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(3 Mental Operation)
rd
Reasoning:
Definition: a mental operation through which the agreement or disagreement of two ideas is inferred
from their known relation to a common third idea.
Expressed through inference, hence, when referring to reasoning, inference is implied and vice-versa.
Inference has its distinct meanings (compared to reasoning), but since inference is the manner through
which reasoning is expressed it would take these two terms as correlative existence and having
synonymous meaning.
METHODS OF REASONING
Induction (inductive reasoning) proceed from an individual or particular data to a general or universal
conclusion.
e.g.
Enrique is a man.
Enrique is mortal.
All men are mortal.
e.g.
INFERENCE (Symbol is )
Definition: - any process through which the mind proceeds from one or more propositions to other
propositions whose meanings are already implied in the former.
o
e.g.
IMMEDIATE (education; logical opposition) process of reasoning through which the mind passes
directly from one proposition to a new proposition, which is nothing else but a reformulation (partial or
complete) of the very exact meaning or truth expressed in the original proposition. Explicitly, no new truth or
meaning is achieved in an immediate inference. Thus, it doesnt offer any advancement of knowledge. It
suggests that immediate inference contains only two terms, i.e. subject term and predicate term. It doesnt
use a third term called the middle term.
e.g.
Conversion refers to the formulation of a new proposition by way of interchanging the subject
and the predicate terms of an original proposition, with the quality of the original proposition
retained.
a. Two parts:
Convertend (the original proposition)
Converse (the new proposition)
e.g.
Partial conversion (only for A & E) the quantity of the convertend is reduced from
universal to particular.
e.g.
ii.
Obvertend
All men are mortal. (A)
(Su)
(Pp)
No men are mortal. (E)
(Su)
(Pu)
Some men are mortal. (I)
(Sp)
(Pp)
Some men are not mortal. (O)
(Sp)
(Pu)
Obverse
No men are non-mortal. (E)
(Su)
(Pu)
All men are non-mortal. (A)
(Su)
(Pu)
Some men are not non-mortal (O)
(Sp)
(Pu)
Some men are non-mortal. (I)
(Sp)
(Pu)
iii.
Types of Contraposition:
a. Partial or simple contraposition involves the formulation of a new proposition (contraposit) as
follows:
i.
Its (contraposit) subject is the contradictory of the predicate term of the original proposition
(contraponend);
ii.
The quality of the contraponend is changed in the contraposit
iii.
The predicate term in the contraposit is the subject term in the contraponend.
A is changed to E; E is changed to I; and an O to I.
e.g.
1.
(Contraponend)
(Contraposit)
2.
(Contraponend)
(Contraposit)
(Contraponend)
(Contraposit)
mammals. (A)
Pp
are whales. (E)
Pu
dogs. (E)
Pu
are fishes. (I)
Pp
not studious. (O)
Pu
are students (I)
Pp
Note: I propositions do not have contraposit; obversion of I propositions are O propositions; after
obversion is conversion but O cannot be converted. Therefore, I propositions cannot be
subjected to contraposition.
b. Complete contraposition a new proposition (contraposit) is formulated according to the following
conditions:
i.
The subject term in the contraposit is the contradictory of the predicate term in the
contraponend
ii.
The quality of the contraponend is not changed in the contraposit
iii.
The predicate term in the contraposit is the contradictory of the subject term in the
contraponend.
In complete contraposition, an A is changed to A, then E to O and O to O.
e.g.
1. (Contraponend) All whales are mammals. (A) to (Contraposit)
All non-mammals are non-whales. (A)
2. (Contraponend) No fish is a dog. (E) to (Contraposit) Some non-dog is not a non-fish. (O)
3. (Contraponend) Some students are not studious. (O) to (Contraposit)
Some non-studious are not non-students. (O)
Inversion(only for A proposition) this is a method of education in which the mind, through
obversion and conversion, finally arrives at a judgment (inverse) whose subject and predicate terms are
contradictories of the subject and predicate terms in the original proposition (invertend)
e.g.
Contradictory opposition opposition that exists between two propositions with the same
subject and predicate terms but different in quantity and quality. [differ in quantity and quality]
Contrary opposition opposition that exists between two universal propositions having the
same subject and predicate terms but differ in quantity. [differ in quantity]
Subcontrary opposition opposition that exists between two particular propositions with the
same subject and predicate terms but different in quality.[differ in quality]
Subaltern opposition opposition that exists between two propositions with the same
subject and predicate terms but different in quantity.[differ in quantity]
o For purposes of distinction: A & E propositions are called subalternant (superior) while I & O
are called subalternate (subaltern)
The Square of Opposition
(with Venn/Euler Diagram)
8.
If O is false, E is false
Definition:
A process of reasoning in which from one proposition, with the aid of another proposition (or the third
term) called medium, the mind infers not only a new proposition but also a new truth.
o The new truth must be distinct from the previously asserted ones, but must necessarily follow
from them.
o Mediate inference clearly requires three propositions
Syllogism:
Remember:
o Term = verbal expression of an idea
o Proposition = verbal expression of a judgment
o Inference = verbal expression of reasoning
If immediate = only two propositions are needed
If mediate = needs three propositions which is called syllogism.
Definition:
o An argument ( or a series of statements connected to each other in order to establish a definite
proposition) consisting of three propositions which are so related that when the first two
propositions are posited as true, the third proposition must also be true.
o Parts or elements of Syllogism:
The first two propositions are called premises.
Premises are divided into major premise and minor premise.
o Major premise contains the major term
o Minor premise contains the minor term
Conclusion is the third proposition whose meaning and truth is implied in (or drawn
from) the premises.
Expresses the relationship of the minor term to the major term whether they are in agreement or
disagreement with each other.
o It uses three terms namely: major term, middle term, minor term.
(major premise)
(minor premise)
(conclusion)
Middle term occurs only in the two premises (major and minor) either as subject or predicate
but never in the conclusion. It serves to unify the major and minor terms in affirmative syllogism
and separating these terms in negative syllogism. M is referred to the middle term.
e.g.
(major premise)
(minor premise)
(conclusion)
Mortal.
(T)
men.
(M)
mortal.
(T)
The Principle of Identity: Everything is what it is.(That which is, cannot be not
what it is.) things are what they are in themselves.
e.g. circles, square, carabaos, stars, moon, horses, house, man
2.
3.
The Principle of the Identifying Third: Two things that are identical with the
same third thing are identical with one another.
e.g. A is B; B is C; A is C
4.
The Principle of the Separating Third: Two things of which the one is identical
with the same third thing but the other of which is not are not identical with one another.
e.g.
Note: any argument that violates at least one of these rules is invalid (not a syllogism). Specific violations
are called fallacies.
2. Every categorical syllogism must contain only three univocal terms, each of which occurs twice, but not
in the same proposition. e.g.
Invalid:
Valid:
Lapu-lapu is the killer of Magellan.
All flowers are
beautiful
Lapu-lapu is a fish.
Sampaguita is a
flower.
3. The middle term must be distributed(Qty-u, & univocal), at least once. e.g.
Valid
All trees are plants.
A
(Mu)
(T)
All kamagongs are trees. A
(t)
(M p)
All kamagongs are plants.
(t)
(T)
Mu + Tp
tu + Mp
A
tu + Tp
Invalid
All lions are animals.
(Tu)
(Mp)
All men are animals.
(tu)
(Mp)
All men are lions.
(tu)
(Tp)
(Fallacy of undistributed
middle)
4. If the term is distributed in the conclusion, then such term must be distributed in a premise. e.g.
Invalid
Invalid
Some scientific gadgets are cellular phones I
Mp + Tp
Some lawyers
are holy.
I Tp + Mp
(Mp)
(Tp)
(T
(Mp)
All robots are scientific gadgets.
A
tu + Mp
No criminals are holy.
E tu + M u
(tu)
(Mp)
(t)
(M u)
All robots are cellular phones.
A
tu + Tp
No criminals are
lawyers. E tu + Tu
(tu)
(Tp)
(t)
(T)
(Fallacy of illicit major)
I Tp + Mp
I tp + Mp
I
tp + Tp
Tu +
tp +
tp +
7. If the conclusion is negative, only one premise must be negative (or if one premise is negative, the
conclusion must be negative, or the minor and major premises must not be both negative.)
Valid
All lawyers are professionals
A
Tu + Mp
(T)
(M)
Some criminals are not professionals. O
tp - Mu
(t)
(M)
Some criminals are not lawyers.
O
tp - Tu
(t)
(T)
(Violation will result to the fallacy of illicit
exclusion)
Valid
All legislators are senators.
tu
Mp
All senators are millionaires.
Mu
Tp
All legislators are
tu
Tp
Figures and Moods of Categorical Syllogism refers to the logical form of syllogism from the standpoint of
the arrangement of the terms (major term, minor term, and middle term) and the arrangement of the
propositions (major, minor premises) according to quantity and quality.
1.
2.
A
A
A
E
A
I
A
O
E
A
E
E
E
I
E
O
I
A
1
0
I
E
1
1
I
I
1
2
I
O
1
3
O
A
1
4
O
E
1
5
O
I
1
6
O
O
The rules of categorical syllogism dictate that only 8 of these arrangements are valid, namely: (the others are
all invalid)
Premises
Major Premise
Minor Premise
3.
A
A
A
E
A
I
A
O
E
A
E
I
I
A
1
3
O
A
4.
if the major premise is affirmative (A or I), the minor premise must be universal (A or E)
if the minor premise is affirmative (A or I), the conclusion must be particular (I or O)
if one of the premises (and the conclusion) is negative (E or O), the major premise must be
universal.