Intelligent Electric Vehicles Fueling System

Abstract This work represents an attempt to develop a system for fueling electric vehicles, in order to
bring into realisation better costs and autonomy than what we are faced with currently. The main purpose
of the article is portray the design of the control component for such a system. The primary constraints
regarding the actual building of the electric vehicles are presented in the first part. The central idea in
which this solution finds its roots, as well as its architecture, are displayed further on. Even further, the
construction of the supervisor, which has a controlling role, is presented, the study and validation through
stimulation of the behaviour and performance of it being found in the final part of this paper.
Index terms Electric Vehicles, Accumulators, Supercapacitors, Energy Ruter, Supervisor, Convex
Optimisation

1. Introduction
As days go by, we notice more and more vehicle producers turning their attention towards the
development and production of hybrid and electric vehicles. This trend comes as a response to the
increase in consummers interest in this type of vehicles. The entire phenomenon can find its
cause throughout these factors:
- The rise in the price of fossil- fuels
- The increasingly obvious concern with protecting the environment
- The necessity of high energetic efficiency transportation
- The need to reduce noise pollution (especially in cities)
- Developing solution for stocking electric energy

1.1 Motivation
From the point of view of the building process, an electric engine is much simpler than an
internal combustion engine. This fact translates degreased production costs and increased
reliability. In spite of these benefits, the cost of hybrid and electric vehicles continues to be high,
because of the accumulators. Their cost currently represents between 20% and 50% of the total
price of the vehicle. The average life-span of an accumulator pack is 5 years/ 100000 km.
The autonomy of electric vehicles may vary, dpending on the number of cells of the accumulator,
ranging from 30 km to 600 km. A full charge can be done in about 8 hours, and a partial one takes
several tens of minutes, with the aid of special charging devices.
All these constraints have direct consequences upon the consumers. Thus, the high costs and
limited autonomy of the electric vehicles determine their popularity not to be great, yet.
2. Objectives
The main objective of this article is to develop a power system architecture for the electric
vehicles, that would determine the coming into existence of better costs and autonomy.
In the next section, an image of the constraints associated with the physical and building- related
parameteres is created, along with one of the way in which they influence the costs and
autonomy. In this context, the main idea takes shape, which resides at the basis of the power

system. The architecture of this system will be proposed in Section 4. Thus, all the component
elements, the role and their interconnection, as well as their mode of functioning are presented.
The Fifth Section is, mainly, about the control component. This is largely developed as a
supervisor, whose purpose is the optimisation of energy consumption during the use of the
electric vehicle. Finally, the proposed solution is validated through stimulation, evidencing, on a
fundamental level, the advantages that it brings forth.
The issues related to electric vehicles, especially the subjects on optimising the cuilding solution,
optimising the energetic consumption, integrating it into the energetic system and its impact on it,
are largely discussed lately, in specialised literature. In our point of view, the most conclusive
paper on this subject is [4]. It is here that an optimisation key for the energetic consumption of a
hybrid vehicle is presented, based on the efficiency curves associated with the electrical
components. In this direction, a mathematical model of the electric vehicle from a mechanical,
thermic and electrical point of view is realised. The idea is tackled both in an offline variety (in
which the drive cycle is a priori known), and online (as it is found in the practical applications,
where the drive cycle is random).
Another article of interest is [5], where an attempt to predict the amount of energy necessary of an
electric vehicle is presented. This information is used to realise the real timp reconfiguration of
the accumulator pack, so that their life-span is prolonged, and the energetic consumption is made
more efficient. Also, in [6] a method through which a consumer can be powered by several
sources is outlined. Although this subject is extensively promoted in the context of integrating the
renewable sources into a Smart-Grid, it can successfully serve the purpose of this article, as we
shall observe further on.
3. This works premises
As we saw earlier, the importance of the accumulators is crucial when it comes to electric
vehicles. Their life-span and their performance when functioning depends a lot on the dynamics
and the characteristics of the recharging and discharging process. Because of this, paying close
attention to them is of the utmost importance. A higher life-span of the accumulators brings, with
it, the reduction of operating costs.
The autonomy is directly influenced by the mode in which the energy is utilised. In the case of
conventional vehicles, the kinetic energy is dissipated through braking (the Joule effect). In the
case of electric vehicles, in order to increase autonomy, regenerative breaking is preffered. The
same result can, also, be obtained by increasing the capacity of the accumulator pack, which, in
turn, increases the costs.
As it is demonstrated in [1] and [2], the charging and discharging current is of great importance to
the life-span of the accumulator. In consequence, a charging/ discharging current above the the
premitted limits, can lead to the deterioration, or even to the destruction of the battery. The
USABC [3] (United States Advanced Battery Consortium) studies and tests show that, in order to
accelerate a stopped vehicle, to 60 mph (approx. 96 km/h) in 10 seconds, 61 kW are necessary, on
average. One breaking at the same speed in 5 s could, also, produce, about 186 kW.
Based on these constraints, we can shortly enumerate these consequences:
- The autonomy is directly proportional to the number of cells that the accumulator pack
contains
- The number of cells leads to the increase in the production costs
- Regenerative breaking increases the autonomy of the vehicle
- Regenerative breaking results in charging the accumulators with powerful streams of current

The charging of the accumulators with powerful current reduces their life-span
The reduction of accumulators life-span increases the operating costs
The use of accumulators that would withstand powerful charging/ discharging currents
increases the production costs
3.1 The central idea
These consequences allow us to immediately conclude that achieving the main objective is not so
simple. Moreover, the solution to this cannot be a generally valid solution. The process of
designing an electric vehicle is complex, including the essential step of finding a balance between
the costs and performance of the accumulators.
The central idea of this article is conveyed by the use of a powering system consisting both of
accumulators, and of supercapacitors. Thus, the energy produced by both these components is
converged and further transmitted to the electric engine. Because of the use of regenerative
breaking, the phenomenon is reversible, so that the energy produced by the electric engine
charges both the accumulators and the supercapacitors.
This take on the subject makes the use of some accumulators capable of modest performances
and low costs, possible. For a better understanding of this phenomenon in Figure 1, we consider a
functioning cycle for an electric vehicle. These graphs have been based on the information in [5].
As we can observe, in the first graph, the power variation of the powering system during
functioning is featured. It is generated by the spent energy (produced) by the electric engine,
commanded by the driver (through the throttle pedal and the brake pedal). Conventionally, we
take the system ability to power to have negative values when it yields energy to the electric
engine (acceleration) and analogous, when it receives (brake).
Let us consider the case of accumulators with a maximum admissible power is +/- 35 kW (when
charging, and discharging). Their use for powering the vehicle would be impossible in the context
in which the necessary power reaches the values of +/ - 100 kW. Thus, in the second graph we
can observe the accumulators transmitting energy, but that their power is limited to the level of
the maximum admissible value, in order to secure their integrity. The rest of the energy comes
from the supercapacitors, which, as we can see in the third graph, come into action only when the
necessay power exceeds +/ - 35 kW.
From an economical point of view, this solution can be viewed, making an analogy to the
hierarchisation of memory in calculus systems. The accumulators are energy storage elements
with low performance, but high capacity (the equivalent of the hard-disk), whereas the
supercapacitors have high performance but low capacity (the equivalent, Fast High Level
Memory RAM, cache).
4. The Systems Architecture
This section deals with the presentation of the powering system architecture, which can be found
in Figure 2. The idea at the base of this development is found in [5], for which another context for
the utilisation of predicated power. And so it is that this information is used to control the process
of powering the vehicle from the two sources, as we shall see shortly.
From a structural point of view, the system is divided into two great levels: the Physical level, and
the Cyber one. Throughout the next part, we are to describe the components of each level, as well
as their functions in the system.
The Physical level

The Engine represents the component that transforms the electric energy into mechanical
energy, in order to propel the car, and the other way around, in the case of regenerative braking.
The Supercapacitors have the role of stocking and supplying electric energy when the necessary
instantaneous power exceeds the limits of the accumulators.
The Accumulators stock the greater part of the energy amount. They offer autonomy to the
electric vehicle.
BMS (Battery Management System) this component is not independent, being contained in the
microcontroller of the energetic router. Nevertheless, the importance and the distinct goal of it
have determined us to emphasize it. The main role of it is represented by the estimation of the
essential parameters for the accumulators and for the supercapacitors (e.g. SOC and SOH). This
can be intensively studied in [3]. Furthermore, it establishes the currents and the tensions to
which the charging and discharging is made, as well as their cessation.
Energy Router the physical component that electrically interconnects the three forcecomponents: engine, accumulators, supercapacitors. The share between the transferred energy by
each component is established by the Power Supervisory Controller, as we shall see shortly.
The Computational Level
The Power Supervisor its tole is to supply commands for the energetic router. These are, in fact,
the shares through which each of the three force- components yield or receive energy. Basically,
these are expressed as instantaneous powers. Let us take, for example, the case in which the
reference for the engine is 70 kW, for the accumulators -20kW and for the super capacitors
-50kW. As we can observe, the total power is null, in order for it to be able to satisfy the law of
energy conservation [6]. These references materialise through the fact that the engine absorbs
electric energy, 70 kW power, the accumulators and the supercapacitors yield energy, having
powers of 20kW and 50kW, respectively.
The Power Predictor its role is to predict the powr necessities of the electric engine. As we shall
see in the next section, this information is essential when commands are calculated by the
Supervisor. The Power is predicted through the information gathered from the environment. This
component has its origin in the idea found in [5], where the development of such a predictor is
largely discussed.
5. The Power Supervisor
The core of the entire system, as it can be observed in Figure 2, is represented by the power
supervisor. Treating the other elements of the system exceeds the scope of this article, although,
where it is necessary certain essential aspects will be presented. We will wxclusively deal with
the power supervisor. The manner in which it has to be in line with the particularities of the
system, the mathematical foundation that underlies it, as well as the mode in which it can be
physically implemented, all of these will be studied.
5.1 The Systematical Representation
The only element that is controled by the suprvisor is the router, being considered, in the
methodology that will be presented shortly, as a conducted process. In Figure 3, the systemic
representation of it is taken into consideration, and, as it can be observed, it is a MISO type
process. The disipated powers on the accumulators and supercapacitors, P A and Ps, enter the
system. The disipated power on the electric engine, PM, which will have to follow the reference

represented by the predicted , as well as the instantaneous command supplied by the driver
through the throttle and brake pedals, is what comes out.
Keeping to the purpose of this paper and to facilitate understanding of the supervisors
construction, we shall take into consideration, amn ideal router (without loses), in which the
energetic transfer is instantaneous (there are no intrinsic delays). Consequently, the discreet
mathematical model of it can be written as such:
Where k sampling pace at a sampling time- span Te.
5.2 Supervisors Construction
The existence of the reference trajectory predicted with the aid of the predictor, the information
about accumulators and supercapacitors parameters, as well as the mathematical model of the
conducted process, makes the task of the energy supervisor to be very well done by an MPC
algorithm. An extensive take of the MPC regulators can be found in [7].
Next, the following convention of noting will be used: P^M(k + pjk) the power at k+p pace,

predicted / resulted at pace k.

It must be mentioned that P^M(k + 1jk) represents exactly the command given by the
driver at the current pace, whereas fP^M(k+2jk); :::; P^M(k+Mjk)g are predicted values.
M represents the length of the prediction horizon.
As a general idea, the MPC reulator calculates the command, minimising the error
between the reference trajectory, and the predicted trajectory, of the process, in a
prediction interval K+p, where p= 1...N. After the process of minimisation, the
commands ?????? are obtained, but only u(k|k) will be applied to the process, the rest
being neglected. In the next sampling period, the process is restarted.
In conclusion, the criterion that must be minimised has the following shape:
???????????????
So the optimisation problem can be defined as such:
???????????
The minimisatoin must be realised in the constraints imposed from a building point of
view for the commands.
The main idea of this article provides us with a primary set of constraints that need to be
met. Thus, the disipated powers on the accumulators and supercapacitors must be limited
to the maximum available limits, in a building point of view:
???????????????/
Where:
PSmin, PSmax the maximum and minimum admissible value for the supercapacitors
PAmin, PAmax the maximum and minimum admissible value for the accumulators.
A second set of constraints is provided by the remaining accumulators and
supercapacitors capacity, which is limited by the nominal values. More information
about the essential parameters of the accumulators, as well as their characteristics and
particularities can be found in [3].
It is considered:
CA accumulators capacityB
CArem (k) the remaining accumulators capacity at k pace
CS- supercapacitors capacity

CSrem (k) the remaining capacity of the supercapacitors at k pace.

The constraints regarding capacity can be defined as such:
?????????????
The remaining capacity (expressed in Ah) for an accumulator / supercapacitor has the
same definition- relation:
????????
Thus, the constraints that refer to capacity can be written in this manner:
??????
CArem(kjk)and CSrem(kjk) are values, provided at the current pace by the management system of
the accumulators and can be interpreted as the current value of the accumulators capacity, and of
the supercondensers, respectively.
5.3 The Optimisation Problem

Although the criterion that must be optimised has a simple form, the
optimisation problem becomes complex, because of the restricitions. One
solving solution for this problem is transforming it into an equivalent
optimising problem, without restrictions. As it is shown in [8], by utilising the
logarithmic barier method on an optimisation problem generically defined by:
????????? (8)
In the onstraints ????, double differentiable, can be equatted with the following
optimisation problem, restriction free:
>>> (9)
Where t is a positive number and represents the logarithmic approximation
factor of the barier function and:
???????? (10)
Having:
????????? (11)
As it is recommended in [8], this new optimisation problem can be solved
through the Newton method. Using this method is advantageous because it
quickly converges in the minimum point, and the problems complexity to be
minimised does not influence the convergence speed. The characteristics make
the Newton method suitable for real-time applications.
The barier method used for equating the minimisation problem with restricition,
approximates this solution, in direct relation to t having a greater value.
Choosing a very big t is not advantageous because it can determine the
algorithm not to converge [8]. In conclusion, the found solution to this problem
is the realisation of a succesion of minimisations through the Newton method,
where t is gradually increased, and in which the initiation point for the search is
represented by the solution for the previous minimisation.

5.4Implementing the logarithmic barier method

If in the previous section, the logarithmic barier method has been defined for
a general case, whereas in this section, it will be brought into a particular
situation.The f0 function is criterion (2). The vector x will represent the PA
and PS command vector for the entire prediction horizon. Thus, it will have
the following form:
????????
Next, it is important to bring the (4) and (7) constraints in the form of the fi
functions. The general idea of this approach will take an example for a
generic vector x.
The following constraint is considered:
????? (13)
Where ??????
This constraint can be equated to the following set of constraints:
???????? (14)
So, for the initial constraint, (13), we can define the fi functions associated to
each component xi. In order to respect the definition in (8), the functions
must have positive values when xi does not respect the constraints, and
negative, when it does. This can be fulfilled if fi is defined as a root
parable ???????. In this way, these functions will have the following form:
??????/ (15)
In Figure 4, the graph of the fi function is presented. As we can observe,
when x(i) respects the constraints, it takes negative values, meaning that the
equivalence of constraints is defined. Also, we can see, on the graph as well,
that this function is double differentiable, as per the definition.
5.5Defining Constraints
In the case of our constraints, there are 4 types of them, which will be
equated through the constraining functions ?????, defined as such:
??????????? (16)
Which means that in our case, m=4N.
For the implementation of this algorithm, it is necessary to know the
expression of the functions gradient ???????.
?????????? (20)
The calculus relation of the gradient ???? is immediately obtained form the
criterions definition (2)
Also, as per (11), we get:
?????

6. Experimental Results
In order to validate the proposed solution, a simulator has been created in the
programming medium, Matlab. In Figure 5, the results of the simulation are
presented. This simulation has been realised using a predicted Power
trajectory PM of 1509 s. Ass we can observe, when the vehicle functions
classically, only on accumulators, electric engine and without regenerative
brakes, from an initial capacity of 2000 Wh, the accumulators discharge
completely after only 400 s. When the control system is in function, at the
end of the simulation, after 1509 s, the accumulator discharged from
2000Wh, to 1551 Wh.
7. Conclusions
In this paper we have tried to establish the basis of a control architecture for
the powering of electric vehciles. What we have presented in this piece of
work does not represent a complete solution that could be directly
implemented. There have been presented, in short, the characteristics of all
the components of the system without underlining too much, the building
aspect.
By developing the fundamental things in this paper, there can be obtained an
intelligent architecture for an electric vehicle, having as main characteristics,
lower production and maintenance costs, and higher autonomy. The main
approaches that should be done for obtaining a physical implementation are
designing some complete building solutions, that are to be in line with the
issues presented here. Also, the algorithms in this paper, presented under the
title proof of concept, should be optimised for their real-time
implementation. Also, a calculus system should be developed, one having
correct dimensions, in order to make possible the execution of these
algorithms.