Raj K.

Subedi (BPH, MPH)

Educational Planning and Curriculum Development

Introduction to curriculum development
The word curriculum derives from the Latin currere meaning to run. This
implies that one of the functions of a curriculum is to provide a template or
design which enables learning to take place.
A curriculum is more than a syllabus. A syllabus describes the content of a
programme and can be seen as one part of a curriculum.
Difference between curriculum and syllabus

Education
Curriculum
Syllabus
Content

Types of curriculum
The formal curriculum: what the institution plans and organizes to teach

The informal curriculum: what the students learn from a variety of

sources and interactions while taking part in the extracurricular activities
at the institution

The hidden curriculum: what the students learn but the institution did
not set out to teach. Much of this refers to the aspects like caught not
taught.

Some definitions
Albert Oliver (1977): curriculum is the educational program of the school and
divided into four basic elements: 1) program of studies, 2) program of experiences,
3) program of service, 4) hidden curriculum.
Bell (1971): the offering of socially valued knowledge, skills, and attitudes made
available to students through a variety of arrangements during the time they are
at school, college, or university.
Harnack (1968): The curriculum embodies all the teachinglearning experiences
guided and directed by the school.

Raj K. Subedi (BPH, MPH)

Ralph Tyler (1957): The curriculum is all of the learning of students which is
planned by and directed by the school to attain its educational goals.
David G. Armstrong (1989): "is a master plan for selecting content and
organizing learning experiences for the purpose of changing and developing
learners' behaviors and insights."
Bringing all these points together, the curriculum is viewed as a composite whole
including the learner, the teacher, teaching and learning methodologies,
anticipated and unanticipated experiences, outputs and outcomes possible within a
learning institution.
Curriculum definitions fit into 5 categories.
1. Curriculum as a product program, document, electronic media, or multimedia
2. Curriculum as a program of study usually courses offered, curriculum
sequences of study in standards as benchmarks, gateways,
3. Curriculum as intended learnings goals, content, concepts,
generalizations, outcomes 4. Curriculum as experiences of the learner
activities, planned and unplanned.
5. Hidden curriculum what students learn that isn't planned (also called unofficial
or counter)
Curriculum as PRODUCT
Advantages
can be described in concrete
terms and definite ways
provides direction for planning
and development by producing
a document

Disadvantages
limits curriculum to specific
programs and courses described in
those documents
assumes that all possible
courses can be described in such
documents
separates processes of learning
from what is to be learned

Curriculum as PROGRAM
Advantages
easily described in concrete terms
recognize learning takes place
in many different settings in
school

Curriculum as INTENDED learnings

Advantages
curriculum becomes a concept
rather than a product
more manageable focus by limited
scope

Disadvantages
view that all students'
learning is contained in
programs
programs imply that what is
described, is what students will
actually learn

Disadvantages
Difficult to classify exact
intended learnings
Difficult to define how to achieve
and why it needs to be achieved

Raj K. Subedi (BPH, MPH)

Curriculum as EXPERIENCES of the learner
Advantages
focuses on learning and the

learner, rather than teaching

includes all experiences

planned and unplanned
can allow for broader experiences
can be more meaningful
learning if it relates to student
interests, needs, or if students
help select meaningful learning
activities,
can be greater retention of learning

Disadvantages
more abstract and complex

makes
curriculum
so
comprehensive that it cannot be
described in simple terms or
short phrases

Elements of curriculum
The curriculum has four elements that are in constant
interaction: purpose (goals and objectives)
content or subject matter
methods or learning
experiences evaluation
Fig: Interaction between different elements of curriculum

Purpose (Goals and objectives)

Methods or learning experiences

Content (subject to be studied)

Evaluation (Performance Measurement)

Raj K. Subedi (BPH, MPH)

Concept of educational Planning

Whatever educational planning is, it is certainly not a miracle drug for

ailing educational systems.
Educational planning, in its broadest generic sense, is the application of
rational, systematic analysis to the process of educational development
with the aim of making education more effective and efficient in
responding to the needs and goals of students and society.
Educational planning is ideologically neutral. Its methodologies are
sufficiently flexible and adaptable to fit situations that differ widely in
ideology, level of development, and governmental form.
Its basic logic, concepts, and principles are universally applicable, but the
practical methods for applying them may range from the crude and simple to
the highly sophisticated, depending on the circumstances.
It is therefore wrong to conceive of educational planning as offering a rigid,
monolithic formula that must be imposed uniformly on all situations.

Principles of Educational planning

Educational planning should be based on following core principles.

Defined range View

i.
It should have a shortrange (one or two years), a middlerange
(four to five years) and a longrange perspective (ten to fifteen years).
ii. Obviously its vision will grow less precise the farther ahead it looks. But
considering the long lead time required to increase educational
capacity and to enlarge educational output, long range perspective
should also be considered. For example, for the production of doctors
or engineers, or even of elementary school teachers; it is necessary to
plan years ahead.
Educational planning should be comprehensive.
i.
It should embrace the whole educational system in a single
vision to ensure the harmonious evolution of its various parts.
ii.
Moreover, it should try to extend its vision to important types of non
formal education and training to ensure their effective integration with
formal education and with the priority needs and goals of society.
Educational planning should be integrated with the plans of broader
economic and social development.
i.
If education is to contribute most effectively to individual and
national development, and to make the best use of scarce resources,
it cannot go its own way, ignoring the realities of the world around it.
Educational planning should be an integral part of educational management.
i.
To be effective, the planning process must be closely tied to the
processes of decision making and operations

Raj K. Subedi (BPH, MPH)

Educational planning must be concerned with the Qualitative

aspects of educational development, not merely with quantitative
expansion

Educational Planning spiral

Steps of Curriculum Development

etermine and agree the educational or professional context in which

the programme is to be developed and delivered

efine the needs of the learners in line with the requirements of

professional bodies etermine the aims and broad learning outcomes
of the programme
Identify ideas and constraints
Agree the broad structure and framework of the programme, the main
areas of teaching and learning, the sequence of the main topics and the
key assessments
Allocate the detailed development of each topic or course area in terms
of defining objectives and learning outcomes to individuals or teams
Channel and direct teams to develop coherent programmes which
have defined learning outcomes, timetables, content, appropriate
teaching, learning and assessment methods and which utilise relevant and
available learning resources
Implement and refine the programme
Agree an appropriate and deliverable evaluation strategy
Review and revise the course in line with feedback has it met the
identified needs of the learners and other stakeholders?

Raj K. Subedi (BPH, MPH)

Determinants of curricular trends

Technology has had a tremendous impact on society. Educational curriculums
must keep up with the pace so that future generations will benefit and continue
developing technological innovations. The concept of knowledge has changed
from having information in the brain, to "having access to information about a
particular topic and knowing how to use it". Hence, the change in trends of
curriculum is determined by a number of factors that can be broadly classified as
the extrinsic and intrinsic factors.
Extrinsic Factors
Political
From defining goals, interpreting curricular materials to approving
examination systems, politics affects curriculum development.
How politics influences curriculum design and development starts with funding.
Both private and public educational institutions rely on funding for hiring
personnel, building and maintaining facilities and equipment.
All aspects of curriculum depend on local, national and international political
standards.
Economic
Curriculum developed for inhouse training in corporations focuses on
educating employees for promotions that bring better returns in profits.
Nations financing education expect an economic return from educated
students contributing to the country's economy with global competition
abilities in technical fields.
Technological
The computer technology of the 21st century influences curriculum
development at every level of learning.
Technological multimedia use influences educational goals and learning
experiences among students.
Diversity (Sociocultural and religious)
Religion, culture and social groups affects curriculum.
Affected by forces like conflicts, concepts of justice and equity, inclusiveness, ethics
etc.
Learning Theories (Philosophical)
Both child and adult learning theories influence curriculum development.
Intrinsic Factors
Acceptance of the curriculum by teachers, students and administrators
of the academic institutions
Sound organizational policy, flexibility, financial stability, administrative capacity

Managerial aspects of the institution (leadership, communication,

coordination, motivation, staffing, budgeting etc).

Raj K. Subedi (BPH, MPH)

Organizational environment (physical infrastructures, safety, peace,

harmony, innovative environment for students, flexible laws and orders

Principles of curriculum design

1. Principle of Utility: It should be useful in solving problems and facing situations in
life.
2. Principle of flexibility: It must be capable of accommodating the changes
in the child's diverse interest, inclinations & accordance with social
requirements.
3. Principle of childcenteredness: The selection of content has to be in
keeping with the child interests and abilities.
4. Principle of lifecenteredness: To enable as individual to function
efficiently & face the challenges in life. Experiences should achieve the
physical, mental, social & emotional development.
5. Principle of communitycenteredness: The needs, problems of the
community should be the focus development of social values & spirit of
inquiry.
6. Principle of correlation:They should be viewed as an integrated whole
bringing about the development.
7. Principle of activitycenteredness: Learning through purposeful
activity and actual life experiences makes learning process interesting
and enjoyable.
8. Principle for the use of leisure: The use of leisure in an appropriate
manner develops creativity, aesthetic sense and vocational skills.
9. Principle of development of culture and civilization: The pupil should
have the knowledge of their culture and civilization.
10. Principle of need based activity: It is to cater to the needs of society &
provide the manpower for social and economic development.
11. Principle of value: For the inculcation of values like social justice,
equality of opportunity, equality of sexes, social values and democratic
values.
12. Conservation principles: Conservations of cultural heritage,
monuments, natural resources, wildlife should be inculcated.
13. Principle of creativity: It should stimulate and develop the creative abilities of
the pupils.
14. Principle of harmony: Formal & Informal education, general, liberal and
vocational education, individual and social aims should be skillfully
interwoven into a harmonious whole paving the way for individual
development & social upliftment.

Raj K. Subedi (BPH, MPH)

Advantages and disadvantages of curriculum

Advantages
Makes learning specific, hence easy
to learn Makes learning systemic and
sequential
Makes learning measurable, evaluative and concrete
Saves time and resources to conduct educational activity
Helps achieve goals and objectives if planned and
implemented correctly National and international recognition

Disadvantages
Society always changing, so difficult to make changes in curriculum
accordingly from time to time
Needs intensive work to develop a good curriculum. Hence,
development of effective curriculum requires high cost
Makes learning specific, hence high chance of many relevant contents to
be missed out. Cant include all learning theories
Curriculum made at one setting may not be applicable in
other settings Curriculum change requires intense, tedious
processes
Curriculum development highly influenced by political factors. Hence,
challenge to make it unbiased

Raj K. subedi (BPH, MPH)

Types of curriculum models/

approaches

The different models of curriculum designs

are given below :
Content
oriented
Behavioristic
Process oriented
Competency
based Flexner
model
The 'SPICES' model of
curriculum design
PRISMS
model

Content oriented
Ancient model of curriculum design
Mastery of subject matter is
central task Standards are set
for
o Subject matter covered
o Learners mastery on the
content
A textbook is the
primary instructional tool
Breadth of the subject centered curriculum is determined by the number
of subjects taught
Each subject has three characteristics:
o Content
o Its intellectual discipline

Pattern for organizing the content

Raj K. subedi (BPH, MPH)

Process oriented curriculum

This design focuses on personal attributes and skills of the individual learner.
These may include such aspects as:
working well with
others, effective
leadership,
knowing how to take and follow
directions, communicating
effectively,
making accurate
observations, learning
independently,
making decisions,
making good
judgments,
inventing,

forecasting,
planning,
monitoring the effects of one's own
activities, taking correction action
when necessary,
creating, initiating,
developing a sound value system,
having selfconfidence and being sensitive to others
Characteristics of Process oriented curriculum
The development of skills and traits that will serve the learner for a lifetime
processes
There is a higher degree of carryover into everyday living experiences
than in other designs Better balance between affective and cognitive
considerations.
The library can provide materials, resources and services promoting
independent learning and creativity.
This curriculum design suffers from a difficulty in assessing learning
outcomes due to subjective judgments
Parents may be skeptical as more focus is on the process rather than the content

Raj K. subedi (BPH, MPH)

Fig: Process oriented curriculum

Competency based curriculum

COMPETENCY is the word used normally to describe a set of related skills.

The aim of the competency based curriculum is to:

o make students selfmotivated, robust and life
long learners o strengthen the learning culture in
the school
o improve results

Six priority areas for a competencybased curriculum in pu blic health are

cultural competency,
health promotion
skills, leadership
development,
program
management,
data analysis, and
community organizing
(Joint Council of Governmental Public Health Agencies, 1995)

Raj K. subedi (BPH, MPH)

Fig: Competency based curriculum design

Characteristics of competency based curriculums
Competencies are more highlighted than
objectives
Outcomes are more
highlighted than objectives
Learner activities will be based on performance of learner and
accomplishment of criteria; Teaching activities are learner centered;
Formative evaluation is necessary.
Steps of competency based curriculum design
1. Conduct needs assessment
What learners need to learn
Program requirements, board certification requirements and/or
specialty, society, etc. determine much of the content students need
to learn on a particular subject

Raj K. subedi (BPH, MPH)

2. Identify competencies
addressed
cultural competency,
health promotion skills, leadership
development,
program management,
data analysis,
community organizing
3. Write goals and objectives in terms of
competencies The goals and objectives
help to:
Provide an instructional roadmap
Provide clarity about the educational program to learners,
teachers and external stakeholders
Encourage higher order learning
Determine the assessment
method 4. Determine teaching
methods
Didactic
conferences,
Clinical exposure,
Case based
teaching, Role
modeling,
Journal
Club,
Mentoring,

Simulation,
Individual or group
projects, Research
projects etc.
5. Determine assessment methods
to evaluate the students
performance
Better to use
multiple methods
6. Determine program
improvement methods
Student evaluations of the
study
Faculty evaluations of the study

 Students attainment of the specific goals and objectives of educational

experience

Raj K. subedi (BPH, MPH)

Behavioristic approach to curriculum design

The nature of a persons thinking can be affected through a

variety of rewards and consequences.
The aim for education through behaviorism is to develop
appropriate behaviors in the classroom setting that are conducive
to learning.
Behaviorism refers more to conditioning the learner to be ready to
learn and not so much educating.
Step by step conditioning programs are used to achieve the desired
behavior and rewards are used to motivate.
Learners receive simple forms of motivation such as verbal praise,
smiles, a touch on the shoulder, and candy.
Extrinsic rewards are followed by the
intrinsic rewards
The role of the
teacher as a behaviorist is a conditioner.
If students can change through their own thinking, they will begin to
become confident and believe in themselves more.

Fig: Behavioristic model of curriculum design

Summary of the Behavioristic model of curriculum design
ASPECTs
Contributors
View of the learning
process
Locus of learning

EXPLANATION
Thorndike, Pavlov, Watson, Skinner
Change in the behavior guides learning

Stimuli in external environment

Purpose in education Produce behavioral change in desired direction
Educator's role
Arranges environment to elicit desired response, facilitates student
centered learning
Manifestations
Sustainable
learning, development of positive attitude and
skills, leadership development, entrepreneurship

Raj K. subedi (BPH, MPH)

SPICES model of curriculum design

Harden et al published an article in 1984 which was a seminal one in medical education.

It described six dimensions around which a medical curriculum

could be organised. Each of the dimensions could be regarded as a
continuum.
Thus a medical curriculum could be located somewhere along the
dimensions of: o Studentcentred
o Problem
based o
Integrated
o Community
based o Electives
o Systematic

Trends in Medical Education (Before and after SPICES model)

Flexner (1910) model (This was the model before SPICES)
Teacher
centred
Knowledge
giving
Discipline led
Hospital oriented
Standard programme
Opportunistic (apprenticeship)
Harden et al (1984) The SPICES model
Student
centred
Problem
based
Integrated
Community
oriented
Electives (+
core)
Systematic

Bligh et al (2001) PRISMS (This model came after the SPICES model)
Practice based linked with professional
development Relevant to students and
communities
Interprofessional
and
interdisciplinary
Shorter
courses taught in smaller units
Multisite locations
Symbiotic (organic whole)

Raj K. subedi (BPH, MPH)

Description of the SPICES

model The purposes of the
SPICES model are:
to review an existing curriculum to see where improvements
can be made to develop a new curriculum from scratch
to tackle specific questions or issues relating to a curriculum
to help decide on what sort of teaching methods to use
on a course
decide what format the assessment
should take
Student Centered
Most of the emphasis is on the
learner Increases learner
motivation
Prepares learners for lifelong self directed education
Problem based
Helps develop problem
solving skills Active
participation of the learner
Helps deal with an overcrowded curriculum; highlights concepts rather than
knowledge
Integrated
Reduces fragmentation of courses
Promotes staff communication and collaboration as departments are
being integrated
Holistic approach to learning
Community oriented
Direct contact with the community the learners are being
taught to serve
See a wide variety of conditions at a
wide variety of stages
Learners learn about the social and economic aspect of illness
Electives
Allows curricular
flexibility
Elective
+Core
Enables learners to explore further interests in more details; matching to the
learners needs

Systematic
Teaching is structured and
organized
Teaching is
sequential
learner can become competent and confident with the least waste of
time and resources Easy for accreditation and validation

Raj K. Subedi (BPH, MPH)

Factors influencing curriculum design, level of evaluation

and corrective action
Several factors affect all curriculum development in meeting the needs of 21st
century learners in both organized academic settings and corporation
learning centers.
Blueprinting curriculum development requires selecting learning goals,
designing knowledge delivery models and creating assessment methods for
progress.
Political, economic, technological, sociocultural, religious, philosophical
(learning theories) and environmental factors affect curriculum design.
Factors influencing the curriculum design, evaluation and corrective action
can be better illustrated by analyzing the factors affecting each level of
curriculum design, evaluation and corrective action
1. Determining health need of
society. 2. Working hypothesis
3. Define educational
objective. 4. Develop
teaching programme.
5. Observe and record about behavior of
trainees. Cognitive
Affective
Psychomotor
6. Evaluation and
analysis
7. Corrective action based on manipulative
variables: Teaching
Examination
technique Budget
Environment
student Health
Situation
8. Objective
revise 9.
Hypothesis revise

1. Determining health need of the society

Health need of the society affects curriculum
development The need assessment is also

influenced by many factors.

Some factors are related to the society and some are related to those who
assess the needs The political forces also influence the need assessment

Raj K. Subedi (BPH, MPH)

Different health needs/gap
o Number of health service
providers o Morbidity/disability
o Mortality
o Number and type of Health
institutions o Quality of existing
health services
o Adequacy of drugs and diagnostic
equipments o Quality of service
providers
o Health professionals practice and
conduct o Cost of health services
o Geographical accessibility
o Peoples participation in Health Service
Management o Information management
system etc.
Factors influencing need assessment
Society related factors influencing need assessment
o Socioeconomic status of people (education,
income etc) o Religion
o
Tradition o
Taboos
o Availability of other basic facilities
o Trust on health system, past experiences
o Political forces within society, formal &
informal leaders o Burden of diseases
o Population density and distribution
Factors related to those who assess the needs
o Educational status of those involved in need
assessment o Communication and coordination
skills
o Language
o Financial capacity
o Degree of obligation,
Motivation o Volume of
assigned responsibility o
Complexity
o
Methodology o
Technology o
Time
o Vested interest/ hidden agenda

 Political forces influencing need

assessment o Donor interest and
influence
o Political stability of the
nation o Priority by nation

Raj K. Subedi (BPH, MPH)

o Political ideology and
commitment o Countrys
economic status

2. Working Hypothesis
A working hypothesis is a hypothesis that is provisionally accepted as a
basis for further research.
It may not be directly tested but provides useful guidance and agreeable directions.
May not have concrete mathematical and scientific basis but can provide
ideas, information as well as qualitative contents required for curriculum
design.
a working hypothesis is often used as a conceptual framework in qualitative
research
Initial course design is usually framed as working hypothesis which would be
tested in practice and then remodeled according to the students response.
Setting working hypothesis discourages putting the ceiling on learning
process and facilitates the redesigning of the curricular elements as per the
feedback from the different stakeholders.
Characteristics of working
hypothesis o Makes
learning flexible
o Helps inclusion of qualitative aspects
of learning o Saves resources for
further researches
o Complements scientific and
quantitative assertions o Acts as a pivotal
feature in the process of inquiry
o Provides provisional alertness for errors in
correlation and causation o Useful during budgetary
limitations
o Easy to modify and change
Factors influencing working
hypothesis o Learning
theories
o Technological advancement,
globalization o Political situation
of the country
o Donors
interest o
Resources
o Need of the society
o Motivation, leadership, communication, coordination and
communication o Knowledge, attitude and skills of people
involved in curriculum design etc.

3. Define Educational objectives

Educational objectives are the statement of what learners are intended to (after
the specific session or/and the program of study):
o Know (cognitive)
o Think, believe
(affective) o Do
(psychomotor)

Raj K. Subedi (BPH, MPH)

Two types
o Course or session instructional objective (after the specific
session or course) o Program learning objective (after the
completion of the program of study)
Course or session instructional objectives:
o

Statements of what specific teachers or instructors intend for

students to know, think and do after the completion of the course or
session

Program learning objectives:

o

Statements of what the entire faculty, college or the university believes

the students will be able to know, think and do after completion of the
entire program of study.
They are broader than the course or session objectives

Why educational objectives??

To help curriculum planning, analysis and
renewal Easy to get feedback
Encourages organized
learning Gives measurable
indicators
Standardization of the course and program of study
Writing educational objectives
Use verbs like recall, illustrate, demonstrate, generate etc. based on
different domains of learning process
Use the format : WhoWhat behavior.under what
condition how well??? Examples
o After the completion of the course (condition), the students (who) will
be able to demonstrate (what behavior) the water purification by
SODIS method correctly (how well).
Factors influencing the formation of educational
objectives Interest of teacher, university, donor
etc.
Technology
Budget
Security
Time
Relevance to current needs of the society and country
Level of the program of study (eg. Basic, intermediate, advanced)

Raj K. Subedi (BPH, MPH)

4. Develop teaching programs

There was a time when a university was almost solely responsible for the
content of its courses and the curriculum was largely defined by a syllabus
that was little more than a list of the content topics that were to be dealt with
by means of the lecture programme.
Nowadays the explosion in knowledge, coupled with the demands of
various stakeholders, places tremendous pressures on decisions about
the content of the curriculum.
There are very real tensions between the wishes of the teachers who deliver the
curriculum to preserve and even increase the subject content of their course
and the many external stakeholders who want space for the development of
general skills that have a strong vocational relevance.
There are pressures from professional/vocational bodies suggesting
important core areas of knowledge (content) that should be included in
typical courses of study in the subject.
What is teaching program???
The teaching program which is a blend of
curriculum
content,
Methodology
philosophical foundation
and Resources
Good teaching program should follow the key principles of
Usability
Feasibility
Factors affecting development of teaching program
Several curriculum players affect the development of teaching program
Government (Department of
Education) Textbook publishers
Professional bodies (Recruiting
agencies) School, college and
university
Teachers
Students
Donors
Besides the curriculum players, the other forces affecting the development of the
teaching program are:
Current needs of the society and country

 Change in concepts of learning (learning

theories) Globalization
Financial
capacity Time

Raj K. Subedi (BPH, MPH)

Researches
Competence of curriculum
developers Level of program of
study

5. Observe and Record about the behavior of trainees

Observing and recording the behavior of trainees:
Measure how well the students master on the contents of the
teaching program How the students feel, believe and value about
the teaching program
How skilled the students have become on acquiring the teaching program
Usefulness of observing and recording the behavior
of trainees.. Finding current gaps in teaching
program
Evaluation and analysis of performance
Providing feedback to the curriculum
developers Further planning and
redesigning the curriculum
Levels of observing and recording the behavior
of trainees Cognitive (knowledge)
Affective (attitude)
Psychomotor (motor skills)
Factors affecting the observing and recording the
behavior of trainees Time
Competency of the teacher
Teaching learning
environment Budget
Type and level of the course or program of study etc.

Blooms Taxonomy of learning

domains Knowledge is not power
unless it is acted upon.
The concept of learning has changed from merely knowing to knowing,
developing attitude and applying in life processes.
A committee of colleges, led by Benjamin Bloom (1956), identified three
domains of educational activities:
o Cognitive: Mental skills (Knowledge)
o Affective: growth in feelings or emotional
areas (Attitude) o Psychomotor: manual or
physical skills (Skills)

Cognitive domain
It further includes six domains like knowledge, comprehension,
application, analysis, synthesis and ,evaluation

Raj K. Subedi (BPH, MPH)

o

Knowledge
o Recalling specific and general items of information and
also information about methods, processes and patterns
o Key Words: defines, describes, identifies, knows, labels, lists,
matches, names, outlines, recalls, recognizes, reproduces, selects,
states.
Comprehension
o Recognition of items of information settings similar to but
different from those in which they were first encountered.
o Key Words: comprehends, converts, defends, distinguishes,
estimates, explains, extends, generalizes, gives an example,
infers, interprets, paraphrases, predicts, rewrites, summarizes,
translates.
Application
o Explaining previously unseen data or events by applying
knowledge from other situations
o Key Words: applies, changes, computes, constructs, demonstrates,
discovers, manipulates, modifies, operates, predicts, prepares,
produces, relates, shows, solves, uses.
Analysis
o Breaking down blocks of information into elements for the
purpose of clarification. o Key Words: analyzes, breaks down,
compares, contrasts, diagrams, deconstructs,
differentiates, discriminates, distinguishes, identifies, illustrates, infers,
outlines, relates, selects, separates.
Synthesis
o Combining elements to form coherent units of information.
o Key Words: categorizes, combines, compiles, composes, creates,
devises, designs, explains, generates, modifies, organizes, plans,
rearranges, reconstructs, relates, reorganizes, revises, rewrites,
summarizes, tells, writes.
Evaluation
o Making judgment about the value of information, materials
or methods for given purposes
o Key Words: appraises, compares, concludes, contrasts, criticizes,
critiques, defends, describes, discriminates, evaluates, explains,
interprets, justifies, relates, summarizes, supports.

Affective domain
The affective domain includes the manner in which we deal with things
emotionally, such as
o

feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasms, motivations, and attitudes.

Raj K. Subedi (BPH, MPH)

Affective domains are further divided into five levels:
Receiving:
o
o

Sensitivity to certain stimuli and a willingness to receive or attend to them.

Key Words: asks, chooses, describes, follows, gives, holds, identifies,
locates, names, points to, selects, sits, erects, replies, uses.

Responding:
o
o

Involvement in a subject or activity or event to the extent of seeking it out,

working with it or engaging in it.
Key Words: answers, assists, aids, complies, conforms, discusses, greets,
helps, labels, performs, practices, presents, reads, recites, reports, selects,
tells, writes.

Valuing:
o
o

Commitment to or conviction in certain goals, ideas or beliefs

Key Words: completes, demonstrates, differentiates, explains, follows,
forms, initiates, invites, joins, justifies, proposes, reads, reports, selects,
shares, studies, works.

Organisation:
o

Organisation of values into a system, awareness of relevance of and

relations between appropriate values and the establishment of
dominant personal values.
Key Words: adheres, alters, arranges, combines, compares, completes,
defends, explains, formulates, generalizes, identifies, integrates, modifies,
orders, organizes, prepares, relates, synthesizes.

Characterisation by a Value Complex:

o
o

Integration of beliefs, ideas and attitudes into a total philosophy of world view.
Key Words: acts, discriminates, displays, influences, listens, modifies,
performs, practices, proposes, qualifies, questions, revises, serves,
solves, verifies.

Psychomotor domain
The psychomotor domain includes physical movement, coordination, and use
of the motorskill areas.
o Development of these skills requires practice
o measured in terms of speed, precision, distance, procedures, or
techniques in execution. o It talks about the third level of performance with
the help of physical movement when the
o

cognitive and affective levels have already met.

It goes beyond the classroom setting and focuses on ability to apply the learnt
things in practical life.

Raj K. Subedi (BPH, MPH)

o The learner has reached the level to perform in front of other novice learners.
o Hence, the student has reached the level in which he is mentally prepared to act
physically.
o Hence, the learner is able to use sensory cues (signals) to guide motor
activity which gradually extends up to the level in which he can finally
become used to it and further can develop new movement patterns.
Detail of the domain
The different categories of the psychomotor domain from simple to complex level are
given below:

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

1. Perception: The ability to use sensory cues to guide motor activity. Also
called the selection step a.
Key Words: chooses, describes, detects,
differentiates, distinguishes, identifies, isolates,
relates, selects.
Set: Readiness to act. It includes mental, physical, and emotional sets.
a.
Key Words: begins, displays, explains, moves, proceeds,
reacts, shows, states, volunteers.
Guided Response: The early stages in learning a complex skill that
includes imitation and trial and error. Adequacy of performance is achieved
by practicing.
a.
Key Words: copies, traces, follows, react, reproduce, responds
Mechanism: This is the intermediate stage in learning a complex skill.
Learned responses have become habitual and the movements can be
performed with some confidence and proficiency.
a.
Key Words: assembles, calibrates, constructs, dismantles, displays,
fastens, fixes, grinds, heats, manipulates, measures, mends, mixes,
organizes, sketches.
Complex Overt Response:
a.
The skillful performance of motor acts that involve complex
movement patterns. b. Proficiency is indicated by a quick, accurate,
and highly coordinated performance,
requiring a minimum of energy.
c. This category includes performing without hesitation, and automatic
performance. d. The Key Words are the same as Mechanism, but will
have adverbs or adjectives that
indicate that the performance is quicker, better, more accurate, etc.
Adaptation: Skills are well developed and the individual can modify
movement patterns to fit special requirements.
a.
Key Words: adapts, alters, changes, rearranges, reorganizes, revises,
varies.
Origination: Creating new movement patterns to fit a particular situation
or specific problem. Learning outcomes emphasize creativity based upon
highly developed skills.
a.
Key Words: arranges, builds, combines, composes, constructs,
creates, designs, initiate, makes, originates.

Raj K. Subedi (BPH, MPH)

6. Analysis and Evaluation

Evaluation is a systematic way of learning from experience and using the lesson
learnt to improve current activities and promote better planning by careful
selection of alternatives for future action
WHO
o
o
o

Analysis is a part of evaluation.

In the above definition of evaluation given by WHO, analysis is the
systematic way of learning from experiences.
Thus analysis helps identify the current gaps in teaching programme
whereas evaluation is analysis+ what can be done to overcome the
current gaps appropriately for future action
Thus evaluation is the process of
o Determining the appropriateness of program planning (diagnostic),
o Assessing the degree of effectiveness and progress of programme
implementation (formative),
o Measuring the final achievement of the program
(summative), and finally suggesting appropriate
measures for corrective action

6.1. Levels of evaluation

o
Diagnostic
evaluation
o
Formative evaluation
o
Summative
evaluation
6.1.1.Diagnostic evaluation
Done at beginning of
program.
Also called
input evaluation
Done to know if proper steps are
followed in o need assessment,
o working
hypothesis, o
setting objectives,
o Selecting
content
o selecting the appropriate methods and resources
6.1.2. Formative evaluation
o Done in the middle of
evaluation o Also called
progress evaluation

Done to know if proper steps are

followed in o Delivering the
content
o Using the selected methods and resources
o Observing and recording the behavior of trainees
Also recommends the ways and means to improve learning procedures

Raj K. Subedi (BPH, MPH)

6.1.3. Summative evaluation
o
Done at the end of the
programme o
Also called
achievement
evaluation
o
Done to analyze:
o Success of the programme as a whole. E.g. Development in
knowledge, attitude and skills of students after overall programme,
Change in the morbidity and mortality rate, Improvement of
socioeconomic status of people
o Provides appropriate feedback for redesigning the curriculum

Criteria for evaluation (as recommended

by WHO) o Adequacy
o Relevancy (as per the
needs) o Efficiency
o Appropriateness (techniques, procedures)
Methods of
evaluation o
Interview
o Observation
o Review of records and
reports o Meeting and
discussion
Process of evaluation (R.F Mager)
o Formulating the objectives of evaluation
o Determining appropriate techniques and tools
o Collecting data and information using determined
techniques and tools o Analyzing and interpreting the
collected data and information
o Preparing evaluation report and recommend to concerned authority for necessary
action
Factors influencing analysis and evaluation
o Resource factors (Man, material, money, time,
technology) o Political factors (instability,
bureaucracy)
o Performance and achievement of
students o Impact of overall program
on society
o Ability of the analysts and evaluators

Raj K. Subedi (BPH, MPH)

7. Corrective action based on manipulative variables

Manipulative variables
o Manipulative means skillful at influencing sb or forcing sb to do what you
want, often in an unfair way, by editing, redesigning etc.
o So manipulative variables are at risk of being used in an unfair way
that may hinder the effectiveness of teaching programme
o Hence corrective action needs to be done based on manipulative variables for
effective teaching learning activities.
Some manipulative
variables
Teaching
Examination technique
Budget
Environment student(setting)
Health (degree of concern)
Situation (situation of college (HR), university (concern), society
(needs, pressure), job opportunities (filtering), political situation, trend
across universities)
Factors affecting the corrective action based on
manipulative variables: Interest, level of participation,
pressure and feedback from the students
Cognitive, affective and psychomotor level of the students
Researches related to HR issues, school health etc.
Pressure from parents, society, university
Competition

8. Objective Revise
1. Objectives are the statement of what learners are intended to (after the
specific session or/and the program of study):
Know (cognitive)
Think, believe
(affective) Do
(psychomotor)
2. Two types
Course or session instructional objective (after the specific

session or course) Program learning objective (after the

completion of the program of study)

Raj K. Subedi (BPH, MPH)

3. Objective Revision is hence the Revision of the statements of what the
learners are expected to do after completion of the session, course or the
overall program
4. Objective revision is one of the steps in corrective action in curriculum
design in which change or modification is done as per the :
Analysis and evaluation processes.
Corrective action based on manipulative
variables Change in the concepts and
theories of learning
5. Suppose, the corrective action is done in the examination technique as follows: E.g.
let us
suppose that,
Previously it was subjective questions in which students had to explain
about domains of learning and now, it is multiple choice questions in
which students have to identify which behavior falls under what
domain of learning.
Hence the previous objective and revised objective will have different
expectations from the students

9. (Working) Hypothesis Revise

Initial course design is usually framed as working hypothesis which would be
tested in practice and then remodeled according to the students response.
Hence revision of working hypothesis can be done as they are flexible and
were just the draft hypothesis previously when they were initially designed.
Why revision of hypothesis??
To avoid errors and fulfill gaps in the current
hypothesis To make curriculum more stable
and functional
To facilitate the learning process,
to revise the contents as per the change in the needs of the students,
society and country To obey the diagnostic, formative and summative
evaluation procedures
Factors affecting revision of working
hypothesis Change in the needs
Change in learning
theories Researches
Resources
Findings from the evaluation processes

Raj K. Subedi (BPH, MPH)

Curriculum change

The development in the field of education is possible by the gradual

improvement and advancement i.e. change
Curriculum also needs to change over certain period of time to comply the
trend in the field of education so as to meet the requirement of students,
colleges, university, recruiting agencies and the society
Curriculum change is hence essential and equally challenging that requires
careful procedures starting from reviewing and revising the educational
objectives to the evaluation of the outcomes of education.

Steps of curriculum change

1. Objectives of education
2. Diagnosis in developed curriculum
Achievement (examination performance, proficiency in competency to serve
society )
Student as learner (interview, meetings and discussions)
Curriculum problem (inappropriate depth and breadth, less adaptable,
less significant and less applicable etc.)
3. Selection of curriculum content and experience (keeping following things in
consideration)
Rational selection
Problem establishing criteria (i.e. problem settling criteria)
Significance
Depth and breadth
Adaptability
Appropriate need and interest of trainees
4. Organization of curriculum experiences and learning
5. Evaluation of the outcomes of curriculum

Raj K. Subedi (BPH, MPH)

1. Objectives of education:
organized education contain varied possibilities for learning, whether or
not the persons involved in planning the curriculum content take them into
account in making decisions.
Unfortunately, the possibilities for negative learning are also available like:
Inadequate good feelings to self and others
Mechanical responses without complete understanding
Overdependence
Jumping to conclusions without much thought or evidence etc.
Hence, clarity of objectives is one of the most important aspects in designing the
curriculum.
So, during the curriculum change process, the objectives should be
reviewed and revised keeping the following things in
consideration:
the acquisition of desirable learning should not be placed to chance
We shouldnt overemphasize certain learning in ways that leads to
less emphasis on desirable learning
We should equally be alert on potential negative learning
Thus, objectives should be reviewed and revised to make
a balance between Cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains of learning
a balance between Course or session objectives and overall program
objectives

2. Diagnosis in developed curriculum

Achievement (examination performance, proficiency in competency to serve
society)
Student as learner (interview, meetings and discussions)
Curriculum problem (inappropriate depth and breadth, less adaptable,
less significant and less applicable etc.)

Raj K. Subedi (BPH, MPH)

2.1. achievement
The diagnosis can be done in different ways. Achievement is one of them.The
Academic performance of the students as well as their practical skills can be
evaluated in order to make new curriculum experience with the aim of developing
curriculum experience to improve performance
The diagnosis in the achievement is done to evaluate the following:
The examination performance of the students (Written and
verbal examinations) Proficiency in competencies to serve the
society
Evaluation of performance in the professional organizations
by measuring competencies (direct measurement)
Feedback from the recruiting agencies, community
people etc (indirect measurement)

2.2. Student as learner

The students can also be asked whether or not they have experienced the positive
learning.
The diagnosis of student as learner is done because of the following reasons:
There may be negative learning experiences like less feeling of good to
self and others, mechanical responses without complete
understanding, abuse and unnecessary pressure, less support from the
curriculum implementers etc.
To assess the motivation level of students and their involvement
in curriculum experience.
The different techniques to diagnose learning experience by students can be done by:
Review meeting
Interview
Discussions
Seminars etc.

2.3. Curriculum problem

Inappropriate depth and breadth
The contents are analyzed how deep the contents have gone into and
how wide have they reached.
Depth is diagnosed to analyze the content adequacy or sufficiency
Breadth is diagnosed to analyze content linkage to other disciplines

Raj K. Subedi (BPH, MPH)

Less adaptable
The contents and teaching methodologies are diagnosed to evaluate
whether or not the curriculum experiences can be internally accepted
by the students to make it an integral part of their life and whether or
not the students can adapt the curriculum experiences.
Also takes into account the adaptability in terms of sociocultural
determinants, legal provisions, choice and interest etc
Less significant
Whether or not the curriculum experiences are as per the need of the
students, society
Whether or not the contents are valid and reliable
Less applicable
Whether or not the learning experiences are possible in real life
situations i.e. volume and complexity
Whether or not the learnt things can really be translated into behaviors i.e.
feasibility

3. Selection of curriculum content and experience

While content is the meat of the curriculum plan, we can consider
learning experiences planned for the students as the heart of the plan
(Ornstein and Hunkins, 1998).
The learning experiences are the means towards achieving the goals and
objectives of the curriculum.
Curriculum experience is also called the learning experience
Tyler used the term learning experience in his model of curriculum design
It is the instructional component of the curriculum in which the students,
teachers and content interact among each other
Hence curriculum experience includes the following:
Methods (the lecture method, small group discussion, roleplaying, fieldwork)
learning activities (answering questions, solving problems, journal
writing, viewing videos, doing experiments, playing games )
Use of resources (whiteboards, markers, charts, LCD, OHP etc.)
The curriculum experience is selected in such a way that it meets the

newly refined and designed objectives of education (Rational selection)

Raj K. Subedi (BPH, MPH)

Rational selection is done for both contents as well as experiences
The rational selection of contents is done on the basis of problem establishing
criteria like:
Significance
Depth and breadth
Adaptability
Appropriate need and interest of trainees

Rational selection of curriculum experiences is done by:

Proper selection of teaching methodology as per
the content Proper selection of activities as per
the methodology
Proper selection of the resources for carrying out activities
Rational selection helps for mutual interaction between the teacher, student and
content
The selection is influenced by: budget, time, competency to use
resources, technological advancement etc.

4. Organizing curriculum experiences and learning

After having decided on the content and curriculum experiences, the next step is to
organise them in a form that will facilitate learning.

Principles of Content Organisation

The following principles have been proposed when deciding on content
organisation (Sowell, 2000; Ornstein & Hunkins, 1998):
Scope
When deciding about the scope of a curriculum, the following guidelines may be useful:

The usefulness of the content selected.

whether the content caters to diverse student abilities
if the amount of content selected can be covered in the specified period of time
if there is a balance in the content selected between cognitive,
psychomotor and affective domains.

Raj K. Subedi (BPH, MPH)

Sequence
Sequence refers to the organisation of content and the extent to which it
fosters cumulative and continuous learning (referred to as vertical relationship
among sections of the curriculum).
The following are some principles identified as guidelines in sequencing the
curriculum: (Ornstein and Hunkins, 1998, Taba, 1962, Bruner, 1960).
a) Simple to complex content is organised going from simple subordinate
components to complex components depicting interrelationships among
components. Optimal learning occurs when students are presented with
easy, often concrete content and to more difficult and abstract content.
b) Spiral In a spiral curriculum, concepts may be introduced on a simple level
in the early grades, then revisited with more and more complexity and
application later on (Bruner, 1960)
c) Prerequisites it works on the assumption that bits of information or learning
must be grasped before other bits of information can be understood.
d) Whole to part content is better understood if an overview (whole) is first
presented to show the connections between the parts.
e) Chronology this is a useful organiser for sequencing content especially in
subjects such as history, political science and world events.
f) Vertical organisation This simply means that content and skills are arranged
so that they build on one another; that they align with the general
sequence of cognitive development. They indicate what students have
learned and what they will learn later.
g) Horizontal organisation It involves how skills and content that are taught
during one level or one period of time relate to another. For example, in a
social science course, you might consider particular issues from a historical,
sociological, political and economic point of view.
Integration
Integration is the bringing together of the concepts, skills and values of different
subject areas to reinforce each other. Bits of information from different subject areas
are brought together in such a way to present the learner with a unified picture of
knowledge.
Example of the integrated curriculum includes sciencetechnologysociety. In the
sciencetechnology society (STS) curriculum, science is combined with social
sciences in attempting to solve practical, everyday problems. The integrated
approach takes the student outside the laboratory and away from the textbook
into the local community.
Continuity
Continuity ensures that ideas, themes and skills are repeated as the learner
progresses through the grades. For example, students in the primary grades are
taught the principles of essay writing. The same principles are repeated in the

succeeding years. Continuity ensures the reappearance of certain major ideas at

different grade levels at increased depth and complexity over the length of the
curriculum.

Raj K. Subedi (BPH, MPH)

Criteria for organizing learning

experiences: Domains of learning:
Methods and materials should be organized in such a way that it meets the
objectives in different levels in sequence i.e. from cognitive, affective to
psychomotor. For example, lecture method group discussion demonstration
Feasibility:
The learning experiences should also be organized in such a way that they can be
carried out in sequence with time, available facilities and expertise of teachers.
They are prioritized accordingly in which some learning experiences may be
omitted and some may be repeatedly used in sequence.
Complexity:
The simple methods and materials are selected first which are followed by more
and more complex methods and materials to enhance sequential learning.

5. Evaluation of the outcomes of curriculum

When the new draft curriculum has been formed during the curriculum change
process, the evaluation of outcomes of the curriculum is necessary before
making it accepted, accredited and stable.
The outcomes of curriculum are evaluated by the summative evaluation.
Two levels:
to know if learners achieved the objectives
whether the programme produced the desired outcomes.
Some questions that can be used while evaluating the outcomes of curriculum:
1) Have the competencies developed in students as per the set objectives after
the completion of the program of study?
2) Has the curriculum been applicable in real life situations?
3) Has the lack of human resources in the society been overcome?
4) Are the people benefitted by the given curriculum? To what extent?
5) Has the given curriculum been successful in obeying the sociocultural norms and
values? Etc.

Raj K. Subedi (BPH, MPH)

Methods of evaluation:
Questionnaire survey
Key informant interviews
Focus group discussions
Observations
Case study
Review of records and reports
Process of evaluation:
Formulating the objectives of evaluation
Determining appropriate techniques and tools
Collecting data and information using determined techniques and tools
Analyzing and interpreting the collected data and information
Preparing evaluation report and recommend to concerned authority for necessary
action