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Light as a Wave
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Advantages of Fiber
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Advantages of Fiber
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Advantages of Fiber
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Advantages of Fiber
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Snells Law
or,
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(a): refraction
(b): the limiting case of refraction showing the critical ray at an angle
The value of critical angle is given by:
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Acceptance Angle
A meridional ray A :any rays which are incident into the fiber core at an
angle greater than a will be transmitted to the corecladding interface at an
angle less than c, and will not be totally internally reflected.
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Hence, any rays which are incident into the fiber core at
an angle greater than a will be transmitted to the core
cladding interface at an angle less than c, and will not
be totally internally reflected.
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Note:
Skew Rays
Another category of ray known as skew ray, exists which is
transmitted without passing through the fiber axis. These
rays, which greatly outnumber the meridional rays, follow
a helical path through the fiber.
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Electromagnetic waves
The basis for the study of electromagnetic wave propagation is
provided by Maxwells equations.
For a medium with zero conductivity these vector relationships
may be written in terms of the electric field E, magnetic field
H, electric flux density D and magnetic flux density B as
the curl equations:
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and:
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The order of mode is also related to the angle that the ray
congruence makes with the plane of the waveguide. That is,
the steeper the angle, the higher the order of the mode.
To visualize the dominant modes propagating in the z direction
we may consider plane waves corresponding to rays at
different specific angles in the planar guide.
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This wave packet does not travel at the phase velocity of the
individual waves but is observed to move at a group velocity g
given by:
The group velocity is of greatest importance in the study of the
transmission characteristics of optical fibers as it relates to the
propagation characteristics of observable wavegroups or
packets of light.
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where
x1 is propagation constant in the x direction for the guide
x2 is propagation constant in the x direction for cladding
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cos2 + sin2 = 1
Therefore, we can obtain:
where
=z1=z2 is propagation constant in the z direction
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where
rER : is the reflection coefficient for the E field at the interface
rET : is transmission coefficient for the E field at the interface
where
rHR : is the reflection coefficient for the H field at the interface.
rHT : is transmission coefficient for the H field at the interface.
The above equations correspond to Fresnel relationships, but in this
case they apply to radiation polarized parallel to the interface (H
polarization).
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Note:
The phase shift obtained on total internal reflection is
dependent upon both the angle of incidence and the
polarization (either TE or TM) of the radiation
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Evanescent Field
The second phenomenon of interest under conditions of total
internal reflection is the form of the electric field in the cladding of
the guide. Before the critical angle for total internal reflection is
reached, and hence when there is only partial reflection, the field in
the cladding is of the form given by:
However, as indicated previously, when total internal reflection
occurs, x2=-j2. Substituting for x2 in the above equation, gives the
transmitted wave in the cladding as:
GoosHaenchen Shift
The phase change incurred with the total internal reflection of a
light beam on a planar dielectric interface may be understood from
physical observation.
Careful examination shows
that the reflected beam is
shifted laterally from the
trajectory
predicted
by
simple ray theory analysis,
as illustrated in the figure.
This lateral displacement is
known as the Goos
Haenchen shift, after its first
observers.
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Normalized Frequency V
The normalized frequency is a dimensionless parameter is also
sometimes simply called the V number or value of the fiber.
It combines in a very useful manner the information about
three important design variables for the fiber: namely, the core
radius a, the relative refractive index difference and the
operating wavelength .
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Mode Coupling
We have considered the propagation aspects of perfect dielectric
waveguides.
However, waveguide perturbations such as deviations of the fiber axis
from straightness, variations in the core diameter, irregularities at the
corecladding interface and refractive index variations may change the
propagation characteristics of the fiber.
These will have the effect of coupling energy traveling in one mode to
another depending on the specific perturbation.
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where
The graded index profiles which at present produce the best results
for multimode optical propagation have a near parabolic refractive
index profile core with
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Therefore,
Single-mode Fibers
The advantage of the propagation of a single mode within an optical
fiber is that the signal dispersion caused by the delay differences
between different modes in a multimode fiber may be avoided.
For single-mode operation, only the fundamental LP01 mode can exist.
Hence the limit of single-mode operation depends on the lower limit of
guided propagation for the LP11 mode. The cutoff normalized frequency
for the LP11 mode in step index fibers occurs at Vc = 2.405.
Thus single-mode propagation of the LP01 mode in step index fibers is
possible over the range:
Practical values for single-mode step index fiber designed for operation
at a wavelength of 1.3 m are: = 0.3%, giving 2a = 8.5 m.
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Single-mode Fibers
Note
It is apparent that the normalized frequency for the fiber may be
adjusted to within the specified range by reduction of the core
radius, or possibly by reducing the relative refractive index
difference for single-mode fibers, which is usually less than 1%.
Single-mode Fibers
Graded index fibers may also be designed for single-mode
operation and some specialist fiber designs do adopt such non
step index profiles.
The cutoff value of normalized frequency Vc to support a single
mode in a graded index fiber is given by:
Cutoff Wavelength
It may be noted by rearrangement of Eq. (2.70) that single-mode
operation only occurs above a theoretical cutoff wavelength c given
by:
where
Vc is the cutoff normalized frequency
c is the wavelength above which a particular fiber becomes single-moded.
Dividing Eq. (2.98) by Eq. (2.70) for the same fiber we obtain the
inverse relationship:
Thus for step index fiber where Vc = 2.405, the cutoff wavelength is
given by:
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