Instruction Manual

and Experiment Guide

ELECTRICITY SYSTEM 1

4866.10

N.B.:

Pictures, images and descriptions in this manual may not exactly correspond with
the actual items supplied.
It is also important to note that the experiments in this manual are only suggestions.
They are not meant to indicate the limitation of the equipment which can be used in
a wide range of experiments, depending on the educational requirements of the
teacher.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION:
The Electricity kit 1 is dedicated to illustrate the electric components and fundamental circuits laws. It allows
rapid and clear assembly of circuits. All the components of the kit are stored in a foam cushioned plastic
storage case.
The kit consists of:

Board in shock resistant plastic, dim. 46 x 26 cm, with groups of 4 sockets arranged to form a
square, 40 mm pitch.

Set of components mounted in plug-in housing and linked electrically with two or four plugs for 4 mm
sockets.
Dimensions:
2 plug-in housing: 62 x 22 x 24h mm

Dimensions of 4 plug-in housing: 62 x 62 x 24h mm

Plug spacing: 40 mm.

The international graphic symbol of each component, its rated value, the wiring arrangement and the
connection points are printed on the upper side of the plug-in elements

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS:

Tension measurement: the voltmeter

Kirchhoffs laws

Electric current measurement: the ammeter

The electrical resistance
First and Second Ohms Law
Resistances in series and in parallel
Potentiometer
The capacitor
Charge and discharge of a capacitor
Capacitors in series and in parallel
Electric cells
Electric bulbs
RC circuits
RL circuits
RLC circuits
The magnetic compass
The electromagnet

ASSEMBLY INSTRUCTIONS:

Some examples of components assembly on the board

Index of related topics:

B
Battery................................................................................................................................................35
C
Capacitor.....................................................................................................................40, 41, 42, 44, 46
E
Electric circuit........................................................................7, 8, 9, 35, 37, 39, 40, 41, 42, 44, 46, 48
I
Inductance.....................................................................................................................................63, 65
Inductor...............................................................................................................................................48
L
Lamp bulb.............................................................................................................................................8
LCR circuit in series...........................................................................................................................54
LR circuit............................................................................................................................................48
M
Magnetic hysteresis............................................................................................................................65
Mutual-induction................................................................................................................................63
P
Parallel resistance...............................................................................................................................24
Phototransistor....................................................................................................................................37
Push-button switch...............................................................................................................................9
R
RC circuit................................................................................................................................42, 44, 46
Relative magnetic permeability..........................................................................................................65
Resistance.........................................................................................................................42, 44, 46, 48
Resonance...........................................................................................................................................54
S
Self-induction coefficient...................................................................................................................63
Series resistance..................................................................................................................................23
Switch.........................................................................................................................................8, 9, 39
V
Voltammetric method...................................................................................................................21, 22
W
Wheatstone bridge..............................................................................................................................50
Ammeter usage..................................................................................................................................16
High-pass filter .................................................................................................................................51
Inductance .........................................................................................................................................61
Kirchhoffs current law ........................................................................................................27, 31, 33
Kirchhoffs voltage law ..............................................................................................................29, 33
Low-pass filter ..................................................................................................................................53
Magnet ..............................................................................................................................................58
Magnetic compass ................................................................................................................58, 60, 61
Magnetic energy and mechanical forces ..........................................................................................65
Magnetic field .......................................................................................................................58, 60, 61
Ohms law..........................................................................................................................................25
Potentiometer usage.....................................................................................................................18, 19
RC circuit ....................................................................................................................................51, 53
Voltmeter usage.....................................................................................................................10, 12, 14

Experiment 1
RELATED TOPICS:

Electric circuit

The purpose of the experiment is to illustrate a simple electric circuit in DC current

ITEMS NEEDED:

cell holder with batteries

lamp bulb
lamp holder
bridging plugs

THEORY:
An electric circuit in DC current is a set of connections with a flow of electric charges without time
discontinuity.
The electric circuit is very simple and is constituted by a generator of electromotive force (battery) and a load
(lamp).
The goal of the experience is to show that the lamp is turned on when the circuit is closed, whilst it is turned
off when the circuit is broken (for example by removing a bridging plug). Moreover, in the case of turning on
the same light intensity must be observed.

Experiment 2
RELATED TOPICS:

Electric circuit
Switch
Lamp bulb

The purpose of the experiment is to illustrate a simple electric circuit in DC current with a toggle switch.
ITEMS NEEDED:

cell holder with batteries

lamp bulb
lamp holder
bridging plugs
toggle switch

THEORY:
By referring to the electric circuit of the previous experiment it is possible to show how a toggle switch can
break the circuit in an easy way.
As a matter of fact it is possible to turn on/off the lamp. Therefore the circuit has been transformed in a
system controlled by whoever is acting on a single point (the toggle switch).

Experiment 3
RELATED TOPICS:

Electric circuit
Push-button switch
Lamp bulb

The purpose of the experiment is to illustrate a simple electric circuit in DC current with a push-button switch.
ITEMS NEEDED:

cell holder with batteries

lamp bulb
lamp holder
bridging plugs
push-button switch

THEORY:
By referring to the electric circuit of the previous experiment it is possible to show how a push-button switch
can break the circuit in a mechanical way.
As a matter of fact it is possible to turn on/off the lamp. Also in this case, as in the preceding experiment, is
possible to control the turning on/off by simply acting on the push-button switch. However the circuit turns on
(i.e. the light is on) just during the time interval the button is pushed in.

Experiment 4
RELATED TOPICS:

Voltmeter usage

The purpose of the experiment is to illustrate the voltmeter usage.

ITEMS NEEDED:

cell holder with batteries

two resistors 100
bridging plugs
voltmeter

THEORY:
A multimeter is an electrical instrument capable of measuring voltage, current, and resistance. There are
two kinds of multimeter: digital and analogue multimeters. Digital multimeters have numerical displays, for
indicating the physical quantity we want to detect (voltage, current, or resistance). Analogue multimeters
indicate these quantities by means of a moving pointer over a graduated scale.
In this experiment, we will familiarize with the measurement of voltage. In this case we use the multimeter as
a voltmeter. Therefore, the voltmeter is an instrument for the measure of potential differences between two
points.
The points can be located anywhere in the circuit but normally are placed at the terminals of an active
component (battery, diode, transistor, etc.) or passive component (resistor, capacitor, inductance).
Due to this fact the voltmeter must be connected always in parallel to the component and never in series.
If we should use the voltmeter in series we would obtain a null tension since the points were in contact
before the insertion of the voltmeter. In order to illustrate how the voltmeter works lets try to realize a circuit
with two resistors and one battery.

NOTE:

10

Since every analogical voltmeter has an inner resistance that is in parallel to the passive component (in our
case the resistor R1) the circuit is obviously modified by the presence of this resistance.
If we want that this circuit modification is negligible, the voltmeters inner resistance must be very high.

11

Experiment 5
RELATED TOPICS:

Voltmeter usage

The purpose of the experiment is to illustrate the voltmeter usage.

ITEMS NEEDED:

cell holder with batteries

two resistors 100
bridging plugs
voltmeter

THEORY:
In this previous experiment we used two resistors of the same value (e.g. R1=R2=100 ). The resulting circuit
is also known as voltage divider. The two-resistor voltage divider is often used to supply a voltage intensity
that we want to be different from that of an available battery or power supply. In this case the output voltage,
i.e. the voltage at the end of R2, can be calculated as
Vout Vin

R2
R1 R2

where Vin is the voltage at the end of the voltage generator.

In our case, the numerical values are
R1=100
R2=100
Vin=(1.5+1.5) V=3 V
Hence
Vout=1.5 V

12

that is the voltage is equally divided into the two resistors. The reader can try to insert a different resistance
value: a new value, in agreement with the previous equation, will be shown by the voltmeter.

13

Experiment 6
RELATED TOPICS:

Voltmeter usage

The purpose of the experiment is to illustrate the voltmeter usage.

ITEMS NEEDED:

cell holder with batteries

two resistors 100 and one resistor 220
bridging plugs
voltmeter

THEORY:
In more realistic applications the output voltage depends upon the resistance of the load it drives. If we
consider a load as a resistor, say RL, we can obtain the output voltage at its end as
Vout Vin

R2 / /RL
R1 R2 / /RL

where Vin is the voltage at the ends of the voltage generator, while
1
R2 / /RL
1
1 .

RL R2
In our case, the numerical values are
R1=100
R2=100
RL=220
Vin=(1.5+1.5) V=3 V
Hence
14

Vout=1.222 V.
In the design approach, one could be interested in obtaining a constant output voltage onto the load. The
designer should calculate, on the basis of previous formulas, the desired values of resistors R1 and R2 in
order to fulfil the specifications. Try to choose a fixed output voltage and vary the values of the resistors so
as to obtain it.

15

Experiment 7
RELATED TOPICS:

Ammeter usage

The purpose of the experiment is to illustrate the ammeter usage.

ITEMS NEEDED:

cell holder with batteries

two resistors 100
bridging plugs
ammeter

THEORY:
The ammeter measures the electrical current that flows in a circuit. Unlike the voltmeter, the ammeter must be placed
between points that were connected, this means that there was no difference of potential between them. The ammeter
is thus connected in series because the ammeter breaks the circuit and it is placed in sequence with respect to the
other components of the circuit.
As an example we can create a circuit constituted by a battery and two resistances, the ammeter should be placed
among the two resistances.

NOTE:
Every analogue ammeter has an internal resistance that, because of the connection in series that breaks the circuit
(in our example it is the connection between the two resistances R1 and R2), adds itself up into the other components
of the circuit, always connected in series. This means that the internal resistance can modify the behaviour of the
other components. Therefore to make sure the internal resistance of the ammeter does not affect the circuit, the
internal resistance must be very low.
16

17

Experiment 8
RELATED TOPICS:

Potentiometer usage

The purpose of the experiment is to illustrate how a variable resistor can be used by an external user for
varying the voltage across two points. In this case we show how the voltage across a lamp can be varied.
ITEMS NEEDED:

cell holder with batteries

potentiometer 100 , 5 W
lamp holder
lamp bulb
bridging plugs
voltmeter

THEORY:
A potentiometer is an electrical instrument used as a three-terminal variable resistor: one is free to move
across the resistor itself, the other two points being its ends. A potentiometer can be used as a continuously
variable voltage divider with a shaft or slide control for setting the division ratio.
In our experiment, a lamp is directly connected to the variable end of the potentiometer. By moving its knob,
we correspondingly move the voltage across the lamp, from 0 V to the maximum voltage provided by the
voltage generator. The voltage variation across the resistor can be observed both with a different lamp
luminosity and with a different voltage value on the voltmeter.

18

Experiment 9
RELATED TOPICS:

Potentiometer usage

The purpose of the experiment is to illustrate how a variable resistor can be used by an external user for
varying the voltage across two points. In this case we show how the current flowing along a lamp can be
varied.
ITEMS NEEDED:

cell holder with batteries

potentiometer 100 , 5 W
lamp holder
lamp bulb
connecting leads
bridging plugs
ammeter

THEORY:
Potentiometers find their most interesting application as voltage dividers, where shaft position determines a
specific voltage division ratio, as in the previous experiment has been shown. However, there are
applications where we don't necessarily need a variable voltage divider, but merely a variable resistor: in this
case the three-terminal devise becomes a two-terminal one. Technically, a variable resistor is known as a
rheostat, but potentiometers can be made to function as rheostats quite easily. In fact, by simply using the
wiper terminal and one of the other terminals, the third terminal can be left unconnected and unused: the
19

potentiometer then acts as a rheostat.

In our experiment, a lamp is directly connected to the variable end of the potentiometer. However, this
terminal is now unconnected at the other end: therefore, a current will flow across the resistor only between
the terminal toward the generator and that variable. No current will flow in the third terminal. By varying its
knob we can insert an equivalent variable resistance in series with the lamp. As a consequence the current
flowing along the lamp will vary, thus being detectable both by looking at the luminosity of the lamp and by
measuring the current on the ammeter.

20

Experiment 10
RELATED TOPICS:

Voltammetric method

The purpose of the experiment is to illustrate a method to measure the value of an unknown resistance.
ITEMS NEEDED:

cell holder with batteries (or dc power supply)

one resistor
bridging plugs
potentiometer
voltmeter
ammeter

THEORY:
The goal of this experiment is to realize a circuit by using two basic instruments as the voltmeter and the
ammeter for the determination of an unknown resistance value.
By using a DC power supply with a variable tension 0 M Volt (where M is the maximum voltage provided
from the generator) and by reading the potential difference (V) at the resistance terminals and the current (I)
that flows into, it is possible to generate a two-column table. In a third column the ratio between V and I is
computable and will provide the value in Ohm of the unknown resistance R. By using a graph (V-I), the slope
of the resulting diagram will provide the same value. The reader could cover the resistor unit with a black
tape and try to calculate its resistance value by means of the described method.
It should be noted that the DC power supply can be replaced with a proper circuit using a potentiometer, as
we have seen in previous experiments. For the sake of simplicity, we have used just this second choice.

21

Experiment 11
RELATED TOPICS:

Voltammetric method

The purpose of the experiment is to illustrate another method to measure the value of a resistance.
ITEMS NEEDED:

cell holder with batteries (or dc power supply)

one resistor
bridging plugs
potentiometer
voltmeter
ammeter

THEORY:
As in the previous experiment, the goal is to measure an unknown resistance. This time we place the
voltmeter before the ammeter, this being a very usual situation in the practice. It should be observed that a
particular attention to the inner resistance of the ammeter must be paid. The reader should add this value to
that of the unknown resistance.

22

Experiment 12
RELATED TOPICS:

Series resistance

The purpose of the experiment is to illustrate a series resistance circuit.

ITEMS NEEDED:

cell holder with batteries (or dc power supply)

two resistors
bridging plugs
potentiometer
toggle switch
voltmeter
ammeter

THEORY:
Two resistances R1 and R2 are defined as in series if they have one terminal in common and if they are
crossed by the same current (same intensity and sense). When the resistances are in series the value of
total resistance R is equal to the sum of the values of all the resistances, i.e. R= R1+R2.
To verify this relation, the reader can design the circuit illustrated above and then proceed to measure the
total resistance R with the voltammetric method where the voltmeter is placed at the terminals of the two in
series resistances.

23

Experiment 13
RELATED TOPICS:

Parallel resistance

The purpose of the experiment is to illustrate a parallel resistance circuit.

ITEMS NEEDED:

cell holder with batteries (or dc power supply)

two resistors
bridging plugs
potentiometer
toggle switch
voltmeter
ammeter

THEORY:
Two resistances R1 and R2 are defined as being in parallel if they have both terminals connected between
the same two sets of electrically common points. This means that they have the same tension drop.
If G= 1/R is the conductance of a resistor R obtained when the resistances are in parallel, the total
conductance is equal to the sum of all the conductance values, that is G= G1+G2 or 1/R = 1/R1+1/R2.
In order to verify this, the reader can design the circuit illustrated below and then proceed to measure the
total value of the resistance by means of the voltammetric method whit the voltmeter at the end of the circuit.
If for instance R1= R2= 100 , the reader can verify that R= R1/2= R2/2=50 .

24

Experiment 14
RELATED TOPICS:

Ohms law

The purpose of the experiment is to illustrate a fundamental physical law: the Ohms law
ITEMS NEEDED:

cell holder with batteries

potentiometer 100 , 5 W
toggle switch
bridging plug
ammeter
voltmeter
resistance 100 , 2 W and 220 , 2 W

THEORY:
The Ohms law is the fundamental law of electricity. It is the historically first relationship between current,
voltage and resistance and was discovered by Georg Simon Ohm and published in 1827 (The Galvanic
Circuit Investigated Mathematically). Its principal discovery was that the amount of electrical current flowing
through a metal conductor of a circuit is directly proportional to the voltage impressed across it, for any given
temperature. He derived this relationship in a simple mathematical form interrelating all three electrical
amounts (current I, voltage V and resistance R):
V RI

From another point of view, this law also indicate how each electrical component shows some degree of
friction to the passage of free electron through it. This sort of opposition to the free motion is just what we
define as resistance. The Ohms law shows how the amount of current in a circuit depends on the amount of
voltage available to push electrons through the component, and therefore the amount of resistance in the
circuit to oppose this electron flow. This law can be verified by means of the circuit above. The reader can
25

calculate the value of the resistance by applying a voltage value and measuring the corresponding current
value (for instance the values can be reported in a proper two-column table). We also suggest to change the
value of the resistance in order to verify whether the law still holds.

26

Experiment 15
RELATED TOPICS:

Kirchhoffs current law

27

The purpose of the experiment is to show the application of the first Kirchhoffs law.
ITEMS NEEDED:

cell holder with batteries (or dc power supply)

three resistors
bridging plugs
potentiometer
toggle switch
connecting leads
ammeter

THEORY:
The first Kirchhoffs law or Kirchhoffs current law establishes that in every node of a circuit in which two or
more branches are connected, the sum of the input current flows is equal to the sum of the output current
flows. In other words, the algebraic sum of all currents entering and exiting a node must equal zero.
In the circuits above illustrated you can see that the node is located where the three branches of the circuit
meet and precisely where the current (say i1) from resistance R1 is then split into two currents (say i2 and i3)
into resistance R2 and resistance R3, respectively.
If you then observe the value of current read by three ammeters, you will see that whatever the value of input
tension, the value of current i1 read by the ammeter and connected in series will always be equal to the sum
of the current flows i2 and i3 read by the other two ammeters connected in series to the resistances R2 and
R3, respectively.
In practice you can use just one ammeter at a time: to do this, place the ammeter in the i1 (or R1) branch and
use two bridging plugs (or connecting leads, when necessary) in the other two branches, then write down the
current value you have read. Repeat the procedure for the i2 (or R2) branch and i3 (or R3) branch,
respectively, by moving the ammeter and replacing it with a bridging plug (or connecting leads, when
necessary). At the end of the experiment you should have three different current values. Finally, try to verify if
the Kirchhoffs law holds.

28

Experiment 16
RELATED TOPICS:

Kirchhoffs voltage law

The purpose of the experiment is to show the application of the second Kirchhoffs law.

29

ITEMS NEEDED:

cell holder with batteries (or dc power supply)

three resistors
bridging plugs
potentiometer
toggle switch
voltmeter

THEORY:
The second Kirchhoffs law or Kirchhoffs voltage law establishes that in every loop of a circuit the sum of the
tension drops on each component must equal zero. In other words, the algebraic sum of all voltages in a
loop must equal zero.
Make sure that you consider whether the sign of the tension drop is positive or negative, a positive tension
drop meaning that tension changes from a higher value to a lower value, a negative tension drop being the
contrary. In the picture above you can see that both in the electrical diagram and in the assembly chart two
loops are highlighted, one in yellow (loop 1) and one in green (loop 2).
If we use a voltmeter we can observe that since the resistances R2 and R3 are in parallel, their tension drops
V2 and V3 will be the same, therefore it will be easy to verify Kirchhoffs second law; therefore V0= V1 + V2 =
V1 + V3 where V0 stands for the supply tension.

30

Experiment 17
RELATED TOPICS:

Kirchhoffs current law

The purpose of the experiment is to show the application of the first Kirchhoffs law in a more complex circuit,
where several nodes are present.
31

ITEMS NEEDED:

cell holder with batteries (or dc power supply)

seven resistors
bridging plugs
potentiometer
toggle switch
connecting leads
ammeter

THEORY:
In this experiment we would like to verify the first Kirchhoffs law or Kirchhoffs current law for a circuit that
presents several nodes. In this case, for the sake of simplicity, let us consider the circuit above (first picture)
with two nodes, indicated with N1 and N2. We want to verify that the total current (say i1) entering the node
N1 is equal to the sum of the current through the resistances R2, R3 and R4 (say i234) and the current through
R5 (say i5), that is:
i1 i234 i5

Secondly, we want to verify that the current entering the node N2 (say i5) is equal to the sum of the currents
through the resistances R6 and R7, that is:
i5 i6 i7

For directly measuring the currents flowing through the different branches, we can simply remove the
corresponding bridging plug and insert the connecting leads connected to the ammeter, as shown in the
second picture. This procedure holds for all bridging plugs. Be careful with the correct polarity! Once you
have read the values on the ammeter, you can compare them with those calculated by means of the
theoretical equations.
It should be noted that for a better comprehension of this experiment, a power supply instead of the cell
holder with batteries is strongly suggested.

32

Experiment 18
RELATED TOPICS:

Kirchhoffs current law

Kirchhoffs voltage law

The purpose of the experiment is to show the application of the both Kirchhoffs laws in a more complex
circuit, where several nodes and loops are present.
ITEMS NEEDED:

cell holders with batteries (or dc power supply)

four resistors
bridging plugs
toggle switch
connecting leads
ammeter
voltmeter

THEORY:
In this experiment we would like to verify both the first and second Kirchhoffs laws. In this circuit the
application of the voltage and the current laws will be illustrated for a more realistic circuit involving loops and
nodes. It should be noted that the circuit uses two cell holders (you can take the second holder from another
kit, if available) or one cell holder and an external power supply.
We can individuate three different loops (say ABEF, ACDF and BCDE) and one node (B), as shown in the
picture.
In order to apply both Kirchhoffs laws we must solve the following equation system:

33

i12 (R1 R2 ) i4 R4 E1 0(loopACDF)

i4 R4 E2 i3 R3 0(loopBCDE)
i12 i4 i3 (nodeB)
i.e we can obtain the single currents flowing through the corresponding resistances (be reminded that ij is the
current flowing into the resistance Rj). The first two equations are the Kirchhoffs voltage law, while the third
equation is the Kirchhoffs current law. It should be noted that we can not use the third loop equation (loop
ABEF) because it is a linear combination of the other two equations. This is why we use the node equation.
Moreover, we can measure the current flowing in each node by simply replacing each bridging plug with an
ammeter, whilst we can detect the voltage across a resistance by placing a voltmeter at its terminals.

34

Experiment 19
RELATED TOPICS:

Electric circuit
Battery

The purpose of the experiment is to illustrate the difference between batteries connected in series and in
parallel
ITEMS NEEDED:

cell holder with batteries

lamp bulb
lamp holder
bridging plugs

THEORY:
There is a fundamental difference when you connect batteries in series or in parallel. Let us firstly consider a
single 1.5 volt battery connected in parallel to a 1.5 volt lamp. As you can easily verify, the lamp will normal
bright. If we connect the batteries in parallel they will both give 1.5 volts. The lamp will still normally bright
but the batteries will last twice as long as the previous case. If we finally connect the batteries in series they
will give 3 volts. The lamp will be very bright but will blow very quickly!
It should be noted that some batteries are rechargeable that is an inverse current can flow through them
without exploding the battery, as could happen for a not rechargeable one. Other than its voltage a battery
is characterized by its total charge that we can express in Amp-hour (Ah). Since 1 amp is actually a flow rate
of 1 coulomb of electrons per second, in an hour we have 3600 seconds, then 1 amp-hour=3600 seconds. In
other words it is a measure of the current the battery can provide for an hour. More exactly, a battery with a
35

capacity of 1 amp-hour should be able to continuously supply a current of 1 amp to a load for 1 hour, or 2
amps for 1/2 hour, or 1/3 amp for 3 hours, and so on, before becoming completely discharged.
If we are dealing with a rechargeable battery we must care to use a maximum inverse current equal to 1/10
of its Ah-value.
In a parallel configuration, two not rechargeable batteries present in practice different electrical properties,
and the overall behaviour will depend on the worst one. If both batteries are rechargeable we can increase
the overall Ah-value. As a consequence if one of them will exhaust before the other, it can be recharged by
the other one.

36

Experiment 20
RELATED TOPICS:

Electric circuit
Phototransistor

The purpose of the experiment is to illustrate the different brightness of a lamp due to different battery
configurations
ITEMS NEEDED:

cell holder with batteries

lamp bulb
lamp holder
bridging plugs
phototransistor
multimeter

THEORY:
In order to illustrate in a quantitative way the different brightness of a lamp due to different battery
configurations as shown in the previous experiment, we can make use of a phototransistor and a multimeter.
By referring to the same circuit as above we can place a phototransistor connected to a multimeter in
measuring resistance modality. This can be done by connecting the black test lead to the COM jack and
the red one to the V//f jack, the polarity of red being +. Then it suffices to set the rotary switch at the
desired position and connect test leads across the phototransistor. A phototransistor amplifies the current
37

generated by the light striking the active area (compared to photodiodes, a large output current can be
obtained, even from a small active area). The reader can therefore quantitatively verify the different
resistance due to the different lamp brightness (batteries in series versus batteries in parallel).

38

Experiment 21
RELATED TOPICS:

Electric circuit
Switch

The purpose of the experiment is to illustrate the use of a switch for activating a part of a circuit and
excluding another one
ITEMS NEEDED:

cell holder with batteries

lamp bulb
lamp holder
bridging plugs
potentiometer
toggle switch

THEORY:
The circuit above illustrated shows how to use a switch. A switch can be used to simply open/close a circuit,
as shown in a previous experiment. But can be used in a more smart way to deviate the current in a different
branch at a time. This can be verified by using a lamp: when the switch is ON the current flows through the
upper branch and the lamp will bright at its maximum; when it is OFF, the current flows through the lower
branch and the lamp will be less shining. In the latter case, the lamp brightness will depend on the resistance
of the potentiometer (used here as a rheostat). We want to observe that it exists a single device for obtaining
the same results called deviator switch with two positions (NC: Normally Closed and NO: Normally Open).

39

Experiment 22
RELATED TOPICS:

Electric circuit
Capacitor

The purpose of the experiment is to illustrate two capacitors in series

ITEMS NEEDED:

cell holder with batteries

bridging plugs
voltmeter
toggle switch
two capacitor

THEORY:
Capacitors are passive components able to store a given amount of charge Q depending on its capacity C.
They are mainly used when a stable constant voltage is needed in a part of a circuit. As resistors they can be
connected in series or in parallel. They are in series when they have just one point in common and then they
will have the same charge too, when connected to a voltage generator. As through resistors in series the
same current (defined as number of charges per unit of time) will flow, in static conditions capacitors in series
have the same charge Q. In order to verify that, we can read the voltage by means of a voltmeter in every
capacitors and then multiply the read value by the corresponding value of capacitance (C1 and C2):
Q1 C1V1 C2V2 Q2 Q

In order to verify the equivalent series capacitance

C

C1C2
C1 C2

a multimeter in capacitance-modality can be used after the battery has been removed from the circuit.

40

Experiment 23
RELATED TOPICS:

Electric circuit
Capacitor

The purpose of the experiment is to illustrate two capacitors in parallel

ITEMS NEEDED:

cell holder with batteries

bridging plugs
voltmeter
toggle switch
two capacitor

THEORY:
In this experiment we deal with capacitors in parallel. They are in parallel when they have both ends in
common (paying attention to the right polarity) and then they will have the same voltage too, when
connected to a voltage generator. In order to verify that we can read the voltage by means of a voltmeter in
every capacitors. The equivalent parallel capacitance is
C C1 C2

as one can verify by means of a multimeter in capacitance-modality to be used after the battery has been
removed from the circuit.

41

Experiment 24
RELATED TOPICS:

Electric circuit
Capacitor
Resistance
RC circuit

The purpose of the experiment is to illustrate the charging phase of a RC circuit

ITEMS NEEDED:

cell holder with batteries

bridging plugs
voltmeter
toggle switch
two capacitor
one/three resistor
push button switch

THEORY:
Let us describe the behaviour of a very important circuit known as RC circuit. In our scheme we employ a
resistance R=4.7 k connected in series with a capacitor C=2000 F, that can be obtained with two
capacitors C1=C2=1000 F in parallel (we recall that C= C1+C2=(1000+1000) F =2000 F.
If we provide energy by means of a 3 V generator, when we switch the circuit on, a current through the
resistance R begins to flow. This current flow pushes the charges onto the capacitor C. Correspondingly the
voltage across the capacitor tends to increase while the one across the resistance tends to decrease. As a
consequence, the current decreases and the charge flow tends to slow down. The process will stop when all
charges are across the capacitor, the voltage is equal to that provided by the generator and no more current
42

flows through the resistance. Now the capacitor is completely charged and its charge is equal to Q=CV. This
is a dynamic process, following the time law:
V (t ) E(1 e t / )

where E is the generator voltage and =RC is the so-called time-constant of the circuit. From a dimensional
point of view, the constant is expressed in time unit (i.e. seconds). In fact, we can use the dimensional
equations to obtain:
[ ] [R][C] [VA 1 ][ F ] [VC 1 s][CV 1 ] [ s]

Theoretically, the time needed to completely charge the capacitor tends to infinity, as a matter of fact we can
conventionally assume that the capacitor is completely charged when t=3.
As an example we can compute the value of for our circuit:
RC 4700 0.002 F 9.4 s

thus meaning that a complete charging can be obtained in about 30 s.

This phenomenon can be observed by means of a voltmeter as indicated in the picture. Once the switch is
on, the voltmeter begins to indicate an increasing voltage, first quickly then ever more slowly, as suggested
by the exponential law we have seen.
If we eliminate one of the capacitors, we should observe a decreased time-constant (try to verify it by means
of the voltmeter). If you want to very sensibly increase the time-constant, try to substitute a single resistor
with a series of three resistors (for example R1=10 k, R2=4.7 k, R3=10 k, see the circuit below). In this
case you can verify that
RC (10000 10000 4700) 0.002 F 49.4 s

and a complete charging can be obtained in about 150 s.

It should be noted that a push button switch has been inserted in order to discharge the capacitor every time
we want to start the charging process again.

43

Experiment 25
RELATED TOPICS:

Electric circuit
Capacitor
Resistance
RC circuit

The purpose of the experiment is to illustrate the discharging phase of a RC circuit

ITEMS NEEDED:

bridging plugs
voltmeter
toggle switch
two capacitor
one/three resistor

THEORY:
Let us refer to the previous experiment, that concerning the charging phase of a capacitor. Once the
capacitor is completely charged, switch the generator off, then insert a bridging plug between the first
resistor and the lower bridging plugs. This will inactivate the generator (pay attention to switch it off otherwise
remove it directly from the circuit to avoid a complete discharge of the batteries).
Now the discharging process will start, following the law:
V (t ) Ee t /

Once the process begins, an inverse current tends to flow from the capacitor through the resistor R.
Correspondingly the voltage across the capacitor tends to decrease as well as the current flowing through
the resistor. The process will stop when all charges are no longer across the capacitor, the voltage is equal
to zero and no more current flows through the resistance. Now the capacitor is completely discharged.
44

It can be observed that a complete discharge will occur only after an infinite time. In practice, we can
conventionally assume that the capacitor is completely discharged when t=3.
This phenomenon is perfectly dual with respect to the charging one. Furthermore, the same constant as in
the other case here occurs. The reader can verify this by using a voltmeter as indicated in the picture. Once
the switch is off, the voltmeter begins to indicate a decreasing voltage, first quickly then ever more slowly, as
suggested by the exponential law we have seen.
If we eliminate one of the capacitors, we should observe a decreased time-constant (try to verify it by means
of the voltmeter). If you want to very sensibly slow the time-constant down, try to substitute the series of
three resistors with a single resistor (for example R1=4.7 k). It should be noted that the push-button switch
has been here removed. It was used to produce a very rapid discharging, as it gave place to an equivalent
time-constant =RC, where R0.

45

Experiment 26
RELATED TOPICS:

Electric circuit
Capacitor
Resistance
RC circuit

The purpose of the experiment is to illustrate the charging and discharging current in a RC circuit
ITEMS NEEDED:

bridging plugs
voltmeter
toggle switch
two capacitor
potentiometer
lamp bulb
lamp holder
push button switch

THEORY:
Let us refer to the previous experiment, the one concerning the charging phase of a capacitor. We want to
show the existence of the direct (charging phase) and inverse (discharging phase) current by using a lamp in
series with the parallel of two capacitors. We substitute the resistors with a potentiometer used as a rheostat
because we need a very low resistance in order to appreciate the current flowing through the lamp. The
reader can move the knob of the potentiometer to adjust its equivalent resistance. In this way we obtain a
very low time-constant. In the charging phase a current will flow through the lamp, causing a quick flash. The
46

same quick flash can also be observed in the discharged phase, when the lamp is rapidly crossed by an
inverse current.

47

Experiment 27
RELATED TOPICS:

Electric circuit
Inductor
Resistance
LR circuit

The purpose of the experiment is to illustrate the properties of a LR circuit

ITEMS NEEDED:

bridging plugs
voltmeter
ammeter
toggle switch
one coil
potentiometer

THEORY:
Whenever electrons flow through a conductor, a magnetic field will develop around it. Whereas an electric
field flux between two conductors allows for an accumulation of free electron charge within those conductors
as we have seen in the case of a capacitor, a magnetic field flux allows for a sort of "inertia" to accumulate in
the flow of electrons through the conductor. Inductors are components designed to take advantage of this
phenomenon by shaping the length of conductive wire in the form of a coil. This shape creates a stronger
magnetic field than what would be produced by a straight wire. Therefore, inductors have the exact opposite
characteristics of capacitors. Whereas capacitors store energy in an electric field (produced by the voltage
between two plates), inductors store energy in a magnetic field (produced by the current through wire). Thus,
while the stored energy in a capacitor tries to maintain a constant voltage across its terminals and oppose
changes in voltage, the stored energy in an inductor tries to maintain a constant current through its windings
48

and oppose changes in current. A fully discharged inductor (no magnetic field), having zero current through
it, will initially act as an open-circuit when attached to a source of voltage (as it tries to maintain zero current),
dropping maximum voltage across its leads. Over time, the inductor's current rises to the maximum value
allowed by the circuit, and the terminal voltage decreases correspondingly. Once the inductor's terminal
voltage has decreased to a minimum (zero for a "perfect" inductor), the current will stay at a maximum level,
and it will behave essentially as a short-circuit.
The circuit depicted in the picture is a classical RL-circuit. When the switch is first closed, the voltage across
the inductor will immediately jump to battery voltage (acting as though it were an open-circuit) and decay
down to zero over time (eventually acting as though it were a short-circuit). Voltage across the inductor is
determined by calculating how much voltage is being dropped across R, given the current through the
inductor, and subtracting that voltage value from the battery to see what is left. When the switch is first
closed, the current is zero, then it increases over time until it is equal to the battery voltage divided by the
series resistance. This behavior is precisely opposite to that of the series resistor-capacitor circuit, where
current started at a maximum and capacitor voltage at zero as we have seen in previous experiments. Try to
verify this effect by varying the value of the resistance R (for example by using a potentiometer as indicated
in previous experiments). As in the RC-circuit we can define a time-constant , that in this case is defined as:

L
R

All considerations about transient and regime state are the dual of those related to the RC-circuit case.

49

Experiment 28
RELATED TOPICS:

Wheatstone bridge

The aim of the experiment is to realise an accurate method to measure an unknown resistance.
ITEMS NEEDED:

Four resistors
Voltmeter
Ammeter

THEORY:
The Wheatstone bridge is a method for an accurate measurement of resistance. It is particularly interesting
because, being a null method, the sensitivity the instrument must have is negligible since the validity of the
determination is not affected by the calibration of the instrument.
Being given the electric circuit above depicted, if the ammeter signs a null current value, it must be V = VAVB = 0 so I1Rx = I1R1 and I1R1 = I2R2, from which it results
Rx

R1 R3
R2

50

Experiment 29
RELATED TOPICS:

RC circuit
High-pass filter

The aim of the experiment is to study a high-pass circuit.

ITEMS NEEDED:

potentiometer
capacitor
lamp bulb
lamp holder
function generator
oscilloscope (optional)

THEORY:
When we apply a variable signal, for instance a sinusoidal signal by means of a frequency generator to an
RC circuit, an interesting behaviour can be outlined. In fact, if we consider the circuit depicted above, by
simply varying the applied frequency, a different response of the circuit can be observed. Let us concentrate
on the lamp and let us start with the lowest frequency the generator is able to apply. The lamp will not light
up. Now, let us slowly increase the frequency. With raising frequency an increase of the intensity of the light
emitted should be observed. In other words, unless a certain frequency has been reached, no current will
flow through the lamp; but above that frequency the current will flow. This circuit behaves as the so-called
high-pass filter. It can be noted that the cutoff frequency holds:
fc

1
2 RC

Let us recall that the voltage to be applied should be sufficient to feed the lamp we are using in the
experiment. Be sure to use a lamp voltage that is consistent with the applied one. We want to note that
51

instead of a resistance, a potentiometer has been used in order to reduce the resistance value as soon as
possible.

52

Experiment 30
RELATED TOPICS:

RC circuit
Low-pass filter

The aim of the experiment is to study a low-pass circuit.

ITEMS NEEDED:

potentiometer
capacitor
lamp bulb
lamp holder
function generator
oscilloscope (optional)

THEORY:
When one applies a variable frequency signal to an RC circuit connected as above depicted a dual
behaviour with respect to the previous experiment can be observed. Let us concentrate again on the lamp
and let us start with the lowest frequency the generator is able to apply. The lamp will now light up. Then, let
us slowly increase the frequency. With increasing frequency a decrease of the light intensity should be
observed. In other words, until a certain frequency has been reached, a current will flow through the lamp;
above that frequency the current will no longer flow. As a consequence this circuit behaves as the so-called
low-pass filter. It can be noted that the cutoff frequency still holds:
fc

1
2 RC

Let us furthermore recall that the voltage to be applied should be sufficient to feed the lamp we are using in
the experiment. Be sure to use a lamp voltage that is consistent with the applied one.
53

Experiment 31
RELATED TOPICS:

RLC circuit in series

Resonance

The aim of the experiment is to study an RLC circuit in series

ITEMS NEEDED:

Resistor
Capacitor
Coil
Lamp holder
Lamp bulbs
Function generator
Oscilloscope (optional)

THEORY:
Consider a spring attached to a mass moving horizontally on a surface with friction that we rhythmically pull
back and forth. After some initial transient period, the mass will move back and forth at the frequency of the
force we apply.
For a moment, lets step back and consider the original undriven damped oscillator. We have two forces
acting on the mass: the spring force kx and the damping force b dx/dt.
We now add a periodic driving force which can be written F0 cos t.
Newtons second law now reads
m

d2x
dx
kx b
F0 cos t
dt 2
dt

54

MERGEFORMAT

Once a steady state has been reached, the motion will be sinusoidal with the same frequency as the driving
force. The general form of the solution is the familiar cosinusoidal function
x t A cos t
MERGEFORMAT
The amplitude A and the phase can be found by substituting into and requiring that the resulting equation
be satisfied for all t. Before proceeding, we rewrite slightly.
Dividing through by m, we have
d2x
K
b dx F0

cos t
dt 2
m
m dt
m

MERGEFORMAT

It is convenient to introduce the following notation, much of which is probably familiar by now.
K
02
m
b

MERGEFORMAT
MERGEFORMAT

0
Q

F0
F
0 2 ALF
K
m 0

MERGEFORMAT
MERGEFORMAT

Equation now takes the form

d 2 x 0 dx

02 x 02 ALF cos t
dt 2
Q dt

MERGEFORMAT

Note the difference between 0 and . The symbol 0 refers to (K/m)1/2, which is determined by the structure
of the oscillator. It is the natural angular frequency of the oscillator without the damping or driving force. The
symbol represents the frequency of the driving force, which has nothing to do with the structure of the
oscillator; it is solely determined by the characteristics of the driver.
There is one case where we can write down the solution of immediately. Let the frequency of the driving
force be very low. Then the velocity and the acceleration remain extremely small, so that the first two terms
in the equation are insignificant if compared to the third term. We can then solve for x(t) directly:
x t ALF cos t

ALF refers to the amplitude of the motion at low frequencies.

If the driving frequency is not very low we have to find the amplitude A and the phase of the motion by
substituting into . We will not go through the algebra here. The results are
1
A
ALF
2
2
MERGEFORMAT

r
1 r2
Q

tan

1
r
Q 1 r2

MERGEFORMAT

in which r = /0 is the ratio of the frequency of the driving force to the natural frequency of the oscillator.
The factor on the right of multiplying ALF is called the gain of the oscillator. The algebra further shows that
is always in the third or fourth quadrant; the motion always lags behind the driving force.
We can say a few additional things about . First of all, for extremely low driving frequencies (compared to the
natural frequency), r is essentially zero, so that A = ALF independent of the value of Q.
To get a feel for the meaning of , look at the following figure

Notice that at large Q, i.e., for a small damping constant b, the curve is sharply peaked near r = 1. When the
driving frequency is exactly equal to the natural frequency, A = QALF. This steep increase in amplitude is
55

called a resonance. The plot is A/ALF versus r for Q = 0.5, 1, 2, 4, and 8. There are a lot of examples of
resonance in physics and engineering.
You may wish to verify that the actual peak of the amplitude curve is reached not for r = 1 but for
r 1

1
2Q 2

For large Q (small damping) this makes very little difference; for small values of Q (large damping) this shift
becomes significant. For values of Q smaller than 2 / 2 , there is no maximum near the resonance at all. This
can all be seen from the preceding figure.
For very high frequencies (r>>1), A is very nearly ALF /r2 independent of Q. In this case, it is the acceleration
term in that predominates. We see then that both for very low frequencies and for very high frequencies the
damping is relatively unimportant. It is mainly around resonance that the value of Q determines the
behaviour of the oscillator.
The following figure shows the phase of the oscillator in a graph with the same horizontal axis as the
preceding figure and for the same values of Q.

Note that the phase is negative, i.e., the oscillator always lags behind the driving force. In the limit of large Q,
the phase lag abruptly jumps from zero to as the driving frequency passes through 0.
If these results were only applicable to a mass on a spring driven by a periodic force, they would be hardly
worth studying. However, there is an enormous variety of problems that all lead to except for the meaning of
the constant parameters. Examples include a table on springs set in motion by a vibrating floor, the
vibrations of an ammonia molecule driven by absorption of infrared radiation, and the charge on a capacitor
in an RLC circuit driven by an AC voltage.
The correspondence between mechanical and electrical parameters is shown in the following table:
Mechanical System
Displacement x
Driving Force F
Mass m
Damping Constant b
Spring Constant k
Resonant Frequency k/m
Resonance Width = b/m

Electrical System
Charge q
Driving Voltage V
Inductance L
Resistance R
Reciprocal Capacitance 1/C
Resonant Frequency 1/LC
Resonance Width = R/L

Using this correspondence, the fundamental equation becomes

L

d 2q 1
dq
qR
V0 cos t
dt 2
C
dt

and all the other equations can be written in terms of the electrical parameters. In particular:

1 L
Q 0

R C

PROCEDURE:
The circuit should be connected to the function generator (which provides the driving voltage) and, if
possible, to the oscilloscope. Calculate the resonant frequency for the components and the Q of the circuit.
56

In order to visually achieve this phenomenon its possible to use the lamp holder and observe the lamp bulb
becoming brighter at the resonance, as shown in the circuit.
Record the voltage across the capacitor and the delay of the peak of this signal relative to that of the driving
signal as a function of frequency for a number of frequencies above and below the resonance. Take several
data points where the gain curve changes rapidly near resonance.
It should be observed that, as a consequence of the above equations, if one wants to reduce the resonant
frequency, he should increase the value of the inductance L. This could be done by inserting the
ferromagnetic core inside the coil. Furthermore, if a better Q should be obtained, a resistance in parallel to
the lamp could be inserted.
It can be observed that the circuit we have designed acts as a pass-band filter: only a band of frequency,
whose centre is the resonant frequency, can excite the lamp, the others being stopped.
Exactly the same theoretical considerations apply to an LCR circuit where the inductor and capacitor are
placed in parallel.
The only difference is that at the resonant frequency we get a current minimum instead of a maximum. This
phenomenon is called antiresonance.
It can be observed that the circuit we have designed acts in this case as a stop-band filter: only outside the
central band of frequency, whose centre is the resonant frequency, the lamp can be excited, the central band
being stopped.

57

Experiment 32
RELATED TOPICS:

Magnetic field
Magnetic compass
Magnet

The aim of the experiment is to illustrate the physical behaviour of a compass.

ITEMS NEEDED:

compass
cylindrical magnet (diam. 6x35 mm)

THEORY:
Before explaining how compasses work, let us briefly recall the fundamental laws of magnetism. The
property of certain types of minerals to attract the metal iron was already known by the ancient Greeks and
much earlier in the Far East. A particular mineral rock, called lodestone or magnetite, was well-known and
employed in practical applications (for example, as an aid of navigation). It was observed that a piece of this
mineral, free to rotate, tends to orient itself in a north-south direction (by referring to the Earth polarity).
Another surprising property of objects like magnetite is that they possess two different poles, namely north
and south. Already during the Middle Ages has been proved that, unlike electric charges, in magnetic objects
one of these poles cannot be isolated by cutting in someway a piece of them. In fact each of the resulting
blocks will be a magnetic object itself possessing its own pair of north and south.

58

Like electric charges, poles of the same signs repel one another, whereas opposite poles attract. This force
extends itself all over the space and can be visibly mapped by placing the magnet under a sheet and
sprinkling very small pieces of metals or iron filings on top. The filings will align themselves with the magnetic
fields, giving rise to continuous lines from one pole to the other. The resulting shape is what has been called
magnetic field.

Our Earth is a sort of big piece of magnetite, thus behaves as the little lodestone described above and
possesses its own magnetic field (also known as geomagnetic field). This phenomenon could be easily
observed if one holds a simple compass: wherever you stand on Earth, it will point toward the North Pole.
The reader can immediately verify that by using the magnetic compass provided in this kit. Place it no matter
where and observe that its red arrow will quickly point toward the North Pole. This amazing property was
very useful in the past (and nowadays too). Imagine for example to be in the middle of the ocean, without
any idea where the coast is. Just use your compass: the needle will you show which direction the North is in.
A magnetic compass consists of a small magnet or needle balanced on a pivot point without friction. One
end of the needle is generally red-coloured to indicate that it points towards north. Now, one could ask why a
compass points towards the North Pole. In order to answer this question, one can imagine as if inside the
Earth there exists a gigantic bar magnet buried in the core and generated by complex heat phenomena
involving magnetic materials at very high temperature. This imaginary magnetic bar has its south end
coinciding with the North Pole, and vice versa for the South Pole. As a consequence the north end of the
compass tends to be attracted by the south pole of this bar.
It should be noted that the geomagnetic field is very weak on the Earth surface (this is why we need to
eliminate as more as we can the friction of the pivot point and to use a lightweight magnet). Thus, every
object forming around itself a magnetic field stronger than the geomagnetic one, will redirect the needle of
the compass with respect to the geographic North Pole. Try for instance to put the cylindrical magnet close to
the compass needle. A re-orientation of the needle will be observed.

59

Experiment 33
RELATED TOPICS:

Magnetic field
Magnetic compass

The aim of the experiment is to illustrate the effect of a current on a magnetic compass.
ITEMS NEEDED:

compass
push button switch
cell holder with batteries
connecting leads

THEORY:
A simple way of seeing the effect of an electric current on a magnetic compass is illustrated in the picture
above. Put the compass on the table: whatever direction has the Earths North Pole, the compass will be
pointing toward it. Now put the compass very close to one of the electric wires connected to the battery (as
indicated in the picture). Push the button switch for few seconds, so as to avoid a rapid discharge of the
battery. Before pushing the button, remember to control the direction of the needle indicating the direction of
the geomagnetic field. Once the button has been pushed, the compass needle will swing and direct itself
along the magnetic field created by the flow of electrons.
If you now flip the battery around and repeat the experiment, you will observe that the compass needle tends
to align itself in the opposite direction.

60

Experiment 34
RELATED TOPICS:

Magnetic field
Inductance
Magnetic compass

The aim of the experiment is to illustrate the effect of a coil on a magnetic compass.
ITEMS NEEDED:

push button switch

cell holder with batteries
coil 10 mH
ferromagnetic core (hexagon steel screw)
paper clip (not included in the kit)
magnetic compass

THEORY:
As we have already seen, a circular magnetic field develops around a wire where a current is flowing and it
tends to weaken as you move away from the wire. Both phenomena, i.e. the fact that the lines are
perpendicular and the farther they get from the centre the weaker they are, can be verified with a magnetic
compass. Move it near the wire in different positions and note how the needle tends to swing.
Since the magnetic field around a wire has a circular distribution, we could increase its intensity by winding it
to a series of circles. Thus, we have created a coil. For example, if one wraps a wire around a nail, say 10
times, then connects the coil to a battery and brings one end of the nail near the compass, a larger effect on
the compass needle should be observed. This can be verified in a proper way by observing what happens
61

when we use a coil as shown in the picture above. Compare the behaviour, by using the magnetic compass,
with and without the nail (ferromagnetic core). Try finally to invert the polarity of the batteries and repeat the
experiment. It should be noted that the nail acts as a magnet only when a current is flowing from the battery.
In other words we have created an electromagnet: it has the properties to attract small steel things, but only
when a current is impressed. As an experiment, put a paper clip on the nail, push the button in order to apply
a current to the coil: the clip will be attracted by the nail. Once the button is released, the current will stop
flowing and the clip will fall down, showing the temporary behaviour of the nail as a magnet.

62

Experiment 35
RELATED TOPICS:

Inductance
Self-induction coefficient
Mutual induction

The aim of the experiment is to calculate the theoretical value of the self-induction coefficient of a coil and
then to compare it with the nominal value of 10 mH.
ITEMS NEEDED:

Coil 10 mH

THEORY:
Let us consider the following figure representing the section of a single layer coil in air wrapped around a
support of null thickness

If L>> R, as its known, the induction magnetic induction field inside the coil is parallel to the axis and nearly
uniform given by
B0 0

N
I
L

MERGEFORMAT

The flux of B0 through each turn can be found by multiplying B0 with the area S= R of the turn. The coil is
formed by N turns, so the total flux is B0NS
N 2 R 2
( B0 ) B0 NS 0
I
MERGEFORMAT
2

since

( B0 ) Lsi I

we get that the self-induction coefficient Lsi is

( B0 )
N 2 R 2
Lsi
0

I
L
N 2 R 2
2
( R L2 R ) .
If it is not true that L>>R we would have Lsi 0
L2

63

MERGEFORMAT

For a multi layer coil in air, we can consider each layer as a single layer coil wrapped around the preceding
one (we approximate this wrapping as a perfect doubling of the layer as shown in the following figure). To be
exact, from the point of view of the external coils, the core is constituted by copper and air. But copper is
diamagnetic and so we can neglect the magnetization effects.

we have

N
2

Lsi 0

number
of layers

i 0

2
i

N
2

or, by approximating

R2 R1
2r

R2 R1
2r

i 0

i 0

L
where we have used approximate expressions for xi and with
N2rL from equation we have
L
Lsi 0 2
4r

R2 R1
2r

R2 R1

2r

( R1 2r i ) 2

L
we indicate the nearest integer to

( R1 2r i ) 2

with an integer
0 L 2r R2 R1 R12 R1 R2 R22 r R2 R1
L
si

MERGEFORMAT

24r 3

R2 R1
2r

.Since

MERGEFORMAT

MERGEFORMAT

which is an intrinsically positive constant depending only from geometrical factors.

By substituting the values (L= 20mm, r=0.11 mm, R1=5mm, R2=15mm) we get Lsi 8mH to be compared with
the nominal value of 101mH.
This difference can be essentially explained by considering also the mutual induction between turns that
instead we have neglected.

64

Experiment 36
RELATED TOPICS:

Inductance
Magnetic energy and mechanical forces
Relative magnetic permeability
Magnetic hysteresis

The aim of the experiment is to calculate the theoretical value of the sucking force of the coil and then to
compare it with the experimental one. In this way its possible to obtain an approximate value for the relative
magnetic permeability of the ferromagnetic core.
ITEMS NEEDED:

coil 10 mH
ferromagnetic core (hexagon steel screw)

THEORY:
By referring to the previous experiment we have that the self-induction coefficient Lsi of the coil is
0 L 2r R2 R1 R12 R1R2 R22 r R2 R1
MERGEFORMAT
Lsi
0 kL
3
24r

where the k coefficient is determined only by geometrical factors. When the ferromagnetic core is introduced
by an amount x we can imagine the entire system as composed by two subsystems placed side by side: one
coil of length x with a ferromagnetic core inside and a second coil of length (L-x) with air core.

65

In the first coil the self-induction coefficient must be multiplied by (the relative magnetic permeability of the
ferromagnetic core) since the magnetic induction field is B B . Here we made the approximation of the
ferromagnetic core viewed as isotropic and homogeneous.
So, the total self-induction coefficient is
L kx k ( L x )
MERGEFORMAT
The current Iy that flows through the coils turns placed at a distance y from the coils axis is
V
V S
V
r2

V r 2 2r
V r 3
Iy

MERGEFORMAT
R
l

2 yN
2 yL
yL
where is coppers electric resistivity.
By integrating we have that the total current I is
r

si

R2

R1

V r 3
r 3 V R2
dy
ln

yL
L
R1

MERGEFORMAT

Since we want to obtain the force acting on the ferromagnetic core we have to calculate the magnetic energy
of the inductance
UM

1
Lsi I 2
2

MERGEFORMAT

By applying equations , , and we have

UM

2
2
1 0 r x 2r R2 R1 R1 R1R2 R2 r R2 R1
{

2
24r 3

0 L x 2r R2 R1 R12 R1 R2 R22 r R2 R1
24r 3

r 3 V R2
ln

R1
L

MERGEFORMAT
The force is given by (see details later)
fx

or
fx

U M
x

MERGEFORMAT
I const .

0 r 1 r 3 R23 R13 2r 2 R2 R1 3r R12 R22

48 L
2

log 2 (

R1
)
R2

MERGEFORMAT
and since is positive the force is positive, hence attractive.
r

NOTE:
We used equation because if we start from the total energy of the system UT= UM + UG, we have to consider
also the work done by the power supply when inserting or extracting the ferromagnetic core:
fx

U T
x

I const .

UM
x

I const .

UG
x

MERGEFORMAT
I const .

U M
dU M dt
dU M 1
d 1
1 1 d 1

Lsi I 2
I

x
dt dx
dt v dt 2
v
v 2 dt
U G
dU G dt
dU G 1
1
d 1

I emf
I
and
(at constant I), we get equation
x
dt dx
dt v
v
dt v
UM
UG
U T
1 d 1
U M
fx

I
x I const .
x

x
2
dt
v
x
I const .
I const .

Since

I const .

MERGEFORMAT

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
If we place the coil in a vertical plane, with the axis parallel to the gravity acceleration, we can compare the
sucking force with the weight force of the ferromagnetic core. This is possible by regulating the voltage V
applied to the coil.
By considering the geometrical values used in the experiments above (L= 20mm, r=0,11 mm, R1=5mm,
R2=15mm) and the physical values (1.7x10-8m, 0=4x10-7s/m, V=5.7V) we get a force that is exactly
66

equal to the weight force (8 g 0.08 N) of the ferromagnetic core.

If we approximate the ferromagnetic core having a characteristic B(H) linear, we obtain a method to
determine the relative magnetic permeability.
By equating equation with 0.08N and solve for r we obtain a value

r 650
Therefore, pay attention to the approximation we have made. The characteristics B(H) is in general not linear
and so by trying again different applied voltage you can get different results. This is due to the magnetic
hysteresis of the ferromagnetic core.

67

APPENDIX
Basics of experimental error theory
We can say that everything we know about the physical world has an inherent uncertainty. In
particular, when we experimentally investigate something there is always an experimental error
and an experimental precision. Since one of the main features of experiments is their
reproducibility, it is very important to deal with this subject in order to be able to explain how good
our results are. This is possible with the so-called experimental error theory, a scientific approach
to this problem.
Let us consider the following example: find the density of a solid rubber cube.
o First trial (with very raw instruments). We can estimate that the mass of the cube is
nearly 50 g and the length of a side is nearly 6 cm. So the density would be:

M
M
3 0,23148... .
V
L

There are many questions: Where can I stop with decimal

digits to communicate my result? Is it better to have precision on the mass

measurement or on length measurement? How do we combine our experimental
error on the mass measurement with the experimental error on length measurement?
o Second trial (with more accurate instruments). By using an electronic balance and
a meter stick I find a mass of 60g and a side length of 5,4 cm. So the density would
be:

M
M
3 0,381039475... .
V
L

We still need to answer the questions put above but we

also have to answer a new question: What makes this trial better than the first one?
o Third trial (with much more accurate instruments to measure the side length). If
we improve the accuracy of the length measurement, for example by using a vernier
caliper, the problem becomes more involved. This is due to the fact that we do not
get the same result if we take more than one measure. Instead we have a set of
different measurements like (5,455 cm; 5,425 cm; 5,465 cm; ). Thus we are again
faced with the question: Which one of the measurements (5,455 cm; 5,425 cm;
5,465 cm; ) do should I take?
Therefore, the more we analyse the problem the more it gets involved. To search for a possible
solution we can start from the third trial and observe that, generally speaking, when we improve the
accuracy of an instrument we reach a point at which the experimental results are not fixed but are
scattered around a value as illustrated in this graph:

68

If the number of measurements N is greater then about 30, the distribution of the experimental data
is bell-shaped and has a value X for which there is a maximum and around which the data are
scattered in a nearly symmetrical way. It is also possible to distinguish a value that determines an
interval around X into which a significant percentage of the measurements are placed. We need to
answer the questions: Is X the best estimate of our measurement?, How much can we rely on
this value? and What percentage of the measurements are in the interval X- and X+ ?
To express these questions mathematically, we could try a prototype function that fits our data and
that expresses the probability to get a particular measurement value:
1

0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2

-3

-2

-1

this is the graphical representation of the function

f ( x) e x

If we want to centre the function around the value X we use the expression x-X in place of x, and if
we want to control the scattering of the measurements around X its possible to divide (x-X)2 by
2 2.
The following figure shows f(x) with X=2 and =1;1.5;2

-2

0.8

0.8

0.8

0.6

0.6

0.6

0.4

0.4

0.4

0.2

0.2

0.2

10

-2

10

-2

10

Finally, if we want to control the area under the curve we have to multiply it by a normalization
factor A that would depend on .
Therefore our prototype function is:
f (x) A e

x X 2
2 2

MERGEFORMAT

where X is the value for which we have the maximum and determines how the measurements are
scattered around X. This is called a Gaussian function or a Normal function, but the underlying
data represent a distribution (still called Gaussian) and not a function. It can be proved that the
Gaussian distribution is derivable from the binomial distribution assuming that the number of
measurements N and remains constant.
The physical meaning of all this is that we do not describe a measurement with a single number but
rather with a set of values each one with its own probability to appear as an experimental datum.
This probability is governed by the Gaussian distribution. There is an analogy with quantum
mechanics (for example with the wave packet of a particle) where the interpretation is that if we
make a measure of the position of the particle then the probability to obtain a particular value is
governed by the Gaussian function and is never a well defined fixed value.
69

Let us determine the value of A in . We must have a probability of 1 to get a measurement in the
range from - to + (that is, if we perform a measurement we are certain to get some kind of result
no matter how large or how small that result is):

f ( x) dx 1

1
2

To give an interpretation of we can ask what happens if we are only interested in the probability
of finding measurements in the range from X- to X+ instead of the range from - to +:

X
X

t
1
1
e 2 dt : 0.68
2 1

f ( x)dx

so , also called then standard deviation (2 is called variance), is the amount of uncertainty we
have to allow for, in the most probable value X, if we want to claim a roughly 68% chance of
correctly predicting the result of any single measurement.
To determine X, also called the mean value, we consider a set of N measurements x1, x2, , xN.
The probability to get a single result between xi and xi+dx is:
Pi

1
e
2

x xi 2
2 2

so the probability to get all the results (viewed as independent events) is:
N

P P1 P2 ... PN

1
e
N

x xi
i 1

2 2

Since we are speaking about the probability P to get all the results and we can suppose to have
already done our experiment with a set of real results what should be the value of P?
If we accept the maximum likelihood principle we can make an analogy with entropy and say that P
is proportional to the entropy obtained from our experiment. The value X must be a point of
maximum entropy. By the second principle of thermodynamics we have to maximize P, otherwise
d
dx

said X is the value of x that minimize the exponent:

X

1
N

x x

i 1

from which it results:

x
i 1

MERGEFORMAT

that is, the mean value X is the arithmetic mean and describes all the collected data since it is the
value for which the maximum entropy is obtained for our set of data.

x xi
d 1 i1 2 2
e

d N

To determine we can proceed in the same way

1
N

x x
i 1

0 from

which:
MERGEFORMAT

But what should be use instead of x in equation ? If we use then equation is slightly self-referential
because

1
N

( x1 ... xi ... x N ) xi
N

i 1
N

and the i-esim term appears two times. It is possible to show

that the correct value of the standard deviation is:

1 N
2
X xi
N 1 i 1

70

MERGEFORMAT

Clearly is not defined for N=1 (we are assuming N greater of nearly 30, otherwise there are better
distributions to consider).
Suppose now we have a function Q of several variables Q f ( a, b, c,...) and we want to know how the
experimental error on each variable contributes to Q.
We can say that by varying the variables, the quantity Q varies of:
Q

Q
Q
Q
a
b
c ...
a
b
c

and if we identify our uncertainty x with the standard deviation x we can say that:
Q

Q
Q
Q
a
b
c ...
a
b
c

MERGEFORMAT

the modulus is due to the fact that errors could cancel each other and we want to consider the
maximum error.
We could do better, obtaining a smaller value, if the variables are normal and independent, by
starting from Q

1 N
2
Qi
N 1 i 1

where

Qi f ( ai , bi , ci , ...)

esim value of each variable of our set of data,

mean value of each variable of our set of data.
Since Qi

f ( A, B, C ,...)

Q
;

ai

1 N
Q
2
Q
Q
ai

a
N

1
b

1 4 4 i2
1
4 43

Q
ai
bi ...
bi
ai

Qi
2

is the i-esim value of Q by taking the iis the mean value of Q by taking the

ai

bi

bi

...

(by neglecting

terms of higher order) we have:

2

1 N
2
bi ...

1
1
1 4 4 i2
4 43

a2

b2

or
2

Q
Q
2
2
Q
a
b ...

MERGEFORMAT

which is better of since its always lower.

Suppose now that the function Q is just the arithmetic mean

1
N

x . By applying equation we
i 1

get
2

X
X
2
x1

x2

but

X
1

xi
xi N

x
i 1

1
N

and

x x ...
1

x22 ...

MERGEFORMAT

and so
X

MERGEFORMAT

which is called standard deviation of the mean. Analogously to the standard deviation, it tells us
how good is the mean value X and we can assume it as the amount of uncertainty we have to allow
for if we want to claim a roughly 68% chance of correctly predicting the result of any other mean
value it is possible to obtain.
Q

It is also useful to speak about relative error Q instead of absolute error . The relative error can be
Q

expressed in percentage.
For example let us return to the problem of determine the density of a cube.
Now, the function Q is the density which is function of the mass M and the side length L:
M 60 g

and

L 54 mm

its easy to find that the mean value is

71

60 g
g
3,81 10 4
543 cm3
cm 3

M
L3

. If

By applying equation we have that the relative error is:

1
1
L3 1
L3 3M
1
3

M
L

L
M L .
M
3
4

M
L
M L
M L
M
L

If we can suppose the precision of the mass measurement is

measurement is 1mm we have:

M 2g

and the precision of the length

2 3 1

; 3, 3% 5, 6% 8, 9%

60 54

(this says it is more important to make a careful length measurement than a careful mass
measurement).
By applying equation we get a better (lower) estimate of the density error:

M 2 9 L 2

M2
L2

22
9 12

6, 5% .
602
54 2

This means that if we take another measurement of density theres a probability of nearly 68% that
the new value will lie between

(3,8 0, 2) 10 4

g
cm3

It is important to note that since the standard deviation on density is 0,2 x 10-4 g/cm3 we can stop at
the first decimal digit 3,8 x 10-4.

72