Lecture # 8

Chapter # 10, pages 478-482; chapter # 11, pages: 500-507

Exercises: 39, 45, 49, 55 pages 494-495; 5, 7, page 540; 81, page 543
Solution formation is spontaneous process occurs without outside intervention.
Two factors are involved in spontaneous process
1. Enthalpy process in which energy content of the system decreases tend to occur
spontaneously. Spontaneous process tends to be exothermic. H<0
2. Entropy of the system is the dispersal energy: how much energy is spread out in a
particular process, or how widely spread out it becomes at a specific temperature. The
spreading of the energy among states, and increase of entropy (S>0), often correspond
to a greater physical disorder at the microscopic level (however, entropy is not
disorder).
Solution formation is:
1. Physical process
NaCl(s) + H2O(l) Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
2. Chemical process:
Cu(s) + 4HNO3(aq) Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2H2O(l) + 2NO2(g)
2Al(s) + 2KOH(aq) + 6H2O 2K[Al(OH)4](aq) + 3H2(g)
For dissolving to occur, the magnitudes of
H1 + H2 and of H3 must be roughly
comparable.
An ideal solution exists when all
intermolecular forces are of comparable
strength, Hsoln = 0.
When solutesolvent intermolecular forces
are somewhat stronger than other
intermolecular forces, Hsoln < 0.
When solutesolvent intermolecular forces are
somewhat weaker than other intermolecular
forces, Hsoln > 0.
When solutesolvent intermolecular forces are
much weaker than other intermolecular
forces, the solute does not dissolve in the
solvent. Energy released by solutesolvent
interactions is insufficient to separate solute
particles or solvent particles.

Solubility is the amount of solute required to form a saturated solution. Expressed in

g(solute)/100ml H2O.
Factors affecting solubility:
1. The nature of solvent
2. The nature of solute
3. The temperature
4. The pressure (for the gas solutions)

a
b
Theoretical enthalpy cycle (a) and entropy cycle as TS (b) for the solution process for
NaCl(s)
G = H-TS G = (+4 kJ/mol) (+13 kJ/mol) = -9 kJ/mol
Solution process of NaCl is spontaneous (G<0).

Saturated solution is a solution in which crystallization and dissolution proceed with equal
rates and dynamic equilibrium is established. Crystallization and dissolution are in
equilibrium with undissolved substance.

Unsaturated solution is a solution with concentration of dissolved solute that is less than the
solubility.
Supersaturated solution is a solution which contains more solute than in saturated solution.
(It is very unstable).
Exercise # 1
Is a mixture of 25 g NH4Cl and 55 g H2O at 60 C saturated, unsaturated, or supersaturated?

Exercise # 2
Determine
a) The additional mass of water that should be added to a mixture of 35 g K2CrO4 and 35 g
H2O to dissolve all the solute at 25C;
b) The approximate temperature to which a mixture of 50.0 g KNO3 and 75.0 g water must
be heated to complete the dissolving of the KNO3.

Hydrophobic (water-fearing)
Interaction that repels water diminishes water solubility.
Hydrophilic (water-loving)
Interaction that attracts water, promotes water solubility.
Solubility alcohols in water and hexane (C6H14) at 20C
mole/100g solvent
Alcohol
Methanol, CH3OH
Ethanol, C2H5OH
Propanol, C3H7OH
Butanol, C4H9OH
Pentanol, C5H11OH
Hexanol, C6H13OH
Heptanol, C7H15OH

Solubility in H2O

0.11
0.030
0.0058
0.0008

Solubility in hexane
0.12

Solubility of gases in water at 20C

Gas
Solubility, (M)
Nitrogen, N2
0.6910-3
Carbon monoxide, CO
1.0410-3
Oxygen, O2
1.3810-3
Argon, Ar
1.5010-3
Krypton, Kr
2.7910-3
4

Most gases become less soluble in liquids as the temperature increases.

At a constant temperature, the solubility of a gas is directly proportional to the pressure of
the gas (Pgas) in equilibrium with the solution.
Cgas = k Pgas
The value of k depends on the particular gas and the solvent.
The effect of pressure on the solubility of a gas is known as Henrys law.
Exercise # 53, page 495

Using the kH value of 3.7 102 mol/Latm for O2 dissolved in arterial blood, calculate the
solubility of O2 in the blood of
a) a climber to Mt. Everest (Patm = 0.35 atm)
b) a scuba diver at 100 feet (P 3 atm).

Exercise # 56, page 495

Based on the data in figure 10.55, which has a greater

effect on the solubility of oxygen in water:
a) Decreasing the temperature from 20C to 10C
b) Raising the pressure from 1.00 atm to 1.25 atm?