Air and the Atmosphere

Candidates should be able to:

(a) Describe the volume composition of clean air in terms of
79% nitrogen, 20% oxygen, and the remainder being noble gases
(with argon as main constituent) and carbon dioxide.
(b) Name some common atmospheric pollutants (carbon
monoxide; methane; nitrogen oxides (NO and NO2); ozone; sulfur
dioxide; unburnt hydrocarbons)
(c) State sources of these pollutants as
(i) Carbon monoxide from the incomplete combustion of
carbon-containing substances
(ii) Nitrogen oxides from lightning activity and internal
combustion engines.
(iii) Sulfur dioxide from volcanoes and combustion of
fossil fuels.
(d) Describe the reactions used in possible solutions to the
problems arising from some of the pollutants in (b)
(i) Redox reactions in catalytic converters to remove
combustion pollutants,
(ii) The use of calcium carbonate to reduce the effects of
'acid rain and in flue gas desulfurisation.
(e) Discuss some of the effects of these pollutants on health
and on the environment
(i) The poisonous nature of carbon monoxide
(ii) The role of nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide in the
formation of acid rain and its effects on respiration, buildings and
plants.
(iii) The role of nitrogen dioxide, methane and unburnt
hydrocarbons in the formation of photochemical smog.
(f) Describe the importance of the ozone layer and the
problems involved with the depletion of ozone by reaction with
chlorine containing compounds, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
(g) Describe the carbon cycle in simple terms to include
(i) The process of combustion, respiration and
photosynthesis
(ii) How carbon cycle regulates the amount of carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere.
(h) State that carbon dioxide and methane are greenhouse
gases and may contribute to global warming, give the sources
of these gases and discuss the possible consequences of an
increase in global warming.

Composition of Air

Common Atmospheric Pollutants

Carbon monoxide
o Sources: Incomplete combustion of carbon-containing
substances, forest fires
o Colourless, odourless gas
o Forms when there is insufficient air during combustion
o Poisonous as it readily combines with haemoglobin in
our lungs to form carboxy-haemoglobin, inhibiting our
oxygen intake and killing us
Methane
o Sources: Bacterial decay of vegetation, agriculture
(produced by cows and other farm animals), leakage
of gas pipes
o Colourless, odourless gass
o Greenhouse gas
Nitrogen oxides (NO and NO2)
o Sources: Lightning activity, forest fires and internal
combustion of engines, burners in power stations,
factories and incinerators
o At high temperatures, nitrogen and oxygen in the air
form nitrogen monoxide
N2 (g) + O2 (g) 2NO (g)
o Nitrogen monoxide further oxidises to form nitrogen
dioxide
2NO (g) + O2 (g) 2NO2 (g)

o Oxides of nitrogen are usually described as NOx

Ozone
o Sources: Action of sunlight on other pollutants such as
nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons
o Absorbs UV rays from the sun in the atmosphere
o Forms photochemical smog with abovementioned
pollutants, which appears as brownish haze
Sulfur dioxide
o Sources: Volcanoes and combustion of sulfur impurities
in fossil fuels
o When sulfur is burnt, it is oxidised to form sulfur dioxide
o S (s) + O2 (g) SO2 (g)
Unburnt hydrocarbons
o Sources: Incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons in
engines
o Hydrocarbons contain C and H atoms
CFCs (Chlorofluorocarbons)
o Sources (banned currently): Aerosol propellants, coolant
liquids in refrigerators, manufacturing of polystyrene
products, cleaning of grease from electrical components
o Compounds of carbon, chlorine and fluorine
Important examples: CFCl3, CF2Cl2
o Depletes ozone layer when sunlight decomposes CFCs
into chlorine atoms, which then react with ozone
molecules by converting them into O2, thus causing
increased levels of harmful UV radiation

Effects of Air Pollutants

Pollutant
Sulfur dioxide

Nitrogen oxides

Carbon monoxide

Effects
Irritates eyes
Breathing problems
Acid rain
o Impedes growth of
plants
o Corrodes stone-made
structures
Irritate and damage lungs
Acid rain
o Impedes growth of
plants
o Corrodes stone-made
structures
Reacts with sunlight and
other pollutants to form
ozone
Breathing problems


Methane
Unburnt hydrocarbons

Ozone

Photochemical smog

Reduces ability of blood to

carry oxygen
Death
Global warming
Cancer
React with sunlight and
other pollutants to form
ozone
Irritates eyes, nose and
throat
Asthma attacks
Damages plant crops
Burns eyes
Exacerbates heart and
breathing problems
Poisonous to plants
Damages materials such
as paint and rubber

Reducing Air Pollution

1. Catalytic Converters
o Removes about 95% of pollutants from exhaust gases
o In the first half of the converter, nitrogen oxides react
with carbon monoxide as they pass through a catalyst
(usually platinum)
o 2CO (g) + 2NO (g) 2CO2 (g) + N2 (g)
o In the second half of the converter, air enters and
oxidises unburnt hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide to
form carbon dioxide and water
2. Use cleaner fuels
o Oil fuels used in Singapore are not allowed to contain
more than 2% of sulfur
o Increasingly, compressed natural gas is used as an
alternative to diesel, which contains no sulfur
3. Flue Gas Desulfurization
o Used in power stations burning coal or oil
o Limestone is added to chimney of power station and
decomposes to give calcium oxide
o CaCO3 (s) CaO (s) + CO2 (g)
o Calcium oxide then removes sulfur dioxide as calcium
sulfite
o CaO (s) + SO2 (g) CaSO3 (s)
o Calcium sulfite reacts with oxygen to form unreactive
CaSO4 and dumped
o Advantages:
i. Limestone is cheap

ii. 95% of sulfur dioxide is removed

Acid Rain
Rainfall that has an acidity level beyond what is expected in
non-polluted rainfall
Causes soils to be more acidic and inhibits plant growth
Corrodes buildings made of limestone or cement
Attacks metals
Destroys aquatic organisms
Formed by sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide when reacted
with rainwater
o Formation of acid rain by sulfur dioxide:
Sulfur dioxide reacts with rainwater and oxygen to
form sulfuric acid
2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) + 2H2O (l) 2H2SO4 (aq)
o Formation of acid rain by nitrogen dioxide:
Nitrogen dioxide reacts with rainwater and oxygen
to form nitric acid
4NO2 (g) + O2 (g) + 2H2O (l) 4HNO3 (aq)
Can be reduced by adding slaked lime (calcium hydroxide)
added to soil and calcium carbonate to lakes
Carbon Cycle