I.

Suffixes
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.
I.
J.

II.

Cort- bark, rind

-crin- to secrete
Diuret- to pass urine
Endo- inside
Exo- outside
Horm- impetus, impulse
Hyper- above
Hypo- below
Lact- milk
Med- middle

General Characteristics
A.
B.

A communication system
Locations of Major Endocrine Glands
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.

III.

Hypothalamus
Pituitary gland
Parathyroid gland
Kidney
Testis
Ovary
Pancreas
Adrenal gland
Thymus
Thyroid gland
Pineal gland

Hormones
A.
The big difference in steroid and non-steroid hormones is how they affect
your body.
B.
Controlled by negative feedback
1.

Works in three ways:

a)
The hypothalamus controls the anterior pituitary glands release of tropic
hormones, which stimulate other endocrine glands to release hormones.

b)

(1)
The nervous system directly stimulates some glands.

(1)
c)
Another group of glands responds directly to changes in the composition
of the internal environment.

(1)

C.

Steroid Hormones

1.
2.
3.
4.

Formed from cholesterol

Modified carbohydrates
Lipids that include complex rings of carbon and hydrogen atoms
a)

5.
6.
7.

Can pass straight through target cells

Lipid soluble
They include:
a)
b)
c)

d)

8.

All have 4 rings

Testosterone
Estrogens
Secretions of the adrenal cortex
(1)
Aldosterone
(2)
Cortisol
Parathyroid hormone

Sequence of Steroid Hormone Action

a)
Endocrine gland secretes steroid hormone
b)
Steroid hormone diffuses through target cell membrane and enters
cytoplasm or nucleus
c)
Hormone combines with a receptor molecule in the cytoplasm or nucleus
d)
Steroid hormone-receptor complex binds to DNA and promotes
transcription of messenger RNA
e)
Messenger RNA enters the cytoplasm and directs protein synthesis
f)
Newly synthesized proteins produce the steroid hormones specific effects

g)

D.

Non-Steroid Hormones
1.

Sequence of Actions of Nonsteroid Hormone Using Cyclic AMP

a)
Endocrine gland secretes nonsteroid hormone
b)
Body fluid carries hormone to its target cell
c)
Hormone combines with receptor site on membrane of tis target cell,
activating G protein
d)
Adenylate cyclase molecules are activated in target cells membrane
e)
Adenylate cyclase converts ATP into cyclic AMP
f)
Cyclic AMP activates protein kinases
g)
Protein kinases activate protein substrates in the cell that change
metabolic processes
h)

Cellular changes produce the hormones effects

i)

2.

Types:
a)

b)

c)
d)
e)

E.

Amines
(1)
End in ine
(2)
Effect your body very powerfully
Protein
(1)
Give a message to the receptor and it relays the message
throughout the cell
Peptide
Glycoproteins
(1)
Made up of sugar and protein
Prostaglandins
(1)
Made up of lipids

Organic Compounds
a)

Made of carbon atoms

(1)

IV.

Each corner is a carbon

Organs
A.

Hypothalamus
1.

Corticotropin-relaeasing hormone
a)

Known as:
(1)

2.

CRH

Gondatropin-releasing hormone

a)

Known as:
(1)
(2)

3.

GnRH
Luteinizing hormone- releasing hormone
(a)
LHRH

Somatostatin
a)

Known as:
(1)
(2)

SS
Growth hormone release-inhibiting hormone
(a)

4.

Growth hormone- releasing hormone

a)

5.

Known as:
(1)
PRF

Thyrotropin- releasing hormone

a)

B.

Known as:
(1)
PIH
(2)
Dopamine

Prolactin- releasing factor

a)

7.

Known as:
(1)
GHRH

Prolactin releasing- inhibiting hormone

a)

6.

GRIH

Known as:
(1)
TRH

Pituitary Gland
1.

Location and Size:

a)
b)
c)

2.

Sits inside of the sella turcica

One centimeter in diameter
Attached by the pituitary stalk
(1)
Infundibulum

Divided into two sections:

a)

Anterior and Posterior

3.
The nerve cells produce and secrete releasing hormones which are
released through the axon which go to the blood stream to the pituitary gland
4.
Anterior Pituitary Gland
a)

Makes hormones

b)

Adrenocorticotropic hormone
(1)
Known as:
(a)
(b)

ACTH
Corticotrophin

(2)

Action:
(a)
Controls secretion of certain hormones from the adrenal
cortex

(3)

c)

d)

Source of Control:
(a)
Corticotrophin-releasing hormone from the
hypothalamus

Follicle-stimulating hormone
(1)
Known as:
(a)
FSH
(b)
Follitropin
(2)
Action:
(a)
Development of egg-containing follicles in ovaries
(b)
Stimulates follicular cells to secrete estrogen
(c)
In males its stimulates production of sperm cells
(3)
Source of Control:
(a)
Gonadotropin- releasing hormone from the
hypothalamus
Growth hormone
(1)
Known as:
(a)
GH
(b)
Somatotropin
(i)
STH
(2)
Action:
(a)
Stimulates increase in size and rate of division of body
cells
(b)
Enhances movement of amino acids through
membranes
(c)
Growth of long bone
(3)

e)

Source of Control:
(a)
Secretion inhibited by somatostatin and stimulated by
growth hormone-releasing hormone from the hypothalamus
Luteninizing hormone
(1)

Known as:
(a)
LH
(b)
Lutropin
(c)
Interstitial cell-stimulating hormone
(i)

f)

Prolactin
(1)
Known as:
(a)
PRL

ICSH

(2)

g)

(a)
Sustains milk production after birth
(b)
Amplifies the effect of LH in males
(3)
Source of Control:
(a)
Secretion inhibited by prolactin release-inhibiting
hormone and may be stimulated by yet to be identified prolactin
releasing factor
Thyroid- stimulating hormone
(1)
Known as:
(a)
TSH
(b)
Thyrotropin
(2)
(3)

5.

Action:

Action:
(a)
Controls secretion of hormones from the thyroid gland
Source of Control:
(a)
Thryotropin- releasing hormone from the hypothalamus

Posterior Pituitary Gland

a)
b)

Transports hormones
Antidiuretic hormone
(1)
Known as:
(a)
ADH
(b)
Vasopressin
(2)

c)

C.

Action:
(a)
Causes kidneys to reduce water excretion
(b)
In high concentration it raises blood pressure
(3)
Source of Control:
(a)
Hypothalamus in response to changes in body fluid
concentration and blood volume
Oxytocin
(1)
Known as:
(a)
OT
(2)
Action:
(a)
Contracts muscles in uterine wall and those associated
with milk-secreting glands
(3)
Source of Control:
(a)
Hypothalamus in response to stretching uterine and
vaginal walls and stimulation of breasts

Thyroid Gland
1.

Anatomy
a)

Sits on the lower part of the thyroid cartilage

(1)
b)
c)

d)

2.

Has two lobes

The follicular cells
(1)
Make T and T
(2)
Also called C cells
It will grow if there is not enough iodine

Calcitonin
a)

Made by calcitonin

b)

Action:
(1)
Lowers blood calcium and phosphate ion concentrations by
inhibiting release of calcium and phosphate ions from bones and by
increasing the rate at which calcium and phosphate ions are deposited in
bones
(a)
Stimulates osteoblasts
(i)
Builds the bones
(2)
Increases excretion of calcium by the kidneys
Source of Control:
(1)
Elevated blood calcium ion concentration
(2)
Digestive hormones

c)

3.

Thyroxine
a)

Known as:

b)
c)
d)

(1)
T
(2)
Tetraiodothyronine
An amino acid
Four iodine atoms
Action:
(1)
Increases rate of energy release from carbohydrates
(2)
Increases rate of protein synthesis

e)

(3)
Accelerates growth
(4)
Stimulates activity in the nervous system
Source of Control:
(1)

4.

Adams apple

TSH from the anterior pituitary gland

Triiodothyroine
a)

Known as:
(1)
T

b)
c)

Three iodine atoms

Action:
(1)
Increases rate of energy release from carbohydrates
(2)
Increases rate of protein synthesis

(3)
d)
e)

5.

Accelerates growth

(4)
Stimulates activity in the nervous system
Source of Control:
(1)
TSH from the anterior pituitary gland
Five times more potent than thyroxine

Disorders of the Thyroid Gland

a)

Hyperthyroid
(1)
Hyperthyroidism
(a)
(b)

(2)

(c)
Restlessness
(d)
Hyperactivity
(e)
Weight loss
(f)
Protruding eyes
(g)
Goiter
Graves disease
(a)
Auto antibodies bind TSH receptors on thyroid cell
membranes
(b)
Mimicking action of TSH
(c)
Overstimulating gland
(i)
Hyperthyroidism
(d)

b)

High metabolic rate

Sensitivity to heat

Exophthalmia
(i)
Protrusion of the eyes
Goiter

(e)
Hypothyroid
(1)
Hashimoto disease
(a)
Autoantibodies destroy thyroid cells
(b)
Resulting in hypothyroidism
(2)
Hypothyroidism in an Infant
(a)
Stunted growth
(b)
Abnormal bone formation

(3)

(c)
Intellectual disability
(d)
Sluggishness
Hypothyroidism in an Adult
(a)
Low metabolic rate
(b)
Sensitivity to cold
(c)
(d)
(e)

Sluggishness
Poor appetite
Swollen tissues

(f)
(4)

D.

Mental dullness

Simple goiter
(a)
Deficiency of thyroid hormones due to iodine deficiency
(b)
No thyroid hormones inhibit pituitary release of TSH:
(i)
Overstimulated thyroid
(ii)
Enlarged thyroid
(iii)
Thyroid functions below normal

Parathyroid gland
1.

Anatomy:
a)
b)

2.

Parathyroid hormone
a)

b)

3.

Four clusters on the back of the thyroid

Only makes one hormone
Known as:
(1)
PTH
(2)
Parathormone
Actions:
(1)
Helps raise blood calcium level by:
(a)
Activating vitamin D
(b)
Can stimulate osteoclasts

Disorders of the Parathyroid Glands

a)

Hyperparathyroidism
(1)

(2)

b)

Symptoms:
(a)
Fatigue
(b)
Muscular weakness
(c)
Painful joints
(d)
Altered mental functions
(e)
Depression
(f)
Weight loss
(g)
Bone weakening
(h)
Increased PTH secretion overstimulates osteoclasts
Cause:

(a)
Tumor
(3)
Treatment:
(a)
Remove tumor
(b)
Correct bone deformities
Hyperparathyroidism
(1)
Symptoms:
(a)
Muscle cramps
(b)
Seizures

(c)
(2)

(3)

(d)
Diminishing blood calcium ion concentration
Cause
(a)
Inadvertent surgical removal
(b)
Injury
Treatment
(a)
(b)

E.

Calcium salt injections

Massive doses of vitamin D

Adrenal Medulla
1.

2.

Anatomy:
a)

Chromaffin cells make norepinephrine and epinephrine.

b)

(1)
Both are called catecholamines
(2)
Have to do with fight or flight syndrome
Sits in the middle of the adrenal gland

Epinephrine
a)

b)

3.

Known as:
(1)
EPI
(2)
Adrenalin
Makes your blood sugar go up to give you energy

Norepinephrine
a)

F.

Decreased PTH secretion educes osteoclast activity

Known as:
(1)
NE
(2)
Noradrenalin

Adrenal Cortex
1.

Anatomy:
a)
b)
c)

Adrenal gland sits on top of the kidneys

Adrenal cortex is around the gland
Has three layers:
(1)
Zona glomerulsoa
(2)
Zona fasciculate
(3)

2.

Zona reticularis

Aldosterone
a)
b)
c)
d)

Steroid
(1)
Made from cholesterol
Made by the zona glomerulosa
Classified as a mineralocorticoid
Action:

e)

3.

Cortisol
a)

Classified as a glucocorticoid

b)

Known as:
(1)
Hydrocortisone
Action:
(1)
Decrease protein synthesis
(2)
Increases fatty acid release

c)

d)

4.

(1)
Helps regulate the concentration of extracellular electrolytes by
conserving sodium ions and excreting potassium ions
Source of Control:
(1)
Electrolyte concentrations in body fluids
(2)
Renin-angiotensin system

(3)
Stimulates glucose synthesis from noncarbohydrates
Source of Control:
(1)
CRH from the hypothalamus
(2)
ACTH from the anterior pituitary gland

Adrenal Androgens
a)
b)

Made in the zona reticularis

Action:
(1)
(2)

G.

Supplement sex hormones from the gonads

May be converted into estrogens

Pancreas
1.

Anatomy:
a)
b)

Both an endocrine and exocrine gland

Islet of Langerhans
(1)
Made of three types of cells
(a)
Alpha
(i)
Produce glucagon
(a)
Makes blood sugar level go up
(b)
Beta
(i)

Produce insulin
(a)
Makes blood sugar level go down
(b)
How?
(i)
By storing it in the liver
(ii)
Glycogen is a chain of glucose
(iii)
Glucagon stimulates cells to break
down glycogen in gluconeogenesis.
(c)
Glycogenesis
(i)
Making glycogen from glucose

(d)

Glycogenolysis
(i)
down

(c)

Delta
(i)

2.

Action:
(1)
Stimulates the liver to break down glycogen and convert
noncarbohydrates into glucose
(2)

b)

b)

b)
c)

Action:
(1)
Decreases blood glucose formation by:
(a)
Promoting formation of glycogen from glucose
(b)
Inhibiting conversion of noncarbohydrates into glucose
(c)
Enhancing movement of glucose through adipose and
muscle cell membranes
(2)
Promotes transport of amino acids in cells
(3)
Enhances synthesis of proteins and fats
Source of Control:
(1)
Blood glucose concentration
Known as:
(1)
SS
Action:
(1)
Helps regulate carbohydrates
Source of Control:
(1)
Not determined

Pineal Gland
1.

2.

Melatonin
a)

Sadness

b)

Depression

Circadian Rhythm
a)

I.

Source of Control:
(1)
Blood glucose concentration

Somatostatin
a)

H.

Stimulates breakdown of fats

Insulin
a)

4.

Daily basis

Thymus
1.

Produce somatastation
(a)
Stops production of growth hormone

Glucagon
a)

3.

Splitting glycogen and breaking it

Thymosis

a)

Make T cells develop

I.

Suffixes
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.
I.
J.
K.
L.
M.
N.
O.
P.

II.

Agglutin- to glue together

Bil- bile
-crit- to separate
Embol- stopper
Eryth- red
Hema- blood
Hemo- blood
Heap- liver
Leuko- white
-lys- to break up
Macro- large
-osis- abnormal condition
-pole- make, produce
Poly- many
-stasis- halt, make stand
Thromb- clot

Characteristics
A.
B.

A connective tissue
Viscous
1.

C.
D.

Page 528 figure 14.3

Page 529 figure 14.4
1.

E.

Tells the origin of blood cells

Stem Cell
1.

III.

Thicker

A cell that can become different cells as it matures and divides

Red Blood Cells

A.
B.

Called erythrocytes
Shape and Size
1.
2.
3.

7.5 micrometers
Biconcave disks
Has a more surface area

C.

Make up
1.
2.

1/3 hemoglobin
Exocytosis
a)

3.

Does not have mitochondria

a)

D.

Because the mitochondria would use the oxygen being transported

Characteristics
1.

Can make ATP by mitochondria

a)

E.

Has a nucleus that gets pushed out as it matures

Glycolysis

Red Blood Cell Count (RBC)

1.
Each human has about 5 million red blood cells in each micrometer of
blood
a)

2.
3.

Reflects bloods oxygen carrying capacity

a)

4.

F.

Young cells with a reticulain

Lack of blood

Dietary for production of red blood cells

1.
2.
3.
4.

L.

Builds red blood cells

Anemia
1.

K.

A hormone
Located in the liver
Tells to make red blood cells

Reticulocytes
1.

J.

Process of producing red blood cells

Erythroblasts
1.

I.

25 trillion red blood cells in the human body

Erythropoietin
1.
2.
3.

H.

Micro

Erythropoiesis
1.

G.

CC- cubic centimeter

B
Iron
Vitamin C
Folic Acid

Page 532 Table 14.3

1.

Page 533 Figure 14.8 (a)

IV.

a)

Quanitary level protein

b)

Iron is part of hemoglobin

White Blood Cell

A.
B.

Called leukocytes
Types:
1.

Granulocytes
a)

Neutrophils

(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)

b)

Light purple when dyed in a acid-base stain

(a)
Absorbs both

Neutral
Lobed nucleus
First to arrive at infections
Bands
(a)
Young neutrophils
(7)
Segs
(a)
Segmented neutrophils
(8)
Polymorphonuclear leukocyte
(a)
Different shaped nucleus
(9)
54%-64% of white blood cells
Eosinophils

c)

(1)
(2)

Absorb eosin

(3)

(a)
A red acidic stain
Bi-lobed nucleus

(4)
Modercite to allergic reactions
(5)
Defend against worm parasites
(6)
1%-3% of white blood cells
Basophil

(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)

2.

Absorb the base stain

Release:
Histamine
Heparin
(a)
Blood thinner
Less than 1% of white blood cells

Agranulocytes
a)

Monocytes

b)

(1)
(2)

Largest blood cell

(3)
(4)

Nucleus looks like a kidney

Can leave blood stream to become macrophages

(5)
3%-9% of white blood cells
Lymphocytes

(1)
(2)
(3)
c)

C.

(4)
25%-33% of white blood cells
Table 14.15 on page 535

White Blood Cell Count (WBC)

1.
2.
3.

Called hemocytomers
5,000-10,000 in a cubic meter of blood
Bold face terms on page 536 under white blood cell counts paragraph 2-3
a)

V.

About the same size as a red blood cell

Nucleus fills the whole cell

Page 537 table 14.4

Blood Platelets
A.
B.
C.

Not complete cells

150,000-450,000 per cubic millimeter of blood
Can help to stop bleeding

VI.

Blood Plasma
A.

Proteins
1.
2.
3.

Table 14.6 page 539

Albumin
Globulin
a)

Alpha and beta

b)

(1)
Located in your liver
(2)
Transport lipids and fat soluble vitamins
Gamma
(1)
(2)

4.

Fibrinogen
a)

5.

Forms a blood clot

Oxygen
Carbon dioxide
Nitrogen

Non-protein nitrogenous substances

a)
b)

B.
C.

Fibrin
(1)

Gases and nutrients

a)
b)
c)

6.

Made by B cells
Antibodies

Urea
(1)
Produced when we burn protein for energy
Uric acid
(1)
Build up can cause gout
(2)
Made up of:
(a)
Amino acids
(b)
Creatine
(c)
Creatinine
(3)
BUN
(a)
Indicates the health of kidneys

Plasma Electrolytes
Hemostasis
1.
2.

Stops bleeding
Three System
a)

b)

Blood vessel spasm

(1)
Limited what it can do
(2)
Muscles in blood vessels will contract and try to clos
Platelet plug formation

(1)
c)

Platelets spike up and attach the to the collagen fibers

(2)
Secret and release serotonin
Blood coagulation
(1)
Clotting
(2)
Fibrinogen becomes insoluble
(a)
Forms threads
(b)

D.

Page 542 figure 14.9

1.

E.

Makes a web that catches blood cells

Factors are not in number order

a)
b)

Damage starts the clot

The tissue thromboplastin starts the clot

c)
d)

Hageman factors begins the clot

Calcium ions make the blood clot

Types of blood clots

1.

Thrombus
a)

2.

Embolus
a)

3.

Blood clot forms abnormally

A piece of thrombus that is carried away by the blood

Embolism
a)

Thrombus clogs a blood vessel blocking blood flow

VII. Blood Types

A.

Aggulation
1.

B.

Antibodies attack the opposite blood type and glue them together

1.
2.
3.

Dominates over B and O

Plasma
a)

4.

Shaped to fit type B antigens

Anti-bodies
a)

Has A antibodies

C.

1.
2.

Plasma
a)

3.

Anti-bodies
a)

D.

Anti-bodies
a)

None

1.
2.
3.
4.

O negative is the universal donor

Has no antigens
Anti-bodies
a)

F.

Has B anti-bodies

AB

1.
2.

E.

Shaped to fit type A antigens

Both a and b anti-bodies

RH Factor
1.
First studied in Rhesus Monkeys
2.
Anti-RH antibodies
3.
RH negative blood will only develop RH positive antibodies when comes in
contact with RH positive blood
4.
The RH antibodies are small enough to pass through the placenta

a)
A shot of RH positive antibodies are injected into the mother to run the
antibodies away from the placenta and leave

I.

Suffixs
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.
I.
J.
K.
L.
M.

II.

The blood vessels make up two circuits

A.
B.

III.

Angio- vessel
Anther- porridge
Brady- slow
Diastole- dilation
Edem- swelling
-gram something written
Lun- moon
Myo- muscle
Papill- nipple
Phleb- vein
Scler- hard
Syn- together
Tachy- rapid

Primary
Systematic

Arteries carry blood away

IV. One side of your heart receives blood and sends it to your lungs
and the other part sends blood to all other systems
V.

Heart
A.

Four chambers
1.

2.

Right
a)

Atrium

b)

Ventricle

Left
a)
b)

B.

Atrium
Ventricle

Blood Flow
1.
2.

Blood from system circuit

Venae cavea and coronary sinus

3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.

C.

Right atrium
Tricuspid valve
Right ventricle
Pulmonary valve
Pulmonary trunk
Pulmonary arteries
Alveolar capillaries
Pulmonary veins
Left atrium
Mitral valve
Left ventricle
Aortic valve
Blood to systemic circuit

Location
1.
Bordered laterally by the lungs posteriorly by the vertebral column and
anteriorly by the sternum.

D.

Size
1.
2.

E.

Varies with body size

Average adults heart is about 14 centimeters long and 9 centimeters wide

Covering of the heart

1.

Pericardium
a)
A covering that encloses the heart and the proximal ends of the large
blood vessels to which it attaches

2.

Visceral Pericardium
a)

3.

Parietal Pericardium
a)

F.

Folds back and covers the heart again

The Wall Of The Heart

1.

The Epicardium
a)

2.
3.

The outer layer

Myocardium
a)

The middle layer that contracts to pump blood from the heart chambers

Endocardium
a)

G.

The top layer against the heart

The inner layer that forms a protective covering

Chambers and Valves

1.

Valves
a)

Keep the blood from flowing backwards

b)

2.

Right Atrium
a)
b)

3.

4.

a)

On the right side

b)
c)

A one way valve

Blood can flow in but closes when it tries to go back out

d)
e)

Anchored by the cordea tendena

Has three cusps

Pulmonary Valve

The big artery that sends the blood to the rest of the body

Heart Actions
1.

Systole
a)

2.

When the atria contract

Diastole
a)

I.

Leave the left atrium and flows through this valve

Aorta
a)

H.

Pulmonary veins empty into it

Mitral Valve
a)

7.

One way valve

Allows blood to flow in but not out

Left Atrium
a)

6.

Blood enters from all parts of the body except the lungs
Deoxygenated blood

Tricuspid Valve

a)
b)

5.

Can anchor to tough fibrous connective tissue

When ventricles relax

Cardiac Conduction System

1.

SA Node
a)

2.

3.

Pacemaker node

Process
a)
b)

SA node
Atrial syncytium

c)
d)
e)
f)
g)

Junctional fibers
AV node
AV bundle
Bundle branches
Purkinje fibers

h)

Ventricular syncytium

EKG
a)

QRS complex

(1)

(2)

Beginning of contraction of the ventricles

b)

VI.

Blood Vessels
A.

Arteries
1.
Strong, elastic vessels adapted for carrying blood away from the heart
under relatively high pressure
2.
Has a thicker muscle layer
3.
As the artery gets smaller the amount of smooth muscle gets smaller

4.

Vasoconstriction
a)

5.

Vasodilation
a)

B.

Carry blood back to the atria

Has valves
Opening is larger

Layers of Arteries and Veins

1.

Tunica Externa
a)

2.
3.

Made up of fibrous tissue

Tunica Media
a)

Made up of smooth muscle

Tunica interna
a)

D.

Dilates

Veins
1.
2.
3.

C.

Constricts

Made up of epithelium tissue

Capillary
1.
2.

Made up of simple squamous epithelium

Permeable
a)
b)
c)

3.

Varies in what tissue they are in

Blood brain barrier
The blood plasma leaks out and becomes tissue fluid or interstitial fluid

Exchange in capillaries

a)
b)

Hydrostatic pressure
(1)
(2)

c)
d)

The pressure on a fluid

Blood pressure

Osmosis
(1)
The diffusion of water
Osmotic pressure
(1)

Why?

(a)
In the plasma there are dissolved proteins that cannot
get out of the capillaries

VII. Blood Pressure

A.

Where to check pulse

1.

B.

Factors that affect blood pressure

1.

Cardiac output
a)
b)

Stroke volume
(1)
The volume of blood that enters the arterial system
Cardiac output

(1)
The stroke volume multiplied by the heart rate, expressed in
beats per minute
(a)
Cardiac output= stoke volume x heart rate

2.

Blood Volume
a)
The sum of the formed elements and blood plasma volumes in the
vascular system

3.

Peripheral Resistance
a)

4.

Viscosity
a)

5.

The difficult with which the molecules of a fluid flow past one another

Blood Pressure Increases

a)
b)
c)
d)
e)

6.

Friction between the blood and the walls of the blood vessels

Blood volume increases

Blood viscosity increases
Peripheral resistance increases
Stroke volume increases
Heart rate increases

Conditions
a)

Hypertension
(1)
Risk factors for stroke
(a)
Alcohol consumption
(b)
Diabetes

(2)

(c)
Elevated serum cholesterol
(d)
Family history of cardiovascular disease
(e)
Smoking
(f)
Hypertension
(g)
Transient ischemic attacks
Drugs to treat it
(a)
Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors
(i)
Block formation of angiotensin II, preventing
vasoconstriction
(b)
Beta blockers
(i)
Lower heart rate
(ii)
Reduce contractility
(c)
Calcium channel blockers
(i)
Dilate blood vessels by keeping calcium ions out
of smooth muscle cells in vessel walls
(d)

Diuretics
(i)
Increase urine output, lowering blood volume

VIII. Arterial System

A.
B.
C.

The wall of the left ventricle is very thick

The wall of the right ventricle is very thin
Brachiocephalic Artery
a)

Carries blood to your right arm and the right side of your head.

I.

Suffixes
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.
I.
J.
K.
L.
M.
N.
O.

II.

Two types of digestion

A.
B.

III.

Aliment- food
Cari- decay
Cec- blindness
Chym- juice
Decidu- falling off
Frenul- bridle, restraint
Gastr- stomach
Hepat- liver
Hiat- opening
Lingu- tongue
Peri- around
Pyl- gatekeeper, door
Rect- straight
Sorpt- to soak up
Vill- hairy

Mechanical
Chemical

Accessory Organs

A.
B.

Layers
1.

Mucosa
a)

2.
3.

Transport

Sub mucosa
Muscular layer
a)

Outer
(1)
Along the tube

b)

Inner
(1)

4.

C.
D.
E.
F.

Inside

Serosa or serous

Mouth mechanically breaks down food

Food does not enter your accessary organs
Small Intestine
1.

18 to 20 feet long

G.

Movements of the tube

1.

Peristalsis
a)

H.

Innervation of the tube

1.

Sympethic Vs. Parasympethic

a)

I.

Pushing motion that pushes food through

Sympethic
(1)
Makes digestion not a priority

Mouth
1.

Mastication
a)

2.

Tongue

a)
b)

3.

Chewing

Root is anchored to the hyoid bone

Palate
a)
part.

Forms the roof of the oral cavity and consists of a hard part and a soft

4.
5.

Teeth
a)
b)

Hardest part of the body

Not considered bones

c)

IV.
V.

Salivary Glands
A.

Secrete Saliva
1.
2.
3.

B.

Begins chemical digestion of carbohydrates

A solvent
Keeps pH close to neutral

Major Salivary Glands

1.

Parotid
a)

2.

Sub mandibular
a)

3.

Largest
Fluid is thicker

Sublingual
a)
b)

Smallest
Mostly mucus

4.

5.

VI.

Pharynx
A.

Structure
1.
2.
3.

B.
C.

Nasopharynx
Oropharynx
Laryngopharynx

Swallowing mechanism
Esophagus
1.
2.

Behind your trachea

Continuous with (becomes) the stomach

3.

VII. Stomach

A.

B.

Parts
1.
2.
3.
4.

C.
D.

Sphincters are sometimes called valves

Chyme
1.

E.
F.

Cardiac region
Bundus
Body
Pylorus

Food that is broken down

10 or 12 inches long
Distended
1.
2.

Stretched full
Fundus
a)

G.

Will often fill with gases

Gastric Secretions
1.

3 types
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)

2.

Chief cells
(1)
Make enzymes
Prytal cells
Mucos cells
Page 664 figure 17.19
Gastric lipase
Pepsinogen
Intrestic factor

Regulating gastric secretions

a)

b)

Gastron
(1)
Hormone
(2)
Secreted by the stomach
Phases

(1)
(2)

CCK (cholecystokinin)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)

c)

CCK
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)

(5)

A hormone
Secreted from the intestine wall
Goes to the pancreas, stomach, and gallbladder
Secretin secretes pancreatic juice
Secrets digestive juice

Pancreas
(a)
Release digestive juice
Stomach
(a)
Tells it is empty
Gallbladder
(a)
Tells needs bile
Bile emulsifies fate
(a)
Make oil and grease mix with water

(6)

Structure

(a)

VIII. Liver
A.

Structure
1.

2.

Largest internal organ

3.

B.

Functions

1.
2.
3.

Most vital are protein metabolism

Ferritin
a)

4.

IX.

Iron stored in the liver

Role in digestion is to secrete bile

Gallbladder

A.

X.

Small Intestine
A.

Parts
1.
2.
3.
4.

B.

Structure
1.
2.

C.

Duodem
Jejunum
Ileum
Mesentery
Velvety appearance
Increase surface area

Secretions

1.

2.

3.
a)

XI.

Large Intestine

Illeocecal sphincter
(1)
Figure 17.43

A.
B.
C.
D.
E.

Stuff we cannot digest

Mainly reabsorbs water
Ecoli produces vitamin K
Movements
1.

XII.

Only happen two or three times a day

Composition of Bile
A.

Contains
1.

Bile salts
a)
b)

Digestive function
Bile pigments
(1)
Bilirubin
(a)
Red
(2)

c)

XIII. Extra

Water

biliverda
(a)
Green

I.

Suffixes
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.
I.

II.

Bas- base
Calor- heat
Carot- carrot
Lip- fat
Mal- bad
-meter- measure
Nutria- nourish
Obes- fat
Pell- skin

Two types
A.

Macronutrients (bulk)
1.
2.
3.

B.

Micronutrients (trace elements)

1.
2.

III.

Carbohydrates
Lipids
Proteins
Vitamins
Minerals

Appetite control
A.

Insulin
1.
2.

B.

Site of secretion is pancreas

Function
a)

Stimulates adipocytes to admit gluncose and store fat

b)

Glycogen synthesis

Leptin
1.
2.

Site of secretion is adipocytes

Function
a)

C.

Suppresses appetite and increases metabolic rate after eating

Ghrelin
1.
2.

Site of secretion is stomach

Function
a)

Enhances appetite

IV.

Carbohydrates
A.

Chemical Make-up
1.

B.
C.
D.
E.

C HO or CHC

Carbon and water

Sugars are carbohydrates
Used a fuel
Monosaccharaides (simple sugars)
1.

Gluncose

a)

2.

Fruitose

a)

3.

Glactose

a)

4.

All are isomers

a)

5.

Same compound make up but different structure

All have six carbons (hexose)

F.

Pentose (five carbons)

1.

G.

Ribose and Deoxyribose

a)

Not used as fuel source

b)

Make dna and rna

Disaccrides
1.

Sucrose
a)

2.

Multose
a)

3.

Similar to glycogen
(1)
Less branches

Celluose
a)
b)

V.

Gluncose
Glactose

Amylase
Amylopeptin
a)

6.

Two glucose

Lactose (milk sugar)

a)
b)

4.
5.

Gluncose and Fructose

(1)
Joined together with a glycogen linkage

Beta gluncoses
Cannot be digested

Lipids
A.
B.
C.

Non water soluble

Carboxyl group
Glycerol

1.

D.

Triglyceride
1.

Remove the water

E.
F.

If there are no double bonds they are saturated

If they have some double bonds they are not saturated
1.

One
a)

2.

Two or more
a)

3.

4.

a)

Third bond from the begging is a double bond

b)

Each carbon needs four bonds

CIS

Both hydrogens across from each other

Our body responds to trans fat by raising our cholesterol

Lipid sources
1.
2.

H.

Both hydrogens are on the same side of the bonds

Trans
a)
b)

G.

Polysaturated

-3 (omega 3)

a)

5.

Monosaturated

Fats
Oils

Beta oxidation

1.
2.
Chemical process that brakes fatty acids down into 2-carbon fragments to
generate acetyl coenzyme A, which can enter the citric acid cycle

I.

Ketone bodies
1.
2.
3.
4.

J.

Essential fatty acids

1.
2.
3.

VI.

Type of compound produced during fat catabolism

Ketosis
Acidic
Can get body ph to low (ketoacidosis)
Linoleic acid
Linolenic acid
Helps make cell membranes

Proteins
A. Hydrolyze to amino acids
B.

We can oxidize amino acids

1.

Deanmination

C.

b)

Urea

Eggs are the number one source

Rice and beans
Lima beans and corn

Amino acids make up proteins

Complete protein
1.

F.

Get rid of amin groups

Protein sources
1.
2.
3.

D.
E.

a)

Has all the amino acids at a balanced level

Essential Amino Acids

1.

2.

They are:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)

Isoleucine
Leucine
Lysine
Methionine
Phenylalnine

f)
g)

Threonine
Tryptophan

h)

Valine

Cannot be made by the body

a)

G.

Must be taken in through daily intake

Pku
1.

Lack an enzyme to break down phenialiene

VII. Energy value of food

A.

Measured in calories
1.
2.

B.

Amount of energy to make one gram of water heat up 1 c

K-1,000 calories (small calories)

Calorie content of food (Calories per Gram)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Carbohydrate= 4.1
Lipid= 9.5
Protein= 4.1
Alcohol= 7
Fat more than 9 calories per gram

VIII. Desirable weight

1.
2.

Obesity
a)

IX.

Excess adipose tissue

Vitamins
A.
B.

Organic compounds
Fat soluble
1.

A
a)
b)
c)
d)

2.

3.

Exists in several forms

Comes from beta caritine
Keeps tissue from oxidizing
Antioxident

D
a)

Steroid

b)
c)

Derived from cholesterol

Promotes the absorption of calcium and phosphorous

d)

Development of teeth and bones

E
a)

Alpha-tocopherol

b)

4.

K
a)
b)

C.

Forms blood clotting factors

Made from ecoli

Water-soluble vitamins
1.

B
a)
b)

2.

Metabolism of amino acids

Dna synthesis

C
a)
b)
c)
d)

X.

Maintain stability of cell membranes

Collagen production
Conversion of folacin to folnic acid
Promotes absorption of iron
Synthesis of hormones from cholesterol

Minerals
A.

Major minerals
1.

Calcium
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)

2.

3.

Essential for neuro transmitter release

Muscle fiber contraction
The cardiac action potential
Blood coagulation
Activates certain enzymes
Structure of bones and teeth

Phosphorus
a)

Structure of bones and teeth

b)
c)

Component of nearly all metabolic reactions

In
(1)
Nucleic acids
(2)
Many proteins
(3)
Some enzymes
(4)
(5)
(6)

Some vitamins
Cell membrane
ATP

(7)

Phosphates of body fluids

Sulfur
a)

Essential part of
(1)
Certain amino acids
(2)
Thiamine

4.

5.

(4)
(5)

Biotin
Mucopolysaccharides

a)
b)

Helps maintain osmotic pressure of extracellular fluids

Regulates water movement

c)
d)

Plays a role in impulse conduction in neurons

Regulates PH

e)

Regulates transport of substances across cell membranes

Chlorine
Helps maintain osmotic pressure of extracellular fluids
Regulates pH
Maintains electrolyte balance
Forms hydrochloric acid
Aids transport of carbon dioxide by red blood cells

Magnesium
a)
b)

XI.

Insulin

Sodium

a)
b)
c)
d)
e)

6.

(3)

Required in metabolic reaction in mitochondria that produce ATP

Plays a role in the breakdown of ATP to ADP

Micro minerals (need small amounts)

A.

Iron
1.
2.
3.

B.

Manganese
1.
2.
3.

C.

Essential for hemoglobin synthesis

Bone development
Melanin production
Myelin formation

Iodine
1.

E.

Activates enzymes required for fatty acids and cholesterol synthesis

Urea formation
Normal functioning of the nervous system

Copper
1.
2.
3.
4.

D.

Part of hemoglobin molecule

Catalyzes formation of vitamin A
Incorporated into a number of enzymes

Essential component for synthesis of thyroid hormones

Cobalt
1.

Component of cyanocobalamin

2.

F.

Required for synthesis of several enzymes

Zinc
1.

Component of enzymes involved in

a)
b)
c)
d)

2.
3.

G.

Component of certain enzymes

Chromium
1.

XII.

Component of tooth structure

Selenium
1.

I.

Necessary for normal wound healing

Maintain integrity of the skin

Fluorine
1.

H.

Digestion
Respiration
Bone metabolism
Liver metabolism

Essential for use of carbohydrates

Healthy eating
A.

Malnutrition
1.
2.
3.

B.

Marasmus
1.
2.

C.

Symptoms resulting from lack of specific nutrients

Bad nutrition
Not eating right
Starvation due to profound nutrient deficiency
Lack of nutrition

Kwashiorkor
1.
Starvation caused by switching form breast mil to food low in protein
2.
Lack of protein
3.
"The evil that eats the second child"
4.
After the second child is born the second child is deprived of the mothers
breast milk
5.
Malnutrition
6.
Potbelly

I.

Suffixes
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.
I.
J.
K.

II.

Alveol- small cavity

Bronch- windpipe
Carcin- spreading sore
Carin- kell-like
Cric- ring
Epi- upon
Exhale- to breath out
Hem- blood
Inhal- to breath in
Phren- diaphragm
Tuber- swelling

Respiration Events
A.

Ventilation
1.

B.

External Respiration
1.

C.
D.

Exchange of gases between the blood and the body cells

Cellular Respiration
1.

III.

Exchange of gases between the air in the lungs and the blood

Transport of gases by the blood between the lungs and body cells
Internal respiration
1.

E.

Movement of air in and out of the lungs

Oxygen use and production of carbon dioxide by body cells

Organs
A.

Tracks
1.
2.

B.

Upper
Lower

Nose
1.

Nasal cavity
a)

2.

Separated by the nasal septum

(1)
Made of perpendicular plate and the vomer

Nasal Conchae
a)
b)

Superior
Middle

c)

3.

Cilia
a)

C.

Inferior
Move mucus and trapped particles from the nasal cavity to the pharynx

Sinuses
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Frontal sinus
Sphenoid sinus
Maxilla and ethmoid bone has sinuses
The lining is continuous from the mucus membrane
Pharynx
a)

6.

Larynx
a)
b)

7.

Throat
Houses vocal cords
Vocal cords
(1)
True
(1)
Makes sounds
(2)
False
(1)
Upper
(2)
Does not produce sounds

Trachea
a)

About one inch in diameter

b)
c)
d)

Five inches long

Spits at the carina
Bronchus

e)

f)

(1)
Tracheostomy
(1)
A block trachea that is fixed by putting a slit in the neck
into the trachea
Bronchial tree
(1)
Where it branches
(a)
Right and left main bronchi
(b)
Three lobar bronchi
(c)
Segmental bronchi
(d)
Interlobular bronchioles
(e)
Terminal bronchioles
(f)
Two or more respiratory bronchioles
(a)
Can absorb oxygen through the blood
stream
(b)
Has bands of smooth muscle
(g)
Alveolar ducts
(h)
Alveolar sacs
(i)
Alveoli
(a)
Has one protection of simple squamous
epithelium

IV.

Lungs
A.
B.

Right lung has 3 lobes and left lung has 2 lobes

Made up of avoli
1.

C.
D.

Separated by the heart

Hilum
1.

E.

Increase of surface area

Blood vessels enter the lung on its medial surface through this

Pleural Cavity
1.
Contains only a thin film of serous fluid that lubricates the adjacent pleural
surfaces reducing friction as they move against one another during breathing

V.

Breathing Mechanism
A.

Inspiration and Expiration

1.

Major events in inspiration

a)
Impulses are conducted on phrenic nerves to muscle fibers in the
diaphragm contracting them
b)
As the dome-shaped diaphragm moves downward the thoracic cavity
expands
c)
At the same time the external intercostal muscles may contract raising
the ribs and expanding the thoracic cavity further
d)
The intra-alveolar pressure decreases
e)
Atmospheric pressure greater than intra-alveolar pressure forces air into
the respirator trace through the air passages
f)
The lungs fill up with air

2.

Major Events in Expiration

a)
The diaphragm and external respiratory muscles relax
b)
Elastic tissues of the lungs stretched during inspiration suddenly recoil
and surface tension pulls in on alveolar walls
c)
Tissues recoiling around the lungs increase the intra-alveolar pressure
d)
Air is forces out of the lungs

3.

Boyles law
a)

4.

Pressure and volume are related in a n opposite or inverse way

Diaphragm
a)
b)
c)

Contracts (Inhale)
(1)
Goes down
Rests (exhale)
(1)
Arches
Deep breath

(1)

Costals
(1)

(3)

Internal intercostal muscles

(a)
Exhale
External intercostal muscles
(a)
Inhale
Abdominal muscles

(4)

(a)
Surfactant

(2)

Press your muscles against your diaphragm

(a)
Synthesized mixture of lipoprotein made by
certain alveolar cells
(b)
Particularly important in the minutes after birth,
when the newborns lungs inflate for the first time.
Premature infants often suffer respiratory distress
syndrome because they do not produce sufficient
surfactant. Physicians inject synthetic surfactant into the
tiny lungs through an endotracheal tube. A ventilator
especially geared to an infants size assists breathing.

VI.

Respiratory air volume and capacities

A.

B.
C.

Spirometer
1.

D.

Tidal Volume
1.
2.

E.

Used to measure respiratory air volumes

500 mL
Volume of air moved in or out of the lungs during a respiratory cycle

Inspiratory reserve volume

1.
3,000 mL
2.
Maximum volume of air that can be inhaled in addition to resting tidal
volume

F.

Expiratory reserve volume

1.
1,100 mL
2.
Maximum volume of air that can be exhaled in addition to residual tidal
volume

G.

Residual Volume
1.
2.

H.

1,200 mL
Volume of air that remains in the lungs at all times

Inspiratory Capacity
1.
3,500 mL
2.
Maximum volume of air that can be inhaled following exhalation of resting
tidal volume
3.
Inspiratory capacity= tidal volume + inspiratory reserve volume

I.

Functional Residual Capacity

1.
2,300 mL
2.
Volume of air that remains in the lungs following exhalation of resting tidal
volume
3.
Functional residual capacity = expiratory reserve volume + residual volume

J.

Vital Capacity
1.
4,600 mL
2.
Maximum volume of air that can be exhaled after taking the deepest
breath possible
3.
Vital capacity = tidal volume + inspiratory reserve volume + expiratory
reserve volume

K.

Total Lung Capacity

1.
2.
3.

L.

5,800 mL
Total volume of air that the lungs can hold
Total lung capacity = vital capacity + residual volume

Alveolar Ventilation
1.
2.
3.

Subtracts out your bronchial

Should be about 300 cc
Minuet Ventilation
a)
The volume of new atmospheric air moved into the respiratory passages
each minute

M.

Non-respiratory air movements

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Coughing
Sneezing
Laughing
Crying
Hiccupping
Yawning
Speech

VII. Control of Breathing

A.

Respiratory areas

1.

B.

Factors affecting Breathing

1.

Central Chemoreceptors
a)

Carbonic acid

b)

Bicarbonate
(1)
Lowers pH
Responds to lower pH
(1)
Makes us inhale
Hyperventilate
(1)
Makes pH rise
(a)
Dizziness
(b)
Faint

c)
d)

e)
f)

Respiratory alkalosis
(1)
Hyperventilating
Respiratory acidosis
(1)
Do not breath

VIII. Alveolar Gas Exchange

A.
B.

Gas Transport
1.

Nitrogen
a)
b)

2.

The lower the pressure the longer it takes to be absorbed by the blood
You dissolve more nitrogen in your blood when your at a higher pressure

Oxygen
a)
b)
c)

Bound to hemoglobin
2% dissolves in plasma
Oxygen molecule is two oxygens

3.

Carbon monoxide (CO)

a)
Carbon monoxide is a toxic gas produced in gasoline engines and some
stoves as a result of incomplete combustion of fuels. It is also a component of
tobacco smoke. Carbon monoxide is toxic because it binds hemoglobin and
prevents oxygen from binding. It binds many times more effectively than does
oxygen and therefore does not readily dissociate from hemoglobin. Thus when a
person breathes carbon monoxide less hemoglobin is available for oxygen
transport depriving cells of oxygen.
b)
Treatment for carbon monoxide poising is to administer oxygen at high
partial pressure to replace some of the carbon monoxide bound to hemoglobin
molecules. Carbon dioxide is usually given simultaneously to stimulate the
respiratory center which in turn increases breathing rate. Rapid breathing helps
reduce the partial pressure of carbon monoxide in the alveoli favoring diffusion of
carbon monoxide out of the blood
c)
Hemoglobin can carry both oxygen and carbon dioxide

4.

Carbon Dioxide
a)
b)
c)

Carbaminohemoglobin
(1)
The result of carbon dioxide binding to hemoglobin
Carbonic anhydrase
(1)
Speeds up the reactions between carbon dioxide and water
Chloride Shift
(1)
Ions are negatively charged
(2)
Shift into red blood cells

V.

Suffixes
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.
I.

VI.

De- separation from

Edem- swelling
-emia- a blood condition
Extra- outside
Im- not
Intra- within
Neutr- neither one nor the other
-osis- a state of
-uria- a urine condition

Average:
A.
B.

Female-51%
Male- 64%

VII. Two departments

A.

Intracellular
1.
2.

B.

Inside the cell

63%

Extracelluar
1.
2.

Outside the cell

37%

VIII. Transcelluar fluid

1.

IX.

Part of the extracellular fluid including the fluid in special body cavities

Total Body Water

A.

X.

In Vitamins

A.

XI.

Cations
A.

XII.

Positively charged

Anions
A.

Negatively charged

XIII. Hydrostatic pressure

A.
B.

Pressure fluids exert

Such as blood pressure

XIV. Osmosis
A.
The movement of water through a selectively permeable membrane
toward a solution containing impermeant solute

XV. Water balance

A.

Homeostasis
1.
Maintenance of the internal environment of the body within the normal
range

B.

Water intake

1.
2.

C.

How much you take in

Amounts
a)

Metabolism= 250 mL or 10%

b)
c)
d)

Moist Food= 750 mL or 30%

Beverages= 1,500 mL or 60%
Total Intake 2,500 mL

Regulate water intake

1.
2.

Thirst
Osmotic pressure
a)
b)
c)

3.
4.

The amount of physical pressure an osmotic gradient can generate

The amount of hydrostatic pressure that will prevent osmosis
More concentrated

Antidiretic (adh)
Events in regulation of water intake
(1)
The body loses as little as 1% of its water
(2)
An increase in the osmotic pressure of extracellular fluid due to
water loss stimulates osmoreeceptors in thirst center
(3)
Activity in the hypothalamus causes the person to feel thirsty
and to seek water
(4)
Drinking and the resulting distension of the stomach by water
stimulate nerve impulses that inhibit the thirst center
(5)
Water is absorbed through the walls of the stomach and small
intestine
(6)
The osmotic pressure of extracellular fluid returns to normal

D.

Water output
1.
2.

3.
4.
5.

Urine
Amounts
a)
b)
c)
d)

Sweat= 150 mL or 6%
Feces= 150 mL or 6%
Skin and Lungs= 700 mL or 28%
Urine= 1,500 mL or 60%

e)

Total Output= 2,500 mL

Can vary
Adh
Events in regulation of water output
a)

Dehydration
(1)

Extracelluar fluid becomes osmotically more concentrated

(2)
Osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus are stimulated by the
increase in the osmotic pressure of body fluids
(3)
The hypothalamus signals the posterior pituitary gland to release
ADH into the blood
(4)
Blood carries ADH to the kidneys
(5)
ADH causes the distal convoluted tubules and collecting ducts to
increase water reabsorption
(6)
Urine output decreases and further water loss is minimized
b)

Excess water intake

(1)
Extracelluar fluid becomes osmotically less concentrated
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)

This change stimulates osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus

The posterior pituitary gland decreases ADH release
Renal tubules decrease water reabsorption
Urine output increases and excess water is excreted

XVI. Electrolyte balance

A.

Electrolyte intake
1.
2.

B.

Hydrogen ions
1.

C.
D.

Cations
Anions
Come from acids

Electrolyte output
Regulating electrolyte output
1.
2.
3.

Potassium
Sodium
Aldosterone
a)
b)

Causes kidneys to retain sodium

Regulates potassium ions

XVII. Calcium ion regulation

A.

Calcitonin

XVIII. Chloride goes with sodium

XIX. Acid base balance
A.

Acid
1.
2.

Give off hydrogen ions

Proton donors

3.

B.

Base
1.
2.
3.

C.

Normal 7.35-7.45
Acidosis-6.8-7.35
Alkalosis- 7.5-8.0

Metabolism
1.
2.

XX.

Give off hydrogen ions

Proton acceptors
Electron pair donors

pH
1.
2.
3.

D.

Electron pair acceptors

Acidosis
Alkalosis

Sources of hydrogen ions

A.

Respiration
1.

Aerobic respiration
a)

2.

Anaerobic respiration
a)

3.

B.
C.
D.
E.

With oxygen
Without oxygen

Both main acid producing

Incomplete oxidation of fatty acids

Phosphate
Sulfate
Strengths of acids and bases
1.
2.

Strong acids ionize completely

Weak acids do not ionize as well

XXI. Buffer systems

A.
B.

Reacts with strong acids and make them not be as strong

Three major buffer systems
1.

Bicarbonate
a)
System in which carbonic acid acts as a weak acid and bicarbonate ion
acts as a weak base that weakens a strong base and a strong acid
b)
Resists a change in pH

2.

Protein

a)
Amino acids of a protein in a solution accept or donate hydrogen ions to
resist changes in pH

3.

Phosphorus
a)
A mixture in which sodium monohydrogen phosphate acts as a weak base
and sodium dihydrogen phosphate acts as a weak acid
b)

C.

Resists changes in pH

Have two parts that work together

XXII. Breathing to get rid of CO

1.

Longer process

XXIII. Renal excretion

A.

Does not happen instantly

XXIV. Acidosis
A.

Respiratory acidosis
1.

B.

Results from increased levels of carbon dioxide and carbonic acid

Metabolic acidosis
1.

Results from accumulation of other acids of loss of bases

XXV. Alkalosis
A.

Respiratory Alkalosis
1.

B.

Results from loss of carbon dioxide and carbonic acid

Metabolic alkalosis
1.

Results from loss of other acids or gain of bases

I.

Suffixes
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.
I.
J.
K.
L.
M.
N.
O.
P.
Q.

II.

Andr- man
Contra- against
Crura- lower part
Ejacul- to shoot forth
Fimb- fringe
Folic- small bag
-genesis- origin
Gubern- to steer
Labi- lib
Mamm- breast
Mast- breast
Mens- month
Mons- an eminence
oo- egg
prim- first
puber- adult
zon- belt

Meiosis
A.
B.

Produce Egg Cells

Chromatin
1.

C.

Chromatids
1.

D.

E.

Uncoiled DNA
DNA that is uncoiled and bunched together

23 pairs of chromosomes

1.
2.
3.

F.
G.

III.

Crossing over occurs during prophase I

Always remember MEosis has to do with ME
22 pairs are autosomes

You can make 70 trillion different people

Organs
A.

Testes
1.
2.
3.
4.

About 5 centimeters long

Gubernaculum
Sperm production is effected by temperature
Cryptorchidism
a)

If the tesetes do not descend

5.

6.
7.

Spermiogensis
a)

B.

Maturation of sperm cells

Male Internal Reproductive Organs

1.

Epididymitis
a)
b)

6 meters long
Secrets glycogen
a)
Sperm food source

2.

Ductus Deferntia
a)

3.

45 centimeters long

Seminal vesicles
a)
duct
b)
c)
d)

4.

Secretes an alkaline solution

(1)
Lowers pH
(2)
Thin milky fluid

Bulborethral Glands
a)
b)

6.

Only 1 centimeter in diameter

Secrete a mucus like fluid

Semen
a)

C.

Secretes alkaline fluid

Provide fruitose for the semen
Make carbonic acid

Prostate Gland
a)

5.

Connect with the ductus deferentia to create the ejaculatory

Fluid that contains the sperm

Male External Sex Organs

1.

Scrotium
a)

2.

Penis

a)
b)

3.

Has a layer of smooth muscle

Nitrous oxide make blood vessels dilate

Erection, orgasm, and ejaculation

a)
b)
c)

Parasympathic
Emission
(1)
Loading the semen into the urethra
Ejaculation
(1)
Pushing semen out

IV.

Hormonal Control of Male Reproductive System

A.

LH
1.

B.

Makes testosterone

Testosterone

1.

C.

Androgens
1.

D.

Male sex hormone

DNT
1.

V.

Page 837 (1-5)

A more potent form of testosterone

Organs of the Female Reproductive System

A.

Ovaries
1.
2.
3.
4.

Primary Sex Organs

Both are solid
1 centimeter thick
Ligaments hold in place

5.

B.

Oocytes
1.
2.
3.

Womans eggs
Stop producing at birth
Oogenesis
a)

Process of egg cell formation

4.
5.

Has to be fertilized within 24 to 48 hours

Follicle Maturation
a)

6.

Ovulation
a)

VI.

One follicle becomes dominate

Triggered by the release of LH

Female Internal Reproductive Organs

A.

Uterine Tubes
1.
2.
3.

Open near the ovaries

Infundibulum
Has three layers

4.

B.

Uterus
1.
2.

Receives the embryo

Has three layers
a)
b)
c)

C.

Endometrium
Myometrium
Perimetrium

Vagina
1.
2.

Fibro muscular tube

Has three layers

3.

VII. Female External Reproductive Organs

A.

Labia Majora
1.

B.

Libia Minora
1.

C.

Separated by the punda cleft

Between the Libia Majora

Clitoris
1.
2.

centimeter in diameter
Corresponds to the penis
a)

D.

Vestibule
1.

E.

Would form to be the penis if the sex was a boy

Bartholins glands

Erection, lubrication, and orgasm

1.

Nitrous oxide

VIII. Female Sex Hormones

A.
B.

Estrogens
1.

Secondary sex characteristics

a)
Development of breasts and the ductile system of the mammary glands in
the breasts
b)
Increased deposition of adipose tissue in the subcutaneous layer
generally and in the breasts, thighs, and buttocks particularly
c)
Increased vascularization of the skin

IX.

Female Reproductive Cycle

1.
2.

Endometrium
a)

3.

Inner lining of the uterus

Corpus lutum
a)

Yellow body

B.

X.

Menopause
A.

XI.

When reproductive cycles cease

Mammary Glands
A.

Specialized to produce milk

I.

Suffixes
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.
I.
J.
K.
L.
M.
N.
O.

II.

Allant- sausage
Chorio- skin
Cleav- to divide
Ect- outside
Lacun- pool
Lanug- down
Mes- middle
Morul- mulberry
Nat- to be born
Ne- new
Post- after
Pre- before
Sen- old
Troph- well fed
Umbel- navel

Conception
A.
Motion similar to peristalsis
B.
Estrogen causes the fluids in the uterine tube to be watery so sperm can
easily swim through

1.

III.

Pregnancy and Prenatal Period

A.

Period of Cleavage
1.

Cleavage
a)
b)

2.
3.

Morula
Blastoycyst
a)
b)

4.

Be implanted into the endometrium

Pluripotent stem cell

Embryo Proper
a)
b)

c)
d)

B.

Blastomeres
Cleavage Embryo

The body of the developing offspring

Trophoblast
(1)
Secrets hCG
(a)
Maintains the corupus luiteum
(b)
Keeps it alive
Implantation
Placenta
(1)
Takes a while to develop
(2)
Responsible for maintaining life

Hormonal changes during pregnancy

1.

C.

Embryonic Stage
1.
2.
3.
4.

D.

2nd 7th week

Chorion
Chrionic villi
Amniotic fluid

Fetal Stage

E.
Milk Production
1.
2.

Prolactin
Oxytocin