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ABSTRACT: This study evaluates the treatment efficiency of horizontal subsurface flow (HSSF) constructed wetland for the removal of
AOX (adsorbable organic halides) and chlorophenolics from pulp and
paper mill wastewater. The dimensions of HSSF constructed wetland
were 3.5 m in length, 1.5 m in width, and 0.28 m in depth, with surface
area of 5.25 m2. The HSSF constructed wetland unit was planted with an
ornamental plant species, Canna indica. Under hydraulic retention time
(HRT) of 5.9 days, the average AOX removal was 89.1%, and 67% to
100% removal of chlorophenolics from pulp and paper mill wastewater
was achieved. The complete removal of 2,3-dichlorophenol, 3,4dichlorophenol, 2,3,5-trichlorophenol, 2,4,6-trichlorophenol, 3,5-dichlorocatechol, 3,6-dichlorocatechol, and 4,5,6-trichloroguaiacol was
observed. Some of the chlorophenolics were found to accumulate in the
plant biomass and soil. The evapotranspiration rate varied from 6.7 to
12.7 mm day1 during the experimental period. The mass balance of
chlorophenolics was also studied in constructed wetland system. Water
Environ. Res., 85, 54 (2013).
KEYWORDS: AOX, constructed wetland, Canna indica,
chlorophenolics, paper mill wastewater.
doi:10.2175/106143012X13415215907419
Introduction
Indian pulp and paper mills discharge a large volume of high
pollution load wastewater to the environment, which may cause
deleterious environmental effects upon direct discharge. In the
pulp and paper industry, wood preparation, pulping, pulp
washing, bleaching, and coating operations are the major source
of pollution (Catalkaya and Kargi, 2007). Effluents of paper
industry contain suspended solids (1050 kg/ton of air dried
pulp [ADP]), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) (1040 kg/ton
of ADP), chemical oxygen demand (COD) (20200 kg/ton of
ADP), adsorbable organic halides (AOX) (04 kg/ton of ADP),
toxicity, color, and high concentration of nutrients that cause
eutrophication in receiving water (Catalkaya and Kargi, 2008;
Pokhrel and Viraraghavan, 2004). Pulping, bleaching (chlorination and extraction stage), and chemical recovery sections are
the major sources of color, mainly because of lignin and
derivatives of lignin. Effluent originating from the first extraction
stage is highly colored and typically accounts for 80% of the
*1
2
Department of Paper Technology, Indian Institute of Technology
Roorkee, Saharanpur, India.
3
Department of Paper Technology, Indian Institute of Technology
Roorkee, Saharanpur, India.
54
color, 30% of BOD, and 60% of COD of the mills total pollution
load. This high load of color is not only aesthetically
unacceptable but also inhibits the natural process of photosynthesis in the wastewater receiving streams because of absorbance
of sunlight. This leads to the adverse effects on the aquatic biota
(Bajpai and Bajpai, 1994).
Among the various sections, bleaching section wastewater
accounts for the largest fraction of toxicity (Catalkaya and Kargi,
2008). Chlorobleaching (using chlorine, ClO2, or other chlorine
compounds such as calcium or sodium hypochlorite) of wood
pulp causes formation of chlorinated organic compounds
(Sharma et al., 1997). More than 500 different chlorinated
organic compounds have been identified including chlorate,
chloroform, chlorophenolics (chlorophenols, chlorocatechols,
chloroguaiacols, chlorosyringols, chlorosyringaldehydes, and
chlorovanillins), chlorinated resin and fatty acids, chlorinated
hydrocarbons, and dioxins and furans (Freire et al., 2003). In
wastewater, these compounds are estimated collectively as AOX.
Chlorophenolics are formed primarily as a result of chlorination
of the lignin remaining in the pulp after pulping (Savant et al.,
2005). The nature and concentration of chlorophenolics formed
depends on the nature of the residual lignin and pulp bleaching
conditions (Voss et al., 1980). These are hydrophobic in nature
and have been shown to bioaccumulate in aquatic organisms.
Toxicity of chlorophenolics depends on the position of chlorine
atoms relative to the hydroxyl group on benzene ring. Many
authors reported the presence of toxic pollutants in fish and
their toxic effect on fish such as mutagenicity, respiratory stress,
liver damage, genotoxicity, and death when exposed to pulp and
paper mill wastewater (Erisction and Larsson, 2000). The
conventional treatment for Indian pulp and paper mills include
primary and secondary (aerobic/anaerobic biological systems)
treatment. Some of the pollutants in pulp and paper industry
wastewater are recalcitrant, thus, conventional biological treatment processes are not efficient for their remediation. It has
been observed that the secondary treated wastewater still
contains high organic load, color, and chlorinated organic
compounds that impart toxicity to the wastewater. To meet
discharge limits and to protect wastewater-receiving bodies,
pulp and paper mills are forced to adopt advanced treatment
systems.
Constructed wetlands are simple and low-cost wastewater
treatment systems that use natural processes using shallow
(usually less than 1 m deep) beds, plants, substrate (soil, sand,
and gravels), and a variety of microorganisms to improve
wastewater quality. Constructed wetlands are capable of
reducing contaminants including inorganic and organic matter,
toxic compounds, metals, and pathogens from different
Water Environment Research, Volume 85, Number 1
Choudhary et al.
The HSSF constructed wetland unit was loaded with water for
five weeks prior to the application of the wastewater to support
growth of the plant species. Wastewater (after primary
treatment) from the pulp and paper industry was loaded
subsequently to the unit for 9 months (April 2010 to December
2010). For the initial first month, HSSF constructed wetland unit
was left to acclimatize and stabilize before data collection to
allow the development of root zone microbial population. From
May 2010 to October 2010, the experimental data was collected
to obtain the optimum HRT for the treatment of pulp and paper
mill wastewater (Choudhary et al., 2011b, 2011c). From
November 2010 to December 2010, treatment of wastewater
was conducted under optimum HRT (5.9 days). The hydraulic
retention time (HRT) was calculated by eq 1 (U.S. Environmental Protection Association, 1993):
HRT
nLWd
Q
1
Choudhary et al.
Table 1Gas chromatography and mass spectrometer conditions for the analysis of chlorophenolics.
Gas Chromatography
Parameters
Detector
Carrier gas (flow rate)
Sample injected (lL)
Injection mode
Column dimensions
Film thickness
Injector temperature (8C)
Column temperatures (8C)
Mass Spectrometer
Conditions
Mass spectrometer
Helium (1 mL min1)
1
Split less
30 m 3 0.25 mm
0.25 lm
210
45 for 1 min
45 to 280 at 68C min1
280 for 25 min
Parameters
Ionisation mode
Ionising energy (eV)
Scan range (m/z)
Scan speed (amu/sec)
Fore pressure (mTorr)
Conditions
Electron impact
70
42 to 336
216.7
38 to 45
Name of
compound
Retention
time (min)
Base peak
(m/z)
3-Chlorophenol
4-Chlorophenol
2,6-Dichlorophenol
2,5-Dichlorophenol
2,4-Dichlorophenol
2,3-Dichlorophenol
3,4-Dichlorophenol
4-Chloroguaiacol
2,4,5-Trichlorophenol
2,3,6-Trichlorophenol
2,3,5-Trichlorophenol
2,4,6-Trichlorophenol
4,5-Dichloroguaiacol
2,3,4-Trichlorophenol
4,6-Dichloroguaiacol
3,6-Dichlorocatechol
3,5-Dichlorocatechol
3,4,6-Trichloroguaiacol
3,4,5-Trichloroguaiacol
4,5,6-Trichloroguaiacol
5,6-Dichlorovanillin
Pentachlorophenol
Tetrachloroguaiacol
Trichlorosyringol
Tetrachlorocatechol
2,6-Dichlorosyringaldehyde
14.20
14.36
16.52
16.96
16.98
17.69
18.27
18.70
19.07
20.01
20.17
20.31
21.19
21.23
22.27
22.50
22.77
23.16
24.40
25.07
25.85
26.22
26.66
26.96
28.31
28.59
127.9
127.9
161.9
161.9
161.8
161.8
161.9
157.9
195.8
195.8
195.9
195.8
191.9
195.8
191.9
177.9
177.9
225.9
225.8
225.9
219.9
265.7
261.8
255.8
247.8
249.9
Choudhary et al.
Inleta6SD
7.7
1011
2553
248
16.5
40.00
516
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
0.17
82
238
15
3.50
5.98
54
Outleta6SD
7.5 6
122.7 6
100.7 6
17.0 6
1.8 6
4.02 6
0.1
24
25
2
0.23
0.29
n 4.
Choudhary et al.
Table 4Average values of the chlorophenolics at the inlet and outlet of the horizontal subsurface flow constructed wetland for the
hydraulic retention time of 5.9 days.
Concentration (lg L1)
Serial number
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
a
Inleta 6 SD
Name of compound
3-Chlorophenol
4-Chlorophenol
2,6-Dichlorophenol
2,5-Dichlorophenol
2,4-Dichlorophenol
2,3-Dichlorophenol
3,4-Dichlorophenol
4-Chloroguaiacol
2,4,5-Trichlorophenol
2,3,6-Trichlorophenol
2,3,5-Trichlorophenol
2,4,6-Trichlorophenol
4,5-Dichloroguaiacol
2,3,4-Trichlorophenol
4,6-Dichloroguaiacol
3,6-Dichlorocatechol
3,5-Dichlorocatechol
3,4,6-Trichloroguaiacol
3,4,5-Trichloroguaiacol
4,5,6-Trichloroguaiacol
5,6-Dichlorovanillin
Pentachlorophenol
Tetrachloroguaiacol
Trichlorosyringol
Tetrachlorocatechol
2,6-Dichlorosyringaldehyde
3.90
1.60
2.79
0.75
3.17
0.02
0.15
0.79
11.28
0.06
0.43
5.01
2.58
0.26
0.21
0.33
0.08
0.27
0.04
0.01
1.61
1.10
0.22
0.27
0.93
2.14
Name of compound
2,5-Dichlorophenol
2,6- Dichlorophenol
2,4,5-Trichlorophenol
2,3,5-Trichlorophenol
Pentachlorophenol
3,5-Dichlorocatechol
Tetrachlorocatechol
4,5,6-Trichloroguaiacol
4,5-Dichloroguaiacol
Tetrachloroguaiacol
Ci* (lg/L)
10.90
13.15
9.85
10.62
9.96
10.20
8.49
11.65
10.14
10.08
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
1.87
0.77
1.10
0.36
0.90
0.01
0.04
0.24
4.29
0.03
0.19
1.23
0.86
0.17
0.13
0.17
0.02
0.07
0.01
0.006
0.66
0.44
0.04
0.05
0.17
0.85
0.31
0.12
0.29
0.09
0.18
0.09
1.82
0.02
0.20
0.11
0.06
0.02
0.04
0.01
0.10
0.12
0.05
0.02
0.15
0.12
6 0.09
6 0.03
6 0.05
6 0.02
6 0.07
ND
ND
6 0.03
6 0.21
6 0.01
ND
6 0.02
6 0.009
6 0.01
6 0.003
ND
ND
6 0.008
6 0.007
ND
6 0.01
6 0.02
6 0.005
6 0.007
6 0.01
6 0.01
Removal (%)
92.1
92.5
89.6
88.0
94.3
ND
ND
88.6
83.9
66.7
ND
96.0
95.7
76.9
90.5
ND
ND
85.2
75.0
ND
93.8
89.1
77.3
92.6
83.9
94.4
n 4; ND not detected.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
Outleta 6 SD
0.32
0.79
0.58
0.87
0.70
1.19
0.34
0.86
0.66
1.22
Removal (%)
38.4
36.5
52.9
55.7
77.9
37.2
68.4
44.9
38.9
70.9
Choudhary et al.
Removal (%)
Serial
number
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Name of compound
2,5-Dichlorophenol
2,6- Dichlorophenol
2,4,5-Trichlorophenol
2,3,5-Trichlorophenol
Pentachlorophenol
3,5-Dichlorocatechol
Tetrachlorocatechol
4,5,6-Trichloroguaiacol
4,5-Dichloroguaiacol
Tetrachloroguaiacol
Ci* (lg/L)
10.90
13.15
9.85
10.62
9.96
10.20
8.49
11.65
10.14
10.08
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
After 48 h
After 96 h
22.1
23.0
24.3
25.0
27.3
21.8
28.2
25.9
19.9
22.8
43.3
41.4
36.2
34.5
34.6
43.3
33.6
35.3
34.7
30.6
0.32
0.79
0.58
0.87
0.70
1.19
0.34
0.86
0.66
1.22
*initial concentration.
Table 7Typical values of water solubility and log KOW for different categories of chlorophenolics.
Parameter*
Water solubility 258C (mg/L)
Log KOW
MCP
DCP
TCP
TeCP*
PCP
3 222 to 7 391
2.15 to 2.16
1 829 to 4 500
2.63 to 2.80
438 to 1200
3.27 to 3.72
103 to 1192
3.61 to 4.59
14
5.12
*Calculated by EPI suite (U.S. EPA); MCP Monochlorophenolics; DCP Dichlorophenolics; TCP Trichlorophenolics; TeCP Tetrachlorophenolics; and
PCP Pentachlorophenolics
January 2013
59
Choudhary et al.
Name of
compound
3-Chlorophenol
4-Chlorophenol
2,5-Dichlorophenol
2,4-Dichlorophenol
2,3-Dichlorophenol
3,4-Dichlorophenol
4-Chloroguaiacol
2,4,5-Trichlorophenol
2,3,5-Trichlorophenol
2,4,6-Trichlorophenol
4,6-Dichloroguaiacol
3,6-Dichlorocatechol
3,5-Dichlorocatechol
3,4,5-Trichloroguaiacol
5,6-Dichlorovanillin
Pentachlorophenol
Trichlorosyringol
2,6-Dichlorosyringaldehyde
Plant 6 SD
34.71 6
25.29 6
19.14 6
0.14 6
13.71 6
12.86 6
154.00 6
7.57 6
30.86 6
11.86 6
8.57 6
4.00 6
623.00 6
222.00 6
2.93
2.72
1.15
0.02
1.15
1.53
6.90
1.27
2.45
1.23
1.41
0.34
14.62
10.07
Soil 6 SD
0.50 6
2.50 6
0.50 6
20.60 6
5.40 6
2.10 6
11.20 6
9.20 6
2.22 6
11.60 6
23.50 6
45.20 6
0.04
0.11
0.03
1.32
0.30
0.23
1.03
0.93
0.12
0.54
1.64
3.08
Choudhary et al.
References
Choudhary et al.
62