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In many respects, light exhibits a wave-like behavior. As with waves in water, this means light waves have a
velocity (c in a vacuum; 300,000 km/s), a wavelength (lambda), and a frequency (nu). The distance a light
wave travels in one second is its velocity, expressed in meters per second (m/s); the distance between two wave
crests (or troughs) is the wavelength; the number of waves that pass per second is the frequency
(number/second).
Wavelength, frequency, and speed are related by the following equation:
speed = wavelength x frequency ; or, c
The energy and frequency of a specific photon emitted during a transition are in direct proportion:
energy = constant x frequency; or, E h , where h is Plancks constant.
Read the appropriate sections of your text and lecture notes and answer the following questions:
Continuous Spectra
A rainbow is formed when rain drops break the Sun's light into the component colors. Light passing through a
prism also forms a rainbow, but in this case we call it a spectrum (plural: spectra not spectrums). A spectrum of
the Sun or a light bulb (both approximately behaving like blackbodies) will have all of the colors of the
rainbow. These spectra are called _____________________________.
Emission and Absorption Spectra
1.
Each element produces a unique set of emission or absorption lines. An emission spectrum involves
transitions of electrons from ___________ to ______________ energy states. An absorption spectrum
involves transitions of electrons from _______________ to ___________ states. These transitions occur
only between discrete energy levels, and thus the lines occur only at certain wavelengths and at no others.
2.
For a given atom, will the discrete wavelengths we see be different depending on whether we are viewing
an emission spectrum or an absorption spectrum? Explain why or why not.
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Consider just four of the energy levels in a certain atom, as shown in this diagram:
a.
b.
How many spectral lines will result from all possible transitions among
these levels? __________
c.
d.
The transition with the greatest energy change will result in a photon with the
highest frequency and the shortest wavelength. The transition with the smallest
energy change will result in a photon with the smallest frequency and the longest
wavelength. This is because energy and frequency are directly proportional to
each other. The wavelength of a photon is inversely proportional to its frequency,
and therefore also inversely proportional to the energy. Make sure you understand
how this all works.
Sometimes when we avoid the math altogether it is actually HARDER to understand a concept than if we included the
math. Lets see just how we would calculate the wavelengths we see from excited hydrogen atoms.
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First of all, lets review the relationship between wavelength and frequency. Recall:
c = .
We know the speed of light, 2.9979 x 10^8 m/s, and so if we have either the wavelength or the frequency, we can
calculate the other value. For example (and lets stick with those electron jumps that result in photons in the
visible part of the spectrum for now), the jump from energy level 3 to 2 results in a line at 656.3 nm. What is
the frequency of this photon? How does the frequency of this photon compare to that of a photon with a
wavelength of 364.6 nm?
c wavelength frequency
For a wavelength of 656.3 nm, or 656.3 10- 9 m or 6.563 10- 7 m (in scientific notation) :
frequency
c
2.9979 108 m/s
In this comparison, we see that the photon with the shorter wavelength has a higher frequency; that is, more waves are
going to pass per second by any given reference point. Note that the energy jump that resulted in the shorter
wavelength was greater (more than 3.4 eVs) that the one with the wavelength of 656.3 nm (about 1.9 eVs).
Do you see a pattern forming here? A wavelength of 656.3 nm is about 1.8 times 364.6 nm; the ratio of the
frequencies (higher divided by lower) is about 1.8; 1.9 eVs times 1.8 is 3.4 eVs. They are all related. You
could do the same kind of quantitative analysis for each of the other wavelengths for the hydrogen lines. It
does not matter whether these lines are seen in absorption, with the electrons absorbing photons of specific
energies, or emission, with the electrons emitting photons of specific energies: it is the ratio of the energy
jumps that is important.
Since we learned above that the energy of a photon is directly proportional to its frequency, we also now know that the
photon with the shorter wavelength also has more energy. How do the energies actually compare? The energy
is equal to Plancks constant times the frequency, E h . Plancks constant is 6.626 10 34 joule sec
. Comparing energies using the frequencies calculated above we find:
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It is important to note that the hydrogen atom has these signature linesthis unique fingerprintno matter what the
temperature of the star is. For stars that are moving towards us or away from us, the wavelengths that we
observe will be slightly different, but the pattern of lines will be the same. If we correct for the motion of the
star, we will find that the wavelengths are exactly those that we measure in a laboratory here on Earth. Exactly.
Without exception. The same can be said for every other element, for the ion of those elements, or for the
isotopes of those elements. In each case, we see a unique fingerprint that identifies the element, ion, or
isotope. Now, stars in real life are not made up of pure hydrogen, they all have helium, with a dash of carbon,
nitrogen, oxygen, and other elements mixed in. What we observe, then, are these unique spectra all piled on
top of each other. Unraveling the composition of the star is much like tracking down a criminal when there are
20 or 30 different sets of fingerprints on the weapon. Astronomers meticulously, with the help of computers
(naturally) unravel the elements present in a star by matching the patterns, element by element, until as many
as possible are identified.
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