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ELSEVIER
0141-0296(95)00211-1
A. S. Elnashai
Engineering Seismology and Earthquake Enginering Section, Imperial College, London, UK
(Received October 1994; revised version accepted October 1995)
columns,
rotation
ductility,
Introduction
In composite construction, the properties of steel and concrete may be combined to offer efficient solutions to the
design of engineering structures. For building systems,
composite frames commonly form the most economical solution to the diverse requirements of stiffness, strength and
insulation. For structures required to resist earthquake
loads, this economy is especially relevant. Moreover, the
inherent ductility possessed by composite members allows
a greater level of energy dissipation to be achieved, further
increasing their applicability to earthquake resistant structures. These features are most significant in the case of
moment-resisting frames, where lateral resistance is primarily provided by the flexural resistance of the beam and
column members. While such structures present difficulties
in design analysis, principally with respect to the stability
of column members, it is here that the enhanced ductility
supply provided by properly designed composite members
696
697
.o=O~-l=0yOp
(I)
q~
Ou
~'*--Oy - 4
Mp
~ response'~
highly-ductile
0p
=',
ductile /
I
/ ~~ i~ . ~\ non-ductile
response I
response
elastic!
plastic
-I
seismic
Rotation
in which Ou is the ultimate rotation corresponding to a limiting criterion, Oy is the rotation at yield and Op is the rotation
which occurs in the plastic hinge, namely
Op = Ou- Oy.
(2)
698
(a) L o a d i n g
,,-----CL~
I
I
Reinforcing
Transverse
Hoops
/
"' "
Spot-Weld
(4)
where, for the storey under consideration, Ptot is total gravity load, dr is the design interstorey drift, Vtot is the total
seismic design shear and h is the height. In addition to the
above restriction on interstorey drift, as a further check on
the stability, the stability index of each storey is monitored
throughout its response and compared with the limit prescribed by Eurocode 8, namely,
0 ~< 0 . 3 .
while that of equation (4) imposes a similar limit on deformation in terms of a structure's resistance and gravity loading. To ensure that the strength demands imposed on a
structure are not excessive, the formation of plastic hinges
is also monitored. The formation of a column hinging collapse mechanism implied by the simultaneous existence of
plastic hinges at the upper and lower ends of each column
constitutes a state of failure. In this regard, the occurrence
of a plastic hinge is identified by the exceedance of the
yield strain in both tension and compression flanges of the
column. The formation of other mechanisms which do not
lead to storey instability are not taken as implying the
occurrence of a failure condition.
(3)
0 = V,o~h'
699
(5)
Collapse mechanism formation. The condition of equation (3) limits the allowable deformation in each storey,
Steel columns. A number of models based on plate buckling theory have been proposed for the prediction of the
rotation capacity of steel members 2,8-~. To ensure these
capacities are sufficient to meet the level of demand experienced in the dissipative zones of earthquake resistant
frames, it is of primary importance that a critical member
is capable of attaining a level of strain in its compression
flange in excess of that at which strain-hardening occurs.
In this regard, the present provisions of the structural design
codes in placing limits on sectional slendernesses are sufficient for the level of ductility required in conventional
design processes. In seismic design, however, higher
rotation ductility demands may require that critical buckling strains be far in excess of that at which strain hardening
commences, implying that the provision of smaller b/t
ratios may be necessary. Inelastic plate buckling theory,
which relies upon the application of modified material
properties to elastic relationships, cannot be relied upon to
predict these high critical strains.
To overcome this difficulty, a more rigorous approach
to the evaluation of the rotation ductility capacity of steel
members was undertaken by Kato ~~,~2 which accounted for
the change from elastic to inelastic material properties
along the length of the member, allowed for the yield plateau in the stress-strain response and employed a critical
buckling strain, rather than the plastic hinge length, as a
limiting condition. To facilitate the numerical and derivational procedure, Kato employed a simplified model of
an I-section consisting of two flanges which possessed the
same combined area and moment of inertia as the actual
700
section
initially
(Figure4a).
1)/2
by
s-1
[El
(6)
/J,o - 4(1--p~-(s-p) 2 ~ ~ ( 2 s - 3 p + l ) ( s - l )
h E~t
+ 3h~-(s-2p+ 1
for(s-
)]
/xo - 2 ( 1 - p ) ( s - p )
+ 2p2(p+3)]+ 3h_~%(s-2ps+l)J,
(7)
while for p = 0
, rE,
)]+3,
S(s2_l)]
(8)
= 0.689 +
0.651
O{f
0.0553
+- _+ 0.0303
(9)
O~w
in which a s = [E(b-/b)2]/~ryrand aw = [E(tw/d)2]/~rywrepresent the slenderness of the flange and the web, respectively. The above relationships are further employed in the
derivation of expressions for the flange and web width-tothickness ratios required to achieve a given level of
rotational ductility capacity.
Unlike predictions based on plate theory, the solution for
the critical buckling stress given by equation (9) does not
increase asymptotically with decreasing (b/t), instead tending towards a maximum level dependent on the resistance
provided by the web. This feature is most probably a consequence of quality control measures in the steel production
process through which the ultimate stress/yield stress ratio
is restricted to a maximum level, typically of the order of
1.2. Kato's method therefore reflects the true behaviour of
steel structures as found in practice, at least as far as the
experimental sample is concerned. The implications of
higher ultimate stresses on the accuracy of equation (9)
have not been reported, making it difficult to evaluate its
sensitivity in this respect.
Partially-encased composite beam-columns. In experiments and during actual earthquakes, composite structures
have been seen to achieve significant improvements in
rotation ductility over that displayed by equivalent steel
structures j3. In particular, the interaction of the concrete
and steel components allow properly detailed partiallyencased composite beam-columns to undergo multiple
stable oscillations at high rotational ductilities by ensuring
that confinement of the compression concrete and resistance
to local and lateral buckling of the compression elements
of the steel section is sustained at high levels of curvature
and strain ~4:6. In addition to the reinforcement detailing
characteristics of these members, the relevant dimensions
and material properties of the various components of their
cross-sections determine the maximum rotations that can
be reliably achieved. The evaluation of member ultimate
rotation capacities cannot be performed by the examination
of cross-sections alone, as allowance must be made for the
spread of plasticity along the length of the member arising
due to curvature distributions which are dependent on
highly variable moment-curvature relationships.
To determine the rotation ductility capacity of members
with the cross-sections shown in Figure 3, a parallel procedure to that employed by Kato for bare steel members is
employed ~5. The simplified models shown in Figure 5 are
used to determine the moments and curvatures at each critical point in the monotonic response of a cantilever member.
Under earthquake loading, the columns in a frame may be
considered to behave as a collection of cantilever elements,
Ocl . . . . .
I
I
I
Est
I
Est
I
I
l it
%
(rcr
(a) Equivalent Steel Section
section
701
Osc
Esh
:2
iiiiiiLIIII_!!illi iiiii
z 1
......... i ..
rt
fe
.i ........
True Response
O.
~:~t
0.4
0.8
s/b
--~ s
1.2
E = 210,000
1.6
N/rnm 2
Ec
Ec2
Ec3
. . . . . . . .
Flange Buckling Strain
No r m a l l z e a L . r a lcal ~ t r a l n -
Yield Strain
:~ I ~ ~ - - - - - - : - - k - : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~. . .
~11! ~
V'~ $t ~ ,
:!
Cu~rature"J
Moment-Curvature Characteristic
i
I
i ........
~_iifL
I
=! i /
I
'
! J~t
YL5
tt
--/-- .....
F"
L
,'
Composite Cantilever Member
-L
oi
"1
Curvature Distribution
702
Table 1
Test
capacities
El
My
Ay
Mo
(Nmm 2)
(kNm)
(mm)
(kNm)
Au
(mm)
/z,j
IC02-Exp.
-Anal.
2.62 x 1012
2.85 1012
61.1
80.8
11.2
13.6
89.8
90.4
66
73.2
4.9
4.4
ICA2-Exp.
-Anal.
2.61 1012
3.07 1012
71.1
81.4
11.0
10.7
90.0
89.5
75
73.6
5.8
5.9
ICB2-Exp.
-Anal.
2.93 x 1012
4.35 x 1012
78.4
113.3
10.8
10.5
118.7
119.3
60
51.5
5.5
4.9
(10a)
(10b)
(10c)
703
tory. The acceleration histories show a large degree of variation in the number of acceleration cycles of significant
magnitude contained within each of them. In this regard,
the E1 Centro and Gazli records are the most onerous, while
the significant content of the Friuli record is contained in
only a few acceleration pulses. The composite frames
whose analytical responses are presented in a companion
paper generally possess fundamental natural periods in the
range 0.7-1.2 s. Only the Gazli record fails to possess
maximum spectral accelerations in this range, while the
Loma Prieta NS record in particular continues to significantly amplify the response of structures of period well in
excess of one second.
Figure 8 compares the acceleration response of spectra
of each of the six earthquake records and the EC8 design
spectra for each of the soil types A, B and C. In each case,
the peak ground acceleration has been scaled to 0.25 g and
the damping ratio set at 5%. The variation in the range of
periods in which large amplification occurs, even within
a/v classifications, is obvious. The shapes of the spectra for
both Loma Prieta records and that for the Spitak earthquake
are similar, as are those of the E1 Centro and Gazli records.
In contrast, the spectra for the Friuli record is quite unique.
Overall, the envelope of the response spectra of the selected
earthquakes is seen to completely encompass the design
spectra at all but the lowest and highest frequencies. In
addition, for the initial stages of the descending region of
the design spectrum, in which the fundamental periods of
the frames under consideration here are located, the
majority of spectra clearly exceed the code requirements.
2.5
Sv(T,/3)dT,
(11)
O.1
704
Earthquake event
Direction
Epicentral distance
Soil type
Magnitude ML
Fruili
Friuli
(6 May 1976)
Gazli
(17 May 1976)
Loma Prieta
(17 October 1979)
Imperial Valley
(18 May 1940)
Spitak
(17 December 1988)
Loma Prieta
(17 October 1979)
EW
52 km
Rock
6.4
EW
14 km
7.3
S80W
97 km
Intermediate
stiffness
Soft
7.1
S00E
8 km
Stiff
6.6
Trans.
27 km
6.8
N10W
97 km
Intermediate
stiffness
Soft
Gazli
L. Prieta EW
El Centro
Spitak
L. Prieta NS
7.1
Peak ground
acceleration (g)
Peak ground
velocity (m sec 1)
a/v ratio
g m 1 sec 2
Period of maximum
amplification (s)
Fruili
Gazli
L. Prieta EW
El Centro
Spitak
L. Prieta NS
0.159
0.724
0.213
0.344
0.182
0.250
0.080
0.606
0.216
0.365
0.237
0.433
1.99
1.20
0.99
0.94
0.77
0.58
0.95
0.13
0.65
0.26
0.36
1.20
Table 4 Scaling of accelerograms to design peak ground acceleration and EC8 design spectrum spectral intensity
Scaling of ground motion accelerations
aglr~o)
(g)
[ ag(design)]/
SIEQ
SIEc8/SIEQ
[ag{r,a)]
(=A)
(m)
(=B)
Total scale
(=AxB)
ag{........ )
(g)
Fru i li
Gazli
L. Prieta EW
El Centro
Spitak
L. Prieta NS
0.159
0.724
0.213
0.344
0.182
0.250
1.56
0.35
1.17
0.73
1.37
1.00
143.7
71.3
116.3
100.5
95.6
192.3
1.20
2.42
1.48
1.72
1.80
0.90
1.89
0.84
1.74
1.25
2.47
0.90
0.301
0.608
0.371
0.430
0.500
0.225
Mean,/~
Std. dev., ~
COV = ~//~
0.312
0.194
0.62
1.03
0.40
0.39
119.9
39.1
0.33
1.75
0.38
0.22
1.52
0.58
0.38
0.406
0.126
0.31
Record
Sv(Ti,/3) -
S,(T,,/3).
2rr
T~
'
(12)
where Sa is the spectral acceleration. Thus Sv may be considered to be a reflection of the acceleration response spectrum and the spectrum intensity, SI, considered to be the
area under the psuedo-spectral velocity characteristic
between the limits indicated. The effect of scaling to equal
spectrum intensitites is to ensure that earthquake records
possess equal energy contents between the periods 0.1 and
2.5 s. It has been demonstrated 26 that such a procedure sig-
Conclusions
.
i ~
,a,
c~i
:.,
1.2 ~ alv
" *
(High)
O"
0.04
0. l
Period (s)
0.75
El
:~
I t
/.
0.5
I .,
-,~. i ~/~.-
'i >
Centro
"._'. ",
ECS-C,,A
......:.:
.<
........
r~
0
0.04
0.1
"k.--.k.
,
"~
"'" "~'""
5
Period (s)
0.75
,-.
.~
0.5
m
<o
~ 0.25
705
Z"
) : ~.-.~.~-~..',
-'., "
L,,'%
,: i i .X,';,,
L.Prieta (NS)
Ecs-ct, B
.,;~
(c)
a/v <0.8
flow)
0
,...,,..,.
.....
0.04
O.1
Period (s)
1
2
3
4
5
706
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
in the United States', in: Composite and hybrid structures Proc. U.S.Japan Workshop, (Goel,S. and Yamanouchi, H. Eds), Berkeley, CA,
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Ansourian, P. "Plastic rotation of composite beams', J. Struct. Engng,
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Haaijer, G. and Thurlimann, B. 'On inelastic buckling in steel', Proe.
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Trahair, N. S. and Bradford, M. A. 'Local buckling of thin plate
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Wright, H. D. 'Buckling of plates in contact with a rigid medium',
Struct. Engr 1993, 71, 209-215
Kato, B. 'Rotation capacity of H-section members as determined by
local buckling', J. Constr. Steel Res. 1989, 13, 95-109
Kato, B. 'DeIbrmation capacity of steel structures', J. Constr. Steel
Res. 1990, 17, 33-94
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400 427
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beam-columns in multi-storey structures. Part l: experimental studies'. J. Const. Steel Res. 1994, 30, 201-230
17