5/3/2013

1.

Main Issues in Geotechnical Engineering

In geotechnical design, the engineer is often

confronted with two main requirements, viz
(a) Stability i.e. soil structure does not collapse.
Collapse of soil structures is usually caused by the
shear failure of the soil skeleton: caused by the
slippage of soil particles over one another. Soil failure
is usually NOT due to crushing of the soil particles.
(b) Serviceability
S i
bili
requirement
i
i
i.e.
ground
d
movements and deformations are not so large as to
render the soil structure unserviceable or cause
damage to buildings and infrastructures in the
vicinity.

Stability:

ensured by keeping loading

intensity within the soil mass, i.e.
stresses, within certain limits.
Serviceability:
ground deformations
which
hi h are evaluated
l t d from
f
th strains
the
t i
and the stresses within the soil mass.
In the following sections, we will
expand on the concepts of stresses,
strains and modulus of a soil. Effects of
pore water:
t
i
ignored
d to
t make
k things
thi
simple. Normal stress quantities can be
regarded either as effective stresses or
stresses in a dry soil.

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BASIC CONCEPTS IN STRESSES AND STRAINS

Fy
A

Fx

Need way of quantifying the loading effect of the

forces on each point within the body and the changes
in shape at each point that results => stresses and
strains.
Stresses: loading intensity at a point.
Strains: normalized deformation at a point.

Stress
Stress quantifies the intensity of loading by
dividing the loading by the area, e.g.
= F/A
Oblique forces: The force F can be
resolved into a component N acting
normally to the surface at end of the
rod and another S acting parallel to
the surface

F
S

The first is a normal stress

defined as
= N/A
and the second is a shear stress
defined as = S/A

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STRAIN

Strains: response to a material to stresses.

In the case of the cylindrical body:
F = k L
where k = stiffness.

For a cylinder of length 2L: can be considered as two cylinders

each of length L joined end to end. Each cylinder is subjected to
same force F and therefore compressed by the same amount L.
Thus, the total compression of the long cylinder (length 2L) is
2L.
L
Stiffness k is not constant for a given material, it depends also on
geometry, in this case, the length of the cylinder.
Loading effect or stress is the same.
Material
Material is the same,
same the response of the material to this same
loading effect must be the same.
Hence, compression L does not specifically describe the
response of the material to the stress.
Divide compression by the length of the body, i.e. L/L
normalizes out the effect of the length on the compression. Strain
given by

= L/L

o
o
o
o

o
o
o
o
o
o
o

F
A

Modulus
Hookes Law F = k L
Since k is inversely proportional to L,
k = k/L where k is another constant.
Also, the bigger the cross-sectional area A of the specimen, the stiffer the
rod and the smaller is the compression L, therefore k (and thus k)
proportional to A.
o i.e.
k = AE/L
where E is another constant, the modulus. So
F = AEL/L
F/A = E L/L
=E
Hence, E relates stress to strain.
The modulus quantifies the material response in a way that is
independent of the geometry of the specimen.
Classical approach to stress analysis:
given a set of loads
localize the loading effect through analysis into stresses, thereby
eliminating the effect of geometry,
by testing or other means, determine the response of the material to
the stresses, in the forms of strains,
by re-introducing the geometry of the body via analysis, globalize the
strains into deformations of the body.

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4.2

Saturated soils

In saturated soils, the interaction

between pore water and soil skeleton
gives rise to a variety of interesting
behaviours.

Soil skeleton: can take both normal and

shear stresses.
Pore water can carry normal but not shear
stresses.
Shear behaviour of soils depends on the
interparticle friction and interlocking (see
above). Both are related to the
macroscopic normal stress on the soil
skeleton. To characterize shear behaviour,
we need to determine the macroscopic
normal stress acting on the soil skeleton.

Considering figure, vertical equilibrium ->

F1 + u(A-Ac ) = P
F1 = vertical components of interparticle contact forces,
u = pore water pressure,
Ac = total interparticle contact area.
Let
F1 = " Ac
" = average stress acting across the interparticle contacts.
"" Ac + u(A-A
u(A Ac ) = P = A
= average external stress acting across area A.
Generally Ac << A, so that
" Ac + u A = A
" Ac /A + u =
Let ' = " Ac /A, then

' + u =

' = effective stress much better for

quantifying soil behaviour because it
directly addresses the interparticle contact
forces and discounts the pore water pressure.

Principle of Effective Stress: one of the fundamental

equations in soil mechanics. First proposed by Karl Terzaghi.

5/3/2013

Examples of effective stress principle applications:

(1) GWT at ground surface:
Area A

=0
d

A = gAd = Ad
u = wgd = wd
= unit weight of soil
= d
= - u = ( - w)d
= d
d
where = buoyant unit weight

A
(2)

Submarine conditions

dw
seabed

d
A

A = Ad + wAdw
= d + wdw
u = w (d + dw)
= wd + wdw
= - u = ( - w)d
= d
Higher effective stress =>
higher intergranular
friction and interlocking => higher strength and
stiffness. Lower effective stress => the reverse. In
the limiting case of zero effective stress =>
liquefaction eg. Niigata earthquake.

More General Definitions of

Stresses and Strains
Definitions

of stresses and strain ok

only for restricted set of scenarios.
We need more general definitions
that can deal with all classes of
situations.

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While this example is physical and easy to

comprehend, it needs to be generalised to be
useful. The implicit assumption of the cylindrical
soilil sample
l example
l is
i that
th t the
th stress
t
i uniform
is
if
across the cross-section. In most circumstances,
stresses within the soil body is non-uniform.
Thus the concept of stress needs to be
generalised to stresses at a point by examining
the forces acting on the surface of an imaginary
cut through the soil body at the point in
question, say point A.

stresses at a point: obtained by considering forces acting

on the surface of an imaginary cut through the soil body at
the point in question, say point A.

- Fy

A 0

- Fz

yz Limit

y Limit

A 0

Other components of stresses x, z and xz by

taking cuts along appropriate vertical planes.

- Fx

yx Limit
A 0

Fy
A

Fx

Fz

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Complementarity between Shear Stresses

Consider an element in the xy-plane:
Since the element is in rotational equilibrium,
clockwise
moment = counter-clockwise moment,
xy dy dx = yx dx dy

xy = yx
By considering similar rectangular sections in the YZ and ZX
planes, we can also show that
y
yz = zy
yx
zx = xz

Thus six independent stress

x
components i.e. x, y , z, xy, yz
and xz are sufficient to completely
define the state of stress at a point
in 3-dimensional space.

xy

dy

xy

dx

3. Strains

Externally, the effects of loads on a continuum are

manifested in its deformations and displacements.
Internally, these effects are expressed in terms of
strains.
strains
vx

vx + dvx

dx

x = dvx/dx

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In soils, positive signs for compressive stresses

and strains. Soil can only withstand compressive
stresses and strains.
In a general situation, the deformation can change
in many direction (not just the X-direction), thus
x = - vx/x
The partial derivatives indicating that we only take
into account the change of length with respect to
the X-coordinates only (and not Y- and Z-coordinates).
Similarly, the normal strains in the Y- and Zdi ti y and
direction
d z are given
i
b
by
y = - vy/y
z = - vz/z

Shear strains are defined by the change of shape or

distortional of the body. Consider a rectangular section
being distorted:
-dvx

dy

dx

-dvy

The shear strain is given by the total angle of distortion,

+ ,
+ -vx/y - vy/x
( and in radians)
or

xy -vx/y - vy/x

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Similarly:
xz = -vx/z - vz/x
yz = -vy/z - vz/y

Youngs modulus E: modulus of a specimen subjected

to normal stress on one plane, while the other two orthogonal
planes are unconstrained.

Elastic body subjected to

normal stress x
x = x/E
Poissons ratio effect:
y = -x/E

Cross-sectional area
A

z = -x/E

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y = z = 0
If same elastic body is subjected to normal stress y then it
undergoes
y = y/E
(16)
x = -y/E
(17)
z = -y/E
(18)
Similarly, for z :
z = z/E
(19)
x = -z/E
(20)
y = -z/E
(21)

Combined effects of x, y and z on x can be obtained by

superposition
x = x/E-y/E-z/E
(22)
Similarly
y = y//E-x//E-z//E
((23))
z = z/E-x/E-y/E
(24)
Relation between shear stress and shear strain:
xy = xy/G
(25)
yz = yz/G
(26)
xz = xz/G
(27)
where G is the shear modulus and is related to the
Youngs modulus E by
(28)

E
2(1 )

10

5/3/2013

Volumetric strain v: defined as the ratio of the change in

volume to the original volume. Using the cubical element
with dimensions dx, dy and dz (as we have used above),
then
original volume = dx dy dz
(31)
Suppose this element undergoes axial elongations dvx, dvy
and
d dv
d z, such
h that
h the
h magnitudes
d off dv
d x, dv
d y and
d dv
d z are
much smaller than those of dx, dy and dz (known as the
small strain assumption)

new volume = (dx+dvx)(dy+dvy)(dz+dvz)

=dxdydz+dxdydvz+dydzdvx+dxdzdvy+dxdvydvz+
dydvxdvz+dzdvxdvy+dvxdvydvz
= dxdydz (1+ x + y + z + higher order terms in x, y and z)

Neglecting the higher order terms (since is small) leads to

new volumeold volume(1+x + y + z)
change in volume/old volume = (x + y + z)
The change in volume/old volume is the volumetric strain
(35)
v = (x + y + z)
Substituting Eqs.
Eqs 22-24
22 24 into Eq.
Eq 35 leads to
x + y + z = (1-2)(x + y + z)/E =v
= (x + y + z)/(3K)
= p/K
K=

E
3(1 2 )

(37)

and p = (x + y + z)/3

where

K is known as the bulk modulus & p is the mean normal

stress.

11

5/3/2013

There is another modulus

which is commonly used in
soil mechanics; this is the
constrained modulus D. It
is the ratio between the
stress and strain in one
direction (say X) when the
strains in the other two
orthogonal directions (say Y
and Z)) are constrained to
be zero.

Obtained by setting y = z = 0 in Eqs. 23 and 24, which

leads to
z = y = x/(1-)
(39)
Substituting Eq. 39 into Eq. 22 leads to

x
E

2
2 x 1 2 2 x 1 1 2
1

1 1 E 1 E

x/x = D =

Cross-sectional area
A

E (1 )
(1 )( 1 2 )

(40)

The constrained modulus, or rather its inverse (known as

coefficient
ffi i t off volume
l
change
h
mv),
) will
ill be
b used
d in
i the
th
consolidation equations to be covered in a later part of
the module.

12

5/3/2013

5. Real Stress-Strain Behaviour of Soils

The above concepts are all discussed in

the context of a linear elastic material.
material In
general, soil behaviour is non-linear and
inelastic. Nonetheless, you will find that
some of the concepts are still applied for
convenience especially in foundation
works.
k
I the
In
th nextt part,
t the
th actual
t l
compression behaviour of soil will be dealt
with.

Main Points

Stress is load normalized by area.

Strain is deformation normalized by length.
Stiffness (force/deformation) is a property of a system,
modulus (stress/strain) is a material property.
property
6 components of stress (or strain) are needed to fully
characterize a 3-D state of stress (or strain).
Different moduli can be defined depending upon the loading
configuration and boundary conditions.
The Youngs modulus is the modulus measured when load is
applied in one direction and the other two directions are
fully unconstrained.
The constrained modulus is the modulus measured when
load is applied in one direction and the other two directions
are fully constrained.

13

5/3/2013

THANK YOU

14

5/3/2013

NATIONALUNIVERISITYOF
SINGAPORE
DEPTOFCIVILENGINEERING
CE2112
COMPRESSIONBEHAVIOUROF
SOILS

COMPRESSION BEHAVIOUR OF SOILS

In geomechanics, two types of compression
often considered, viz
((a)) isotropic
p compression
p
i.e. equal
q
normal
stresses on all three orthogonal sides, no
shear stresses.
(b) 1-dimensional constrained
compression. Soil compressed vertically in
a rigid
igid container
containe so that no lateral
late al
movement occurs.
In both cases, shear failure cannot occur.

5/3/2013

1.1

Isotropic compression.

Normally applied using a triaxial chamber. Soil is enclosed

and sealed within a rubber membrane using 'O' rings. Cell
pressure then raised to apply the isotropic pressure. Ram
load = 0.

u=0

For dry sand, u = 0, = .

No load on loading ram.

Cell pressure gradually increased.
Drainage
g allowed byy opening
p
g pore
p
water
valve and allowing sufficient time for pore
water to drain out of specimen.
Measure volume change versus . To
study compression behaviour, we would
plot void ratio vs .

5/3/2013

1.2

1-dimensional compression.

Applied using an oedometer. Important since it approximates landfill

scenario.

p or v

u=0

Soil sample housed in stiff shallow brass cylinder which

prevents lateral deformation.
Vertical compression applied by dead weight through
lever system.
Drainage of pore water into and out of the specimen via
porous caps on top and beneath the specimen.
specimen
By allowing sufficient time for pore water to drain out of
soil specimen, a drained condition is achieved.
For dry soil or drained condition, v = p = v = p.
Horizontal effective stress h = K v'. K = coefficient of
lateral earth pressure but its value is often not known
since the horizontal effective stress is not often
measured. Measured applied load and settlement. To
study compression behaviour, plot e vs v (also
denoted as p).

5/3/2013

Iso vs 1D loading

1.3

Hydrostatic loading commonly used in

triaxial tests.
1-D compression used mainly for
settlement studies. Approximates a
number of practical scenarios e.g. field
consolidation of marine clay. We will focus
on 1-D compression here.

Soil behaviour

Plots of e vs [for isotropic compression] and e vs p [for 1-D compression] have the
same features.

Abrupt change of soil behaviour occurs at a point called preconsolidation or

precompression pressure p'c.
(1)
When p' < p'c, soil is relatively stiff, small change of e with changes in
p'. Soil state goes back along nearly same path on unloading => soil is largely
elastic. Line is commonly called swelling line or recompression line. Behaviour
of soil may be attributed to elastic deformation of soil grains especially at the
contact points. Soil is said to be over-consolidated.

5/3/2013

(2) When p' > p'c, much larger decrease in e with

increase in p'. Soil state does not retrace same path on
unloading => soil is plastic [cf. copper wire under
unaxial tension]. On unloading, soil swells back along a
swelling line with a new p'c . p'c is thus the highest
confining pressure that the soil has been subjected to in
it
its
hi t
history.
Thi
This
li
line
i
is
commonly
l
called
ll d virgin
i i
compression line (VCL). VCL behaviour is generally
attributed to rearrangement of soil grains into denser
and denser packing. Since soil grain rearrangement is
irreversible, VCL behaviour is inelastic. Along both the
URLs and VCL, plot of e vs p' is non-linear. The higher
the p', the harder to compress the soil further. Soil is
said to be normallyy consolidated.

Soil sample is laterally

confined: use
constrained modulus
D.
Axial strain

y=

Proportion
by volume

Change in
vol of voids

Vol. of voids

Vol. of
solids

l Al V

l
Al
V

l, A and V are the length, cross-sectional

area and volume of sample.
Assuming volume change comes from
change in vol. of voids. Using phase
V
e
diagram:

D=

V
' ' 1 e

1
mv

1 e

mv = coeff. of volume change =

e
' 1 e

5/3/2013

Elastic and plastic compression behaviour

D and mv are not constants = > non-linear behaviour.
But we often use an average value and assume it is constant.

Curvature usually removed by plotting e-lg p. Slopes of

URLs and VCL are denoted by Cs and Cc , respectively,
where
Voids ratio e
Cs = swelling index
VCL
Cc = compression index.
Slight hysteresis in the URL ignored.
URL
ec1
Eqs. of
VCL: e = e0 - Cc lg (p'/p'0)
ec2
e = -Cc lg [(pc2/pc1)
log p
URL: e = ec - Cs lg (p'/p'c)
pc1 pc2
e = -Cs lg [(p2/p1)
VCL is usually taken to be a unique line for each type of soil
In manyy soils,, especially
p
y disturbed samples,
p , p
p'c is not
clearly defined. Several empirical methods eg Casagrande's
method and Leonard's method are available. Casagrande's
method involves locating the point of maximum curvature
as the starting point. Leonard's method involves taking the
soil through a load-unload cycle.

5/3/2013

Estimation of Settlement in 1-D problem

Recall: v = (x + y + z)
In 1-D compression, x = z = 0 =>
v = y = l/l=V/V
From phase diagram: let vol.
vol of solid
= 1,
Vol. of void = e
Total volume V = 1+e
Change in volume comes from change Void
in void volume,
volume
V = e, v = V/V = e/(1+e)
l/l= e/(1+e) => l= le/(1+e)
Solid
= settlement

l
Vol
e
1

Hence, settlement can be deduced from change in void ratio,

original void ratio and original length.

5/3/2013

Limitations of this framework: VCL is a unique line for clays

but not for sands. Sands have VCLs but these changes as
the sand is densified by vibration.

Effect of vibration

VCLn VCL2

VCL1
log p

Main Points

2 types of compression tests on soil: 1-D and

isotropic. Isotropic commonly used in triaxial tests, 1D used in consolidation tests.
Compression curve e vs p is non-linear and elastoplastic. Elastic regime: recompression line (RL). Plastic
regime: VCL. Transition point is pre-consolidation
pressure pc.
RL and VCL can be linearized byy p
plotting
g e vs lg
gp
p.
Compression properties are compression index Cc and
swelling index Cs.
Settlement = thickness*e/(1+e)

5/3/2013

THANK YOU

5/3/2013

CE 2112
TRANSIENT FLOW,
CONSOLIDATION AND TIME
DEPENDENT BEHAVIOUR
Part 1

TRANSIENT FLOW, CONSOLIDATION

AND TIME DEPENDENT BEHAVIOURS

Previous section: compression of the soil skeleton under changing levels

of effective stresses. Does not address the rate at which the
compression occurs.
For dry soil, compression usually fast enough to be regarded as
instantaneous.
For a saturated soil, rate of change of soil state depends on how fast
water can flow into and out of the soil.
Compare transient flow and steady state seepage. Steady state seepage
represents the final state after the soil has fully equilibrated to the new
effective stresses, soil skeleton no longer deforming.
Before the steady state is reached, transient flow is occurring. Example:
consider drawdown caused by excavation.

5/3/2013

Soil removed during

excavation.

Movement of phreatic surface

Regions close to excavation will suffer drop in groundwater

level first which will propagate progressively to the further
regions. As the groundwater level drops, effective stresses in
the soil increases i.e. p increases, void ratio decreases and
ground compresses => ground surface settlement.

Two common questions which geotechnical engineers need to

address are
(a) How much settlement? Can be estimated if we know the initial
and final groundwater level and the e-lg p' curve of the soil.
Already discussed in last section.
(b) How long will it take the settlement to develop? Related to

the amount of water which needs to be expelled before excess

pore pressure goes to 0. Related to compressibility of soil
skeleton.

the ease with which water can flow in the soil i.e. the coefficient
of permeability k.
e.g. if soil is compressible, a lot of water has to come out under
loading. If permeability is also low, then rate of outflow will be
slow compression will occur at a slow rate and full
consolidation will only occur after long time. Will be discussed
in here.

5/3/2013

Terzaghis 1-D Consolidation

Commonly encountered case of transient flow : 1-D compression under
a wide load or surcharge.
Historically the first consolidation problem to be solved (Terzaghi).
Soil is assumed to be subjected to additional vertical load with all lateral
movements constrained, similar to a soil sample in an odeometer.
Commonly encountered in land reclamation on top of soft compressible
sediments:

>100m

Sand fill

2 - 10m

<50m

Soft marine clay

Wide load (not shown)

Drainage layer

Soft clay

Load (not shown) drainage layer

Drainage layer

Soft clay

drainage layer

Bedrock

5/3/2013

Consider an element of soil undergoing transient flow

with all sides constrained. Assumptions:
( ) Soil is homogeneous
(a)
g
and fullyy saturated.
(b) Water and soil particles are incompressible.
(c) Flow of water and deformation of soil skeleton is in
vertical (i.e. z) direction only.
(d) Darcy's Law valid.
(e) Permeability constant over the relevant range of
effective
ff ti stress.
t
(f) Constrained modulus (or its inverse, the coeff of
vol. change) is constant over the relevant range of
effective stress. (not strictly correct, but solution is
difficult to find for non-linear stress-strain behaviour)

Initial and Final Stages

Consider the problem of a layer of soil subjected to a step pressure input at time t = 0
and having 1 way drainage via the top. Just after the application of the load,
= F/A
B

Drainage boundary
u=0
Soil
u=?

Analogy
F
u=0
water
S

Impermeable boundary
C

= F/A = + u
F/A = S/A + u
Hence the effective stress in the soil layer is analogous to S/A where S is the force
in the spring.
Consider the analogy:
Just after application of load, the force F is borne entirely by the excess water
pressure u so that S = 0, ie.
S = 0 S/A = 0
u = F/A

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Excess pore pressure u: the component of pore pressure generated by the

load, not the total pore pressure. For this problem:
Excess pwp = total pwp equilibrium pwp
Suppose hydraulic head = 0 at base of sample and thickness of the
sample is D. Then

Hydraulic head just outside the top surface of the specimen = D (elevation)
+ 0 (pressure
(
h d) = D
head)

Hydraulic head just inside the top surface of the specimen = D (elevation) +
u/w (pressure head) = D + u/w

Hydraulic head at the base of the specimen = (D + u/w) [all from pressure
head]

Elevation Pwp

hyd. hd = elevation +

pore pressure

Hyd Head

Exc head

Exc pwp

D+u/w

u/w

u/w

wD+u

D+u/w

wD

There is a difference in hydraulic head between inside and outside of the

specimen.
Since hydrostatic
y
component
p
of the hydraulic
y
head D is same for the
inside and outside of the specimen, normal for us to disregard it.
More common to describe this using excess water pressure u = F/A
between the inside and outside of the specimen.
Water gradually expelled over time, leading to a drop in the excess water
pressure u.

5/3/2013

In the long term,

u=0
S = F S/A = F/A
Transfer of load from the excess water pressure (in the short term) to the
spring force S (in the long term).
For the soil layer,
y in the short term,
u = = F/A
= 0
Excess pore pressure u is not in equilibrium with the external pressure (=
0) => water will be expelled from the soil over time, leading to a
decrease in the excess pore pressure u over time.
In the long term, u will come to equilibrium with the external pressure, i.e.
u=0
=
Important note: It is only the excess pore pressure which has to be
dissipated in the long term; the hydrostatic component does not
change.

Hence the total stress, excess pore pressure and effective stress profiles for the short and
long terms will be as follows

Short term (just after loading)

B

F/A

Long term
F/A

F/A

u=0

C
B

F/A

= 0

5/3/2013

We now know what is the state of the soil layer

initially (i.e. in the short term) and finally (i.e. in
the long term).
The next question: how the state changes from the
initial to the final state, i.e., what is the interim
states of the soil. and how the pore water
pressure changes in these interim stages.

Interim States
Consider the initial and final excess pore pressure profiles.
Just after load application [i.e. t=0]:
Hydraulic
H
dra lic head just
j st outside
o tside the top surface
s rface of the specimen = D (elevation)
(ele ation)
+ 0 (pressure head) = D
Hydraulic head just inside the top surface of the specimen = D (elevation) +
u/w (pressure head)= D + u/w
Hydraulic head at the base of the specimen = (D + u/w) [all from pressure
head]
Hydraulic gradient at the top surface = [(D + u/w) D]/0 = !!!
Hence, just after loading, there is very high hydraulic gradient at the top of
the specimen (near infinity). Excess pore pressure at the top surface will
drop quickly to zero as water rushes out of the top surface
Alternatively, at the top surface, excess pore pressure gradient = du/dz =
u/0 = !!!

5/3/2013

, u or

Initial excess pore pressure

profile is a rectangle with
magnitude of F/A. Infinite excess
pore
pressure
gradient
represented by the side of the
rectangular pore pressure profile.
This is an initial condition.
condition

F/A

For this problem, base of

specimen is impermeable, no flow
can occur at the base. Thus. the
excess pore pressure gradient
at the impermeable boundary
du/dz at the base must be zero
at all subsequent times.
times Thus,
Thus
tangent to the excess pore
pressure profile must be normal to
the base at all subsequent times.
This is a boundary condition.

B
Depth z

+ u =

In the interim period, excess pore pressure near the drainage boundary (where u = 0)
will dissipate first, followed by that farther into the interior of the soil.
Initial and boundary conditions must be satisfied at all times.,
Excess pore pressure profile at subsequent times t should be roughly as shown
below:
F/A

+ u =

C
0

F/A

5/3/2013

Portion of excess pore pressure that has dissipated at any

time t => degree of consolidation that has occurred.

Define the degree of consolidation U based on the fraction

of excess pore pressure that has dissipated,
dissipated that is

U =

u0 - u
u0

u0 = initial excess pore pressure at that point.

When u = u0 initially, U = 0. In the long term, when u = 0, U = 1. We can
thus plot degree of consolidation as follows:

Degree of consolidation U varies with the location in the soil layer.

Can also define a more commonly used average degree of consolidation:

1
z

U dz

1
z

u0 - u
dz
u0
B

5/3/2013

CE 2112
TRANSIENT FLOW,
CONSOLIDATION AND TIME
DEPENDENT BEHAVIOUR
Part 2

Mathematical Treatment of 1-Dimensional

Consolidation Analysis
Consider a soil layer undergoing 1-dimensional consolidation with 1-way drainage
drainage boundary

p0

Saturated soil

dz

Constrained & impermeable

z
Impermeable boundary

Step loaded overburden total stress of p0 applied at time t = 0.

Considering a thin strip of soil element of thickness z,
z the governing equations are
(1) Equilibrium:

+ = 0

(2) Compatibility (or strain-displacement relation):

z v

d ( z) d e
=
z
1+ e

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5/3/2013

(3)

Linearized stress-strain law: coefficient of volume change mv given by

mv = -

1
de
d
1
=

1 + e d ' d ' constraine d mod ulus

(4)

Eff ti stress
Effective
t
principle
i i l
d = d + du

(5)

Darcys Law

v = - ki

(6) Continuity of flow, i.e. flow rate in - flow rate out = increase in void
volume
v
1
e
= z
1 + e t
(7)

Boundary conditions (see diagram above)

Combining (1) - (6) leads to

in which cv =

Let

w mv

cv

2u
u
=
2
t
z

= coefficient of consolidation

u(z,t) = the pore pressure profile at time t

u0(z) = the short-term pore pressure profile, ie. just after load application, and
uf(z) = the long-term pore pressure profile, ie. a very long time after load
application

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5/3/2013

Degree of consolidation
U=

u 0 (z) - u(z, t)
u 0 (z) - u(z, t)
=
u 0 (z) - u f (z)
u e (z)

in which ue(z) is the initial excess pore pressure which has to be dissipated by the
process of consolidation. Note that U is a non-dimensional way of expressing u.
W can also
We
l non-dimensionalise
di
i
li z and
d t by
b defining
d fi i the
th ffollowing:
ll i
Z = z/D and

cv t
D2

T=

Defining these non-dimensional quantities allows a single solution to be applicable to

different values of D, cv and ue(z). Otherwise, a large number of solutions will be
needed.
Substituting these new variables in place of u, z and t leads to
2U
Z2

U
T

Same equation as that for 1-dimensional heat flow: diffusion equation. Solving it
by the separation of variables leads to the solution of the form

U=1-

2
sin[ M ( Z 1)] exp( M 2 T )
M

m 0

in which m = 0, 1, 2, ........... and

Average degree of consolidation U
or compression which has occurred.

M = (2m+1)/2
also related to the amount of settlement

Compression (or settlement) that has occurred is given by

D

dz
dz

= D

' ' dz
0

12

5/3/2013

mv
'

= coefficient of volume change.

Thus =

' dz

In our problem
= + u = 0 since there is no change of loading
during the consolidation process. Therefore = -u.
D

Thus

u dz

Let = final compression or settlement of the soil layer after all the excess pore
pressures have dissipated.
p
p
At this final stage,
g , u = final excess p
pore p
pressure initial excess pore pressure = 0 - u0 = -u0.
D

m u

Thus

v 0

dz

Since the initial excess pore pressure u0 is uniform with depth, it is a constant
with respect to z, so that = mv u0 D.

Let t be the compression of the soil layer at any time during the consolidation
process, then u = current excess pore pressure - initial excess pore pressure
= u - u0.
D

t =

Thus

(u 0 - u )d z

(u0 - u) is not a constant with respect to z and thus cannot be brought out of the
integration sign. Thus
D

(u 0 - u) dz

mv u0 D

Since mv is a constant,
D

t
=

(
(u

- u)) dz
d

u0 D

1 D u0 - u
dz = U

D 0 u0

Thus average degree of consolidation is also equal to the

proportion of the final compression or settlement that
has occurred. ***

13

5/3/2013

Thus, if we can obtain the relation for the degree of consolidation U as a

function of depth and time ie. U(z,t), we can average across the depth to
obtain the average degree of consolidation U(t) which will allow us to
estimate rate of settlement with time. All that now remains for us to
determine is U(z,t) and U(t).

Analysis of a Soil Layer Undergoing 1-D, 1-Way Consolidation

Consider a soil layer undergoing 1-dimensional consolidation with -way drainage:
Area A

p
p0 = F/A

Porous disk
p0

u=0
Saturated clay

z
0

Rigid, impermeable boundary

The overburden total stress p0 is applied at time t = 0. Thus for t < 0, p = 0 so that
= d, u = wd and = d, h = D. Hydraulic gradient = 0 when t < 0.

14

5/3/2013

SOLUTIONS
Degree of Consolidation
This is the classic Terzaghi and Taylor consolidation problem. It involves a
uniform soil layer of thickness D subjected to a uniform load at the top
surface, which is also the drainage boundary.
Area A
p0 = F/A

Porous disk
u=0
d

Saturated clayy

Rigid, impermeable boundary

In solving this problem, Terzaghi recognised that this problem is, in fact, closely
related to the problem of a uniform soil layer of thickness 2D subjected to the same
load, but under 2-way drainage via top and bottom boundaries, as shown below:
Area A
p0 = F/A

Porous disk
u=0
2D

Saturated clay

d
z
CL

U=0

15

5/3/2013

Problem

is symmetrical about the mid-depth => water at

the mid-depth will have no tendency to flow either up or
down.
Water above the mid-depth will flow upward.
Water below the mid-depth
mid depth will flow downward => the
mid-depth is effectively as an impermeable boundary.
Hence this 2-way drainage problem is equivalent to two 1way drainage problems joined back-to-back at the
impermeable boundary.
Thus if we can get the solution to any one of these two
problems,
bl
th solution
the
l ti off the
th other
th is
i easily
il deduced.
d d
d
Terzaghi was the first to obtain the solution of this 2-way
drainage problem. His solution is represented graphically
overleaf:

16

5/3/2013

Solutions to other boundary value consolidation problems have

since been found e.g.
Triangular initial excess pore pressure profile. This situation arises
when the boundary conditions change at only one boundary of a
stratum as illustrated in the figure below. Piezometric level in the
sand above the clay is lowered by pumping while the piezometric
level in the gravel , which connects to some distant source of water,
remains unchanged.
This change sets up a gradient through the clay and the eventual
equilibrium condition will involve upward seepage=> transition from
an initial hydrostatic state to an eventual steady seepage state.
Before equilibrium is re-established, excess pore pressures profile
must dissipate.
[Can you prove that the initial excess pore pressure profile is
indeed triangular??]
This consolidation process involves increasing effective stresses
and settlement of the clay.

17

5/3/2013

Eg. Luschers (1965) solution for double layer consolidation. The cv and k for the
bottom layer is of values of the top layer. T is based upon cv of upper layer.

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5/3/2013

Average Degree of Consolidation

For the 2-way drainage, 1-D Terzaghi-Taylor problem, the solution for the average
degree of consolidation:

2
exp - m 2 T
2
m
m 0

U 1-

This exact solution can be approximated quite accurately by the following approximate solutions:

For T 1/12 , U 1/3

For 1/12 T , U > 1/3

4T

U 1 - 23 exp(

1
4

- 3T)

Other solutions are available for triangular as well as other initial pore pressure
profiles These solutions can be represented graphically
profiles.

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5/3/2013

Example of Application
A land reclamation project is to be conducted by placing a 5m-thick layer of
granular landfill on top of soft seabed deposits. The landfill is expected to impose
an additional overburden stress of 50 kPa onto the seabed deposit, which consists
of a layer of marine clay 5m thick overlying permeable sandstone. The properties
of the marine clay are as follows: cv = 0.5 m2/yr, k = 1x10-9 m/s.

(a) Determine the final settlement of the surface of the marine clay deposit.
mv = k/(w cv)
= 1x10-9x365x24x3600/(9.81x0.5) /kPa
=6
6430
30 st
strain/kPa
a / a
Increase in vertical effective overburden stress = 50 kPa
compressive strain in marine clay = 50x6430x10-6
= 0.3215
Settlement of seabed surface = compression of marine clay
= 0.3215x5 m = 1.61 m =

How long will it take to settle 1.5m?

Given that = 1.5m, / = U = 0.932
2-way drainage with rectangular initial excess pore pressure profile
T = 1.0 T = 1.0
T = cvt/D2
Where D = maximum length of drainage path = 2.5m
real time t = 1.0x2.5x2.5/0.5
1 0x2 5x2 5/0 5 yr = 12.5
12 5 years!
What will be the settlement after 2 years?
t = 2yrs
T = 0.5x2/(2.5x2.5) = 0.16
T = 0.4 = 0.45 = /
= 0.45x1.61m = 0.72m
This application illustrates the basic consolidation problem
problem, which revolves the
following:
Find final settlement.
Given settlement, find time taken.
Given time available, find settlement.

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5/3/2013

DETERMINATION OF CONSOLIDATION PROPERTIES

Consolidation Properties
Consolidation properties of soils: Cc, Cs, cv and mv normally
determined using the oedometer test.
Cc and Cs determined by plotting voids ratio e vs lg v. For
oedometer specimen with cross-sectional area A and height H, axial
strain increment = H/H = e/(1+e) where e is the void ratio.

Coefficient of volume change mv = /v = ' ( 1 e )

mv can be deduced directly from the tangent (or secant) of the
stress-strain
stress
strain curve
curve.
Coefficient of consolidation cv NOT commonly deduced using cv =
k/(w mv).
Difficult to determine k in the laboratory.
More common to determine cv from the rate of settlement of the
specimen.

= (cvt)/H = At

= /
= B

Hence, U vs T is actually u vs t curve with axes scaled differently. Hence both

curves should have same generic shape.

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5/3/2013

Ideal and Real Consolidation Settlement Curves from Oedometer

Tests
Profile of the ideal consolidation settlement curve shown in plots of vs
T.
= / and that T = cvt/H2. Only is dependent on t.
To convert the vs T plot to vs t plot, multiply axis up by and
the T axis up by H/cv
profile of the vs t plot has the same
shape as the vs T
plot.
vs T plot (2-way drainage and initial trapezoidal excess pore
pressure distribution) early portion is linear:

4T

Recall: for T 1/12 , 1/3

i.e. T. Straight line coincident with the straight portion of the

consolidation curve must also follow this equation.
q
2

2 cv t
Since = / and T = cvt/H ,

This equation is fully applicable only to the straight line, not the
consolidation curve itself.

= (cvt)/H

= /

22

5/3/2013

Straight line intersects the = / = 1 ordinate at abscissa t1, given by

2 c v t1

1
H

H2
H2
cv
0.7854
4 t1
t1
This is the basis of Taylors time curve fitting method
of determining cv.

Taylors Time Curve-Fitting Method For Idealised Consolidation Curve

Procedure:
Plot settlement vs time.
Draw a straight line (say AB) that coincides with the initial linear portion of the
consolidation curve.
Draw a horizontal line (say CD) through the ordinate corresponding to .
Find the abscissa of the point of intersection. This abscissa represents t1.
Knowing H and t1, evaluate cv.

23

5/3/2013

Taylors Time Curve-Fitting Method For Real Consolidation Curve

Real consolidation curves differ from idealised consolidation curves in 2
ways:
Immediate settlement. Occurs immediately upon loading due to small
amounts of air in the sample being compressed . Thus the real
settlement curve may contain a portion which is very steep (almost
vertical),
) representing
p
g rapid
p increase in settlement ((see figure
g
above).
)
To correct, project the straight line portion backwards until it intersects
the settlement axis at the corrected zero. This is the real origin of the
settlement curve, i.e. the initial origin is disregarded.
Secondary compression.
Consolidation theory assumes that soil
skeleton is linearly elastic and time-dependent settlement is due to flow
of pore water. In reality, often not so. Many soft soils exhibits creep
behaviour (i.e. continued compression under a state of constant
effective
ff ti
stress).
t
) Particularly
P ti l l significant
i ifi
t in
i organic
i soils.
il
Thi creep
This
phenomenon is known as secondary consolidation whilst classical
consolidation is known as primary consolidation. In the consolidation
curve, secondary consolidation shows up as a departure from the
classical consolidation curve as approaches 1, in such a manner that
the actual consolidation curve does not tail off (see figure below).

1
M 90

24

5/3/2013

compression presents problem for the estimation of .

avoid using tail end of consolidation curve (where secondary
consolidation is significant) to estimate cv.
Assuming that secondary compression is insignificant for 0.9, then
the properties of the consolidation curve corresponding to = 0.9 can be
used to estimate cv.
From solution of the consolidation equation, when = 0.9, T90 0.848
=> T90 0.92087. Since T90 = cv t90/H2,

cv t90/H2 = 0.848 => cv = 0.848H2/t90

Thus if the real time corresponding to 90% consolidation t90 can

be found, cv can be evaluated. To locate t90,
Secondary
Aim:

T90
U
t 90

90

cv

t 90

90

1.0232

0.92087
1.0232
0.9

cv

90

M90 denotes the reciprocal of the slope of the straight line joining the
corrected origin to the point (t90, 90).

In the linear portion of the consolidation curve, U 4T

Since = / and T =

cvt/H2,

cv t

t
H
H

0.8862
M1

2 cv
cv

M1 denotes the reciprocal of the slope of the straight line drawn coincident
to the linear portion of the consolidation curve.
M90/M1 1.15
The straight line passing through the point (t90, 90) has an inverse
gradient of 1.15M1 where M1 is the inverse gradient of the linear portion
of the consolidation curve.

25

5/3/2013

Procedure:
Plot settlement vs time.
Draw a straight line (OG) that coincides with the initial linear portion of
the consolidation curve.
Draw another straight line (OJ) through the corrected origin which has
an inverse gradient 1.15 times that of line AB.
Intersection of line OJ and consolidation curve gives the point (t
90,
90). Thus t90 = (abscissa of the point of intersection)2, and
2
cv = 0.848H /t90.

Casagrandes Lg(time) Curve Fitting Method

It has
h
b
been
observed
b
d that
th t secondary
d
compression,
i
lik mostt creep
like
phenomenon, increases linearly with the log10 of time. Thus if we plot
settlement vs lg (time), the consolidation curve would look like this:

26

5/3/2013

in which the secondary compression appears as a straight

line.
Identify the corrected zero using this: we know that at the
early part of the consol curve, = At

Choose 2 time instances t1 and t2 such that t2 = 4t1; then

1=at1 and 2=at2 = a(4t
( 1))=2at1 = 2
1
2 - 1= 1
Hence, can use 2 - 1 to locate the corrected zero.

End of primary consolidation = 1, is identified

(approximately) by the break in the slope between the
primary phase and the secondary phase, thereby allowing
us to find .
lg(t50),
) i.e.
i e the time for 50% primary consolidation
consolidation, is found
from the point on the consolidation curve with ordinate of
0.5.
At t50, = 0.5, T = 0.196 = cv t50/H2
=> cv = 0.196H2/t50. Thus, knowing t50, cv can be found.

THANK YOU. Its been a real pleasure

talking to you. Hope you have enjoyed
geotech in general and this part of the
module in p
particular,, as much as I have!

27