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Semiconductor Materials
Crystal Structure
Semiconductor Models
Semiconductor Doping
Carrier Statistic
Carrier Transport
Carrier Generation/Recombination
Literature:
Pierret, Chapter 1-3, page 1-132
Acknowledgement Oliver Brand for slides
August 18, 2014
Resistivity
[cm]
Insulators
105 <
Semiconductors
Conductors
Literature:
August 18, 2014
Semiconductor Materials
Semiconductors have
conductivities between those
of insulators and those of
conductors
Semiconductors are materials
whose electric properties
(e.g. conductivity & resistivity)
can be controlled over a wide
range by doping, i.e. addition
of controlled amounts of
specific impurity atoms
Semiconductor materials are
the base of all semiconductor
devices, such as diodes and
transistors (BJT and
MOSFET)
Resistivity/Conductivity of Insulators,
Semiconductor and Conductors
Elemental Semiconductors:
Silicon (Si), Germanium (Ge)
Compound Semiconductors:
III-V: e.g. Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)
II-VI: e.g. Zinc Selenide (ZnSe)
IV-IV: Silicon Carbide (SiC)
Alloy Semiconductors:
Binary:
Si1-xGex
Ternary:
AlxGa1-xAs
AlxIn1-xAs
GaAs1-xPx
Quaternary: GaxIn1-xAs1-yPy
Because of its well-developed
fabrication technology, SILICON
is by far the most important
semiconductor material
Classification of Solids
Solids can be classified based on their degree of atomic order
Amorphous
No recognizable
long-range order
Polycrystalline
Solid is made up of
crystallites, i.e.
segments which are
completely ordered
Crystalline
Entire solid is made
up of atoms in an
orderly array
Pierret, Fig. 1.1
http://departments.kings.edu/chemlab/chemlab_v2/
10
11
13
14
Zincblende Lattice
GaAs Crystal Structure
15
(632)
(001)
(22 1)
Pierret, Fig. 1.6
16
(hkl)
{hkl}
Equivalent planes
[hkl]
<hkl>
Equivalent directions
For cubic crystals, the direction [hkl] is normal to the plane (hkl)
August 18, 2014
17
18
Wafer Flats
Silicon wafers used for device processing have flats (or a notch)
indicating crystal direction and doping type
A {100} wafer has
{100} surface
For {100} wafer,
the surface direction
perpendicular
to primary flat
is [011]
How is a wafer
fabricated?
[011]
19
20
21
22
23
Single atom:
according to Bohrs
atom model, the
electrons occupy
well defined,
discrete energy
levels
Crystal: due to the interaction of neighboring atoms, the
discrete energy levels split up and a bandstructure is
developing featuring allowed and forbidden energy bands
August 18, 2014
24
From
Isolated
Atoms
to a Crystal
25
Band Gap
EV
26
27
Insulator
Semiconductor
Metal
August 18, 2014
Indirect Bandgap
p 0
Direct Bandgap
p = 0
29
30
Simplified Semiconductor
Bandstructure
mn*
Eg
Band Gap
mp*
EC
EV
31
meff
1 2E(k)
!2 k 2
Definition 3-D:
" 1 %
1 2E(k)
$
' = 2
# meff & ij ! k ik j
32
mn*/m0
mp*/m0
Si
1.18
0.81
Ge
0.55
0.36
GaAs
0.066
0.52
33
= mn*
dvn
dt
and F
= mp*
dvp
dt
carrier
acceleration generally varies with direction of
travel in the crystal
August 18, 2014
34
35
Semiconductor Doping
Doping in Bond Model:
N-Type Doping:
fifths valence electron does not
participate in covalent bonds to
next neighbors; only small energy
is required to free this electron,
thus contributing to the materials
conductivity
P-Type Doping:
due to doping atom with three
valence electrons, one electron is
missing for the covalent bonds to
the four next neighbors; this
missing electron (called a hole)
can hop from covalent bond to
bond, thus also contributing to the
materials conductivity
36
Semiconductor Doping
Doping in Band Model:
Doping atoms distort the periodicity of
the single-crystal crystal structure, thus
creating allowed (localized) energy
states in the band gap
N-Type Doping: additional electron
states ED close to the bottom of the
conduction band EC; at room
temperature, the electrons from these
states are excited into the conduction
band, increasing the conductivity
P-Type Doping: additional electron
states EA close to the top of the valence
band EV; at room temperature, these
states are occupied by electrons from
the valence band, increasing the
number of holes in the valence band
and, thus, the conductivity
August 18, 2014
EC - ED resp. EA - EV
kT = 0.026 eV
at room temperature
ED
EC
Ei
EV
P in Si: EC - ED = 0.045 eV
EC
Ei
EA
EV
B in Si: EA - EV = 0.045 eV
37
Carrier Concentration
Intrinsic Semiconductor (no doping: NA, ND = 0)
Carrier Concentration: n = p = ni
Extrinsic Semiconductor (doping concentration NA, ND 0)
Assumption: Complete Ionization (see Chapter 2.5)
Majority Carrier Concentrations:
N-Type Semiconductor:
Density of donor atoms: ND [cm-3]
Density of electrons (ND ni) : n ND [cm-3]
P-Type Semiconductor:
Density of acceptor atoms: NA [cm-3]
Density of holes (NA ni) : p NA [cm-3]
38
39
gC (E)dE =
gV (E)dE =
mn* 2mn* E EC
mp*
) dE E E 1/ 2
( C)
2! 3
2mp* EV E
2! 3
) dE E E 1/ 2
(V )
40
Density of States
E
gC(E)
EC
Band Gap
g(E)
EV
Units of g(E)dE are [cm-3]
gV(E)
41
f(E) =
1
1+ e(EEF )/ kT
42
EF = 1 eV
kT = 0.0259 eV
Fermi Function f(E)
0.5
0
0
Energy E [eV]
43
Physical Interpretation of
Fermi Energy EF
The Fermi energy EF has the function of a
thermodynamic potential
In thermodynamic equilibrium, EF is constant
across the device!!!
A gradient in EF indicates non-equilibrium, resulting in
a net flow of carriers
44
Boltzmann/Classical
Approximation
Away from E = EF, i.e. for |E EF| > 3kT, the Fermi function can
be approximated by exponential functions:
(
)
(EF E) > 3kT
E EF > 3kT
f(E) e(EEF )/ kT
f(E) 1 e(EEF )/ kT
45
Top
n=
gC (E) f(E) dE
EC
p=
EV
gV (E) 1 f(E) dE
!
#"#
$
Bottom
46
Carrier Concentration
Intrinsic
Extrinsic
N-Type
Extrinsic
P-Type
47
(EF EC )/kT
EC
3/2
# m* kT &
NC = 2 % n 2 (
%$ 2! ('
19
2.86 10 cm
"$$#$$%
EV
Si @ 300K
Ei
EC3kTEFEV+3kT
(EV EF )/kT
From Pierret:
3/2
3/2
# m* kT &
NV = 2 % p 2 (
%$ 2! ('
August 18, 2014
NC,V
" m* %
19
= 2.5110 $ n,p '
$# m0 '&
cm3
for Si @ 300K
48
EC
Ei
For electrons:
EV
2
n = NC
F1/ 2 ( C ) with C = (EF EC ) / kT
For holes:
2
p = NV
F1/ 2 ( V ) with V = (EV EF ) / kT
of order 1/2:
1/ 2
F1/ 2 c =
d
c
0 1+ e
( )
49
Intrinsic Semiconductor
No doping
Carrier concentration n = p = ni (for every electron in the
conduction band, we have a hole, i.e. missing electron,
in the valence band)
Fermi energy EF = Ei close to center of band gap
50
Intrinsic Semiconductor
No doping, i.e. intrinsic semiconductor with
n = p = ni and EF = Ei
From Boltzmann approximation with EF = Ei, we
obtain
n = NC e(Ei EC )/ kT = ni
p = NV e(EV Ei )/ kT = ni
Eg / kT
ni = NCNV e
Eg / 2kT
1010 cm3
!#"#$
Si @ 300K
51
Intrinsic Semiconductor
Carrier Concentration ni(T)
52
Location of Ei
From the intrinsic carrier concentrations
p = ni = NV e(EV Ei )/ kT
n = ni = NC e(Ei EC )/ kT
With n = p, the intrinsic Fermi level Ei can be extracted
NV e(EV Ei )/ kT = NC e(Ei EC )/ kT
*&
#
m
E + EV 3
p
Ei = C
+ kT ln% (
2
4
%$mn* ('
53
Extrinsic Semiconductor
With doping
Carrier concentration n p ni
Example: n-type semiconductor
54
Extrinsic Semiconductor
From Boltzmann approximation
n = ni e(EF Ei )/ kT
Analogous for the holes
p = ni
August 18, 2014
np
2
= ni
Mass-Action-Law
e(Ei EF )/ kT
55
56
p
!
holes
n
!
electrons
+
+ N
D
!
ionized
donors
N
A
!
=0
ionized
acceptors
p n + ND NA = 0
np
August 18, 2014
2
= ni
57
#ND NA &
ND NA
2
n=
+ %
+
n
i
(
2
2
$
'
2
#NA ND &
NA ND
2
p=
+ %
+
n
i
(
2
2
$
'
Special Cases:
ND >> NA
and ND >> ni :
p = ni2 / ND
NA >> ND and NA >> ni :
n = ND
p = NA
n = ni2 / NA
58
P-Type Semiconductor
The carrier concentration n or p
can be measured using the Hall
effect
Assume: p-type semiconductor
+
plate with L > W t (thin plate)
x
with current I applied in x-direction VH
W
+
F = q (v B) = (0,qv xBz ,0)
Bz
z
x
Hall Coefficient
59
60
Temperature
Dependence
of Carrier
Density
61
Extrinsic Semiconductor
Linking Doping and Carrier Concentration
62
63
!
!
Jp,drift = q p vd,p
!
!
Jn,drift = q n vd,n
August 18, 2014
64
Carrier Drift
For small electric fields, the drift velocity is
proportional to the applied electric field with the
mobility as proportionality factor:
vd,p = p
vd,n = n
Jp,drift = q p p
!
!
Jn,drift = q n n
!
!
!
Jdrift = Jn + Jp = q nn + pp
!
]
65
66
Carrier Mobility
Definition of the carrier mobility [cm2/Vs]:
vd,p
vd,n
Silicon (low-doped)
n 1360 cm2/Vs
p 460 cm2/Vs
n 8500 cm2/Vs
p 400 cm2/Vs
67
68
Scattering
Mechanisms I
(a) Impurity and (b) lattice
scattering limit the carrier
mobility
mean free time
q
between collisions
=
m*
effective mass
69
70
Scattering
Mechanisms II
T-dependence of the mobility:
Lattice Scattering:
in Si: ~ T(2.22.3) (experiment)
Reducing the temperature means
less thermal lattice vibration, i.e.
less interaction with carriers, i.e.
higher mobility
Impurity Scattering:
in Si: ~ T+1.5 (theory)
Dominant scattering mechanism at
low temperatures; interaction is
reduced at higher temperatures,
i.e. higher thermal velocities,
because carrier is less time in
close proximity to impurity
= (T, NA+ND)
August 18, 2014
Resistivity
Definition of conductivity
and resistivity [cm]
tensor:
!
! 1!
J==
1
=
q nn + pp
)
Pierret, Fig. 3.8
72
Four-Point Probe
The resistivity of a
semiconductor can be
determined by a currentvoltage measurement using
a four-point probe
V
= W CF
I
73
1
EC Eref
q
hole
movement
electron
movement acceleration
collision
loss of energy
EC
Ei
EV
x
Electrostatic Field :
= V
= 1 dEC
q dx
1 dEV 1 dEi
=
q dx
q dx
ECE 3040: Chapter 2.1-2.2 Semiconductor
Fundamentals
x
74
75
F = D
with the diffusion coefficient D [cm2/s] as proportionality constant
76
Diffusion Current
In case of diffusion of charged particles, i.e. electron
and holes in our case, a diffusion current is resulting
(equaling the product of flux density and carrier
charge)
Jp,diff = q Dp p
Jn,diff = q Dn n
77
!
!
!
Jp = q p p q Dp p
!
!
!
Jn = q n n + q Dn n
! !
!
J = Jn + Jp
August 18, 2014
78
79
Einstein Relations
From
we obtain
n = ni e(EF Ei )/ kT
dn
ni (EF Ei )/ kT dEi
q (EF Ei )/ kT
= e
= nie
#"##
$
dx
kT
dx
kT !#
=n
knowing that =
1 dEi
q dx
and
dEF
=0
dx
kT
kT
Dn =
n and Dp =
p
q
q
80
81
82
Generation
Band-to-band R-G
processes only involve
electron in conduction band
and hole in valence band
R-G center generation/
recombination requires
R-G center (lattice defect or
impurity which generates
states in the bandgap)
Auger recombination
requires 3 carriers (either 2
holes and 1 electron or 2
electrons and 1 hole)
All processes occur at all
times (even in equilibrium),
with the process having the
highest rate dominating
Recombination
2.7.1 Generation/
Recombination
Processes
83
Momentum Considerations
Band-to-Band vs. R-G Center R-G Processes
Direct
Semiconductor
(e.g. GaAs)
Indirect
Semiconductor
(e.g. Si or Ge)
Pierret, Fig. 3.18
84
Perturbation:
Carrier Injection/Generation
2
p n > ni
Processes:
Photogeneration
Operation of diode in forward direction
Impact ionization
85
Perturbation:
Carrier Extraction/Recombination
2
p n < ni
Process:
Operation of diode in reverse direction
86
Carrier Generation/Recombination
After switching off the distortion, the system returns to
the equilibrium state (p n = ni2) with a characteristic
time constant, i.e. excess carriers will recombine (in case
p n > ni2) or additional carriers will be generated (in case
p n < n i2)
Notation:
nn
pn
nn0, pn0
np
pp
np0, pp0
87
Low-Level/High-Level Injection
Example: Injection by photogeneration (n = p) in n-type material
Low-Level Injection:
High-Level Injection:
n = p << ND
n = p ND
nn = nn0 + n nn0
nn 1015 cm3
nn 1017 cm3
pn 1012 cm3
pn 1017 cm3
n = p = 1017 cm3
88
Low-Level/High-Level Injection
Example:
N-type semiconductor
ND = 1015 cm-3
Equilibrium:
nn0 = ND = 1015 cm-3
pn0 = ni2/n = 105 cm-3
Low-Level Injection:
n = p = 1012 cm-3
nn nn0 = 1015 cm-3
pn p = 1012 cm-3 < nn0
High-Level Injection:
n = p = 1017 cm-3
nn 1017 cm-3 > nn0
pn p = 1017 cm-3 > nn0
Equilibrium
August 18, 2014
LL Injection
HL Injection
89
Equilibrium:
Non-Equilibrium:
90
Band-to-Band Recombination
In non-equilibrium, the change in minority carrier concentration
is:
dpn (t)
= GL + Gth R
dt
Assuming steady state, dpn/dt = 0, we obtain
GL = R Gth U
[(
=G th
)(
= nn0 + pn0 + p p
Assuming low-level injection, i.e. p and pn0 << nn0, we obtain
August 18, 2014
91
Band-to-Band Recombination
U = nn0 p =
nn0
pn pn0 pn pn0
=
1
p
nn0
dpn (t)
pn pn0
pn
= GL U = GL
= GL
dt
p
p
pn (t) = pn0 + p GL e
t / p
92
Measurement of p
Illuminate semiconductor
sample with light and
measure its electrical
resistance (or the voltage
drop across the sample):
a. n-doped sample under
constant illumination
b. Minority carrier
concentration in steady
state (t < 0) and after
switching off the illumination
c. Experimental setup to
determine the minority
carrier lifetime p
August 18, 2014
Initial slope:
-p/p
93
Dominant recombination
process in indirect
semiconductors, such as Si
Indirect recombination &
generation of electron-hole
pairs via localized energy
states in the band gap, so
called recombination
centers or R-G centers
The R-G centers are
characterized by their
energy Et and their density
Nt
94
95
In a more involved derivation, an expression similar to that of the bandto-band R/G case can be obtained for R-G center recombination/
generation (again assuming minority carriers and low-level injection) in
response to a perturbation:
dpn (t)
p
= GL U = GL n
dt
p
and
dt
= GL
np
n
The minority carrier lifetimes are now inversely proportional the R-G
center concentration NT:
1
n
NT
dnp (t)
1
and p
NT
In case of arbitrary injection levels and for both carrier types in a nondegenerate semiconductor, we find:
U=
pnnn ni2
(E E )/kT
(E E )/kT
p #$pn + ni e i t %& + n #$nn + ni e t i %&
ECE 3040: Chapter 2.1-2.2 Semiconductor
Fundamentals
96
97
n n
n
n
n
=
+
+
+
t t drift t diffusion t thermal RG t other processes
"$$#$$% "$#$% "$
$#$$
%
1 !
= Jn
q
n
n
e.g. GL
p p
p
p
p
=
+
+
+
t t drift t diffusion t thermal RG t other processes
"$$#$$% "$#$% "$
$#$$
%
1 !
= Jp
q
p
p
e.g. GL
98
Jn = q n n + q Dn n
np (x,t)
t
2np
np np0
= +np n
+
+ Dn 2 + GL
n
x
x
n
x
np
pn (x,t)
pn
2pn
pn pn0
= pn p
p
+Dp 2 + GL
%
t
x"###
x
p
!###
$ !#"x
#
$ Perturb. !#"
#
$
Drift
Diffusion
thermal RG
99