sections deal with Secondary Recovery, where external energy is used to
displace the oil out of the pore space and to the surface. The most common
secondary recovery methods are water or gas drive.
c=
1 V
V p
......(1.5)
T
Since a fluid will expand as the pressure falls the partial derivative is negative.
Hence, a negative sign is needed to keep the compressibility coefficient a
positive number. For reservoir engineering purposes (1.5) is usually written as
dV = cVp
NOTE -
..(1.6)
Section 1
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There are also other more minor effects due squeezing of the pore space
itself; as the pore pressure declines, the overburden pressure remains
constant. There is also the expansion of small amounts of connate water.
Gas production:
dV = dVg + dVW
Gascap expansion:
dVg = cgVg p
Aquifer expansion:
dVW = cW VW p
The subsurface expansion of these two fluids must be equal to the cumulative
volume of pore fluid production, or
dV = cgVg p + cW VW p
NOTE
..(1.7)
Section 1
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1.5
-
pV = ZnRT ..................................................................(1.8)
Taking n moles of gas, equation (1.8) can be used to predict the volume under
reservoir conditions ( VRES ). Equation (1.8) can then be used to give the new
volume of the same n moles at standard surface conditions ( VSC ). Hence
E=
VSC Z SC nRTSC
=
VRES
pSC
E=
pTSC Z SC
pSCTZ
ZnRT
or,
E = 35.37
p
ZT
..................................................(1.9)
where,
p = Pressure of gas at reservoir conditions (psia).
T = Temperature of the gas at reservoir conditions (R).
Z = Compressibility Factor of the gas at reservoir conditions (-).
Section 1
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1.6
-
The Material Balance equation can be used not only to find G, but also to
determine the drive mechanism (the method involves graphically history
matching known production data). There are two main cases to consider:
-
1.6.1
-
The Material Balance equation involves the following: determine the total
volumetric expansion of pore fluids from initial conditions to the current stage
of depletion; equate this expansion with cumulative volumetric production.
PRODUCTION
pi
RESERVOIR
PRODUCTION
p
RESERVOIR
p.
Section 1
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Ignoring water influx, the derivation of the gas material balance commences by
first re-arranging equation (1.1) to get an expression for Pore Volume PV
PV = Vb =
G
...(1.10)
Ei (1 SWC )
Expansion of the gas dVg (rcf) from initial reservoir pressure pi to any lower
pressure p , at some future stage of depletion, is simply the notional expanded
volume (rcf) of all the original gas at lower pressure less initial gas volume (rcf)
dVg =
G G
.(A)
E Ei
where,
G = Gas Initially In Place or GIIP (SCF).
Expansion connate water dVCW (rcf) from initial reservoir pressure pi to any
lower pressure p , at some future stage of depletion, is therefore given by
dVCW = cWVW p = cW
G
SWC p ..(B)
Ei (1 SWC )
where,
cW = Isothermal compressibility of water (psi-1).
Section 1
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dV f = c f VPV p = c f
G
p ..(C)
Ei (1 SWC )
Now the basis of the material balance is to equate this expansion of the pore
fluid, and compression of pore volume, to cumulative production. Hence (A),
(B), (C) must all appear on the RHS of material balance expression.
Notice dVg & dVCW & dV f must all be multiplied by the gas expansion factor
E , in order to keep volumes in (SCF) throughout.
(SCF)
(SCF)
(SCF)
(SCF)
G G
G
G
GP = E + cW
SWC p E + c f
p E
E Ei
Ei (1 SWC )
Ei (1 SWC )
where,
GP = Cumulative gas produced at the surface (SCF).
Re-arranging the above expression gives the usual form of the gas material
balance equation assuming no natural water influx.
GP = G G
NOTE -
E
E cW SWC + c f
+ G
Ei
Ei (1 SWC )
p ..(1.11)
Section 1
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Rev 1.0
Next take the more general case of natural water influx into the HCPV from an
adjoining aquifer. The following small adjustments need to be made to our
hydraulic model:
-
As the piston rises on LHS (production), expansion of the oil takes place
as before. However, now water enters the reservoir chamber through the
partially closed valve from the aquifer chamber.
G G
G
G
GP = E + cW
p E + (5.615 We )E
SWC p E + c f
E Ei
Ei (1 SWC )
Ei (1 SWC )
where,
We = Cumulative water influx into HCPV (rb).
5.615 = Conversion factor (rcf/rb)
And re-arranging the above expression as before leads to the general Schilthuis
form of the Gas Material Balance equation, which includes water influx:
E
E cW SWC + c f
5.615 We
GP = G G + G
p +
G
Ei
Ei (1 SWC )
Ei
NOTE -
.(1.12)
Section 1
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Rev 1.0
The connate water expansion and pore volume shrinkage term is usually
negligible often contributing around only 1% to the RHS of the material
balance equation.
Assuming that this term can be ignored then equation (1-12) reduces to,
after some re-arrangement
GP
E 5.615 We
= 1 1
G
G
Ei
Ei
.(1.13)
Substituting equation (1.9) into the above twice ( E and Ei ), then cancelling out
common terms (reservoir always assumed isothermal), leads to
G
1 P
p pi
G
=
5
.
615
We
Z Zi 1
G
Ei
NOTE -
.(1.14)
The above two equations are the most commonly applied Gas Material
Balance equations. They include natural water drive effects but exclude
pore shrinkage and connate water expansion effects.
Section 1
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1.6.2
-
With the Schilthuis formulation of the gas material balance equation all the
terms have units of (SCF). On the other hand, the Havlena & Odeh form applies
to the same basic equation, but uses reservoir volumes (rcf) instead.
formation volume factor (rb/STB). In gas reservoirs, with little produced water,
We is often close to ( We WP BW ).
The basic Havlena & Odeh formulation is obtained from equation (1.12). The
WP term is brought to the LHS, while the We term is kept on RHS
rcf
rcf
rcf
rcf
rcf
1 1 G cW SWC + c f
GP
+ 5.615 WP BW = G +
p + 5.615 We ..(A)
E
E Ei Ei (1 SWC )
Next, Havlena & Odehs method involves defining the following groups:
F=
GP
+ 5.615 WP BW = Production gas + water (rcf).(B)
E
Eg =
1 1
= Expansion of gas (rcf/SCF)..(C)
E Ei
E fW =
1 cW SWC + c f
Section 1
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Substituting (B), (C) & (D) into (A) leads to basic Havlena & Odeh formulation
F = G (Eg + E fW ) + 5.615 We
...(1.15)
5.615 We
F
=G+
Eg
Eg
NOTE -
...(1.16)
Section 1
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Rev 1.0
1.7
-
G
1 P
p pi
G
=
Z Z i 1 5.615 We
G
Ei
...(1.14)
p pi GP
= 1
...(1.17)
Z Zi
G
1.7.1
-
Equation (1.17) shows that, for a volumetric depletion type reservoir, i.e. no
water influx, a plot of p/Z versus GP must be a straight line as shown below:
pi
Zi
*
*
Volumetric
Depletion
*
*
p
Z
0
0
Section 1
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(GP )
20
Rev 1.0
The problem with the ( p / Z ) versus GP plot is that even when the reservoir has
natural waterdrive, the production-pressure data can appear to plot up as a
straight line:
-
This is because initially We can be quite small. Hence, during this early
period, data will only deviate slightly from a straight line.
Later the points only gradually deviate from a straight line, with the result
that the engineer is often tempted to draw the best straight line through the
points. The error only becomes noticeable only after several years.
pi
Zi
EXTRAPOLATION
OF ALL AVAILABLE
DATA.
*
*
p
Z
*
EXTRAPOLATION
OF EARLY DATA
ONLY.
0
0
NOTE -
(GP )
Section 1
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Rev 1.0
1.7.2
-
The basic expression on which the Havlena & Odeh plot is based is
equation (1.16).
5.615 We
F
=G+
..(1.16)
Eg
Eg
In analysing pressure-production data from a gas reservoir the first step should
be to produce a plot of ( F / E g ) versus GP , as shown below:
E
g
Volumetric Depletion
0
0
(GP )
The shape of the curve qualitatively indicates the strength of the aquifer.
Section 1
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The next question, assuming the field has an active waterdrive, is to find an
appropriate mathematical model for the aquifer. The Havlena & Odeh plot is
shown below:
AQUIFER
MODEL OK
F
Eg
AQUIFER MODEL GIVING
TOO HIGH A VALUE FOR We.
5.615 We
Eg
The procedure is to first assume a mathematical model for the aquifer; that is
model predicts We as a function of pressure decline. Next, use productionpressure data from field observations to predict We from the assumed model.
-
The process is repeated until the correct model is identified. That is the
predicted production-pressure- We data falls on above straight line.
NOTE -
Section 1
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Rev 1.0
1.7.3
-
Equation (1.14) gives the general gas material balance for the waterdrive case.
Obviously in the absence of water drive the denominator inside the brackets
reduces to unity. In this case p/Z versus GP must plot as straight line.
G
1 P
p pi
G
=
5
.
615
We
Z Zi 1
G
Ei
....(1.14)
For waterdrive the term after the minus sign on the denominator represents the
fraction of the HCPV invaded by water. The term in parenthesis is then always
bigger for the waterdrive case, than for the volumetric depletion case.
pi
Zi
p
Z
1
2
p
Z ABAN
(GP )ABAN
(GP )
Section 1
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However, for strong aquifer case (case1), although the pressure in the reservoir
is higher for given values of GP , nevertheless the ultimate recovery at
abandonment is lower:
Produce gas at as high a rate as
possible, so that We is minimised.
ORIGINAL
GWC
The Sweep Efficiency EV , defined as the fraction of the Moveable Gas Volume
that is contacted by water influx, is generally about 0.65 - 0.75 at abandonment.
Both EV and ( p / Z ) ABAN versus GP relation are given below:
EV =
5.615 We
G
(1 S gr SWC )
Ei (1 SWC )
p
Z ABAN
..(1.18)
GP
pi
G
=
...(1.19)
Z i S gr
1 EV
+
EV 1 S
EV
WC
Where the straight line, described by equation (1.19), intersects the non-linear
pressure-production curve denotes abandonment point. A high gas offtake
rate blows down pressure rapidly, limits We and trapped/by-passed gas.
Section 1
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1.8
-
pV = ZnRT ................................................................(1.8)
E = 35.37
p
.................................................(1.9)
ZT
1.8.1
-
Compressibility Factor - Z
Experimental measurement.
The laboratory method involves taking a gas sample and choosing suitable
experimental equipment/methods so that equation (1.8) can be solved. In this
way the isothermal Z vs. P relationship can be physically measured.
Section 1
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Note, yi is the gas phase mole fraction, pci the critical pressure and Tci
p pr =
p
........(1.22)
p pc
Tpr =
T
..........(1.23)
Tpc
Enter Standing & Katz correlation and determine Z . Note, p pr and Tpr can
also be found from g - apply corrections for CO2 H2S & N2.
NOTE
Section 1
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1.8.2
-
Density is mass divided by volume. The mass is simply the number of moles,
n , times the molecular weight of the gas, MWg . The real gas law (1.8) gives
g =
MWg p
ZRT
.........(1.24)
The gas gravity, g , is the ratio of the density of the gas at p & T , to the
density of air at the same p & T ; usually atmospheric pressure and 60oF are
used for p & T . Hence, g (60/60, air = 1) is given by
MWg
........(1.25)
=
g = g
28.97
a p, T
Where the factor (28.97) is the molecular weight of air. Equation (1.24) is used
to find gas density at any temperature, pressure and composition as follows:
If the composition of the gas has been analysed then MWg is readily
calculated from:
MWg = yi MWi
Section 1
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Alternatively, if the gas gravity g has been measured, then MWg is first
obtained from equation (1.25) and then g from equation (1.24) notice
Z can be found from Standing & Katz by looking up p pr and Tpr if g is
known. These charts are presented in the standard reference textbooks.
Remembering that the density of air at standard conditions is 0.0763 Ib/cu. ft,
then the density of gas at standard conditions is simply
( )
g SC
= 0.0763 g ....(1.26)
g =
28.97 g p
ZRT
........(1.27)
0.01875 g p
dp
=
ZT
dD g
Section 1
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....(1.28)
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Rev 1.0
1.8.3
-
ZnRT
p
V =
Z
1 Z
= nRT 2 +
p p
T
p
Substituting real gas law and above expression into equation (1.5), then
cancelling common terms gives
cg =
1
1 Z
p
Z p
cg
1
p
.(1.29)
where,
C g = Isothermal compressibility of the gas (psia)-1. Not to be confused with
Z , which is the gas compressibility factor.
Section 1
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1.9
-
GAS CONDENSATION
Everything discussed so far assumes that the gas produced is dry within the
reservoir and dry at the surface. Dry in this context does not refer to water but
implies an absence of liquid hydrocarbons.
Critical
Point
CT is Cricondentherm.
Above this temperature twophase behaviour is
impossible.
p
LIQUID
Bubble Point
Curve
100
CT
75 50
25
GAS
Dew Point
Curve
TR
NOTE -
This type of reservoir is called a dry gas reservoir. That is, there is no
deposition of liquid hydrocarbons, condensate, within the reservoir
itself.
Section 1
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1.9.1
-
Consider the same situation as before, i.e. a dry gas reservoir A. However,
now the surface separator is operating at point S as shown in p T diagram
below:
A
LIQUID
S
GAS
T
All the equations derived thus far assume dry gas in the reservoir and dry gas in
surface separation equipment.
The answer is first to convert daily liquid condensate collected at the surface,
N P , which is usually expressed in STB, into Ib-moles of liquid ( n )
n=
N P 5.615 o 62.43
.........................................(A)
MWo
Section 1
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Mass conservation requires that Ib-moles of liquid at the surface be equal to Ibmoles of gas in the reservoir. Then simply convert this Ib-moles of gas at
reservoir conditions into SCF of gas at surface conditions, GP
n=
GP pS GP 14.7
=
= 0.002635 GP ..........(B)
RTS
10.73 520
0.002635 GP =
N P 5.615 o 62.43
MWo
GP = 1.33 105
N P o
MWo
.................(1.30)
where,
GP = Gas equivalent to surface liquid condensate (SCF).
N P = Liquid condensate collected at surface (STB).
NOTE -
The same gas material balance equations can then be used as if all the
gas in the reservoir appeared as only as dry gas at the surface.
Section 1
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1.9.2
-
If reservoir conditions are such that the gas in the reservoir is initially at point
B then, as pressure declines isothermally, conditions in the reservoir
eventually enter two-phase region:
B
p
CP
-
The dry gas material balance equation can be used in this case
G
1 P
p pi
G
=
5
.
615
We
Z Zi 1
G
Ei
NOTE -
..(1.14)
Section 1
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1.9.3
-
Wet Gas
Produced
for Surface
Separation.
Recovered
Condensate to
Stock Tank.
Hence, gas condensate is produced and recovered at the surface. Once all the
wet gas is swept out, re-injection is stopped and dry gas is produced in the
normal way. This is called dry-gas recycling.
B
p
CP
Dew Point Pressure
NOTE -
Section 1
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