Selection and Fitness

Learning Outcomes
1. Vocabulary
Natural Selection: Evolutionary process by which alleles that increase the likelihood of survival and the reproductive
output of the individuals that carry them become more common in subsequent generations.
Variation: Differences in individuals (ex. Phenotypes, genetic)
Heritable: Characteristics from parent that are given to their offspring
Trade-Off: A compromise
Fitness: An organisms ability to survive and reproduce in a given environment
2. Darwins 5 observations and 3 inferences leading to Theory of Evolution by Nat Select
Table 17.1 (pg.390)
Observations
a. Most organisms produce more than one or two offspring
b. Populations do not increase in size indefinitely
c. Food and other resources are limited for most populations
d. Individuals within populations exhibit variability in many characteristics
e. Many variations have a genetic basis that is inherited by subsequent generations
Inferences
a. (a-c) Individuals within a population compete for limited resources
b. (d-e) Hereditary characteristics may allow some individuals to survive longer and reproduce more than others
Ultimate Inference
A populations characteristics and change over the generations as advantageous, heritable characteristics become
more common
3. Details of the snail simulation
Study organism, characteristics, environmental factors, results, conclusions
Snails were the prey for these crabs and their only way of protection was their shells. The thicker the shell, the higher
chance of survival they had. (Each shell thickness was dependent on the parents
The environment didnt really have to do much with the snails because the survival of a snail was dependent on the
shell thickness.
Results of the snail simulation depended on how the crab chose its prey. If the crab was strong to break through any
kind of shell, it would be differential variation, but if it was a normal crab, the thicker shelled snails would survive and
the thin shelled snails would be gone because they are the easiest to break and feed on.
4. Requirements for Evolution by natural selection in novel situations
Mutations!
- Heritable change in DNA Introduces new genetic variation into a population
Relative Fitness
- Number of surviving offspring that an individual produces compared with the number left by others in the
population

5. Determine whether a population may be evolving by nat select based on description

Directional Selection
- Individuals near one end of the phenotypic spectrum
have highest relative fitness.

- Goes toward the favoured extreme

- Extremely common
Stabilizing Selection
- Individuals expressing intermediate phenotypes have the
highest relative fitness
- Eliminate phenotype extremes
- Reduces genetic & phenotypic variation

- Most common mode

Disruptive Selection
- Extreme phenotypes have higher relative fitness than intermediate fitness
- Promotes polymorphism Occurrence of different forms among the members of a population or in the life cycle of

an individual organism
- Less common in natural selection
6. Distinguish Natural Selection and Evolution
Natural selection is a mechanism that drives evolution. The phenotype changes over the generations and adapt to
adaptations.
Evolution is the change. It is the change in the genetic makeup of a population over time which can affect the
phenotypes of an organism as well.
Evolution includes all the changes in the genetic material that occurs between generations, while natural selection is
the force behind those changes that make the organisms better adjusted into a given
organism.
7. The Nature of an adaptation based on information about a population and
environment
Population Bottleneck
- Greatly reduces genetic variation even if the population numbers rebound later

- Disease, starvation, drought, etc

- Produces low level of genetic variation overall low fitness of the organism
- May not be able to adapt to new selection pressures (climate change or change in available resources) b/c
genetic variation that wouldve acted on adapting to this change has already
drifted out of the population
Founder Effect
- An evolutionary phenomenon in which a population that was established by just a few
colonizing individuals has only a fraction of the genetic diversity
seen in the population from which it was derived. This means the
organism may have

Reduced genetic variation from the original population

Non-random sample of genes in the original population
Some alleles might be completely missing from this new population but the allele may still be present in the
original population at a high frequency

8&9. Distinguish between relative and absolute fitness

Relative fitness: Number of surviving individuals produces compared with the number left by others in the population
Absolute fitness: A
measure of
fitness expressed
as the total
number of gene
copies
transmitted to the
subsequent
generation (How
many surviving offspring an individual produces during its lifetime). Can be expressed as the total number of
individuals, phenotypes or genotypes and as the product of the proportion survival.

10. Understand and recognize novel examples of constraints limiting natural selection, evolution and
adaptations
Limitations of Natural Selection
- Lack of necessary genetic variation

- Selection can only operate on the available genetic variation. If the allele that would improve the organism is not
present in the population from a mutation or gene flow, evolution wont happen and the organism will have a
hard time adapting.
- Constraints due to history
- Basic structure of mammals is already laid out in an organisms genes that if you tried to change it, you can harm
the whole population

- Trade-Off
- Changing one feature for the better can actually be a bad idea.
Limitations of Evolution
- Developmental constraints

- Lineages development inability to have a diverse amount of phenotypes that then lead to the inability to evolve
- Helps us understand why some phenotypes that we think wouldve been advantageous arent actually

advantageous to an organism
- Can affect the organisms development
Limitations of Adaptations
- Environments are always changing. You cant be 100% sure that nothing disastrous will happen

- An organism can only adapt to so much before running out of resources that will keep them alive
- As humans, we are becoming overpopulated, so at one point organisms wont have space to move and adapt to
because they lose their habitats too (habitat loss)
11. Connect heritable phenotypic variation to genetic variation

Evolutionary Forces
Learning Outcomes
1. Vocabulary
Mutation: Spontaneous and heritable change in DNA
Disruptive selection: Type of natural selection in which extreme phenotypes are favoured rather than intermediate
phenotypes
Inbreeding: Special form of nonrandom mating in which genetically related individuals mate with each other
Sampling drift/genetic drift: Random fluctuations in allele frequencies as a result of chance events; usually reduce
genetic variation in a population
Assortative mating: Selection of a mate with preference for a particular genotype. Nonrandom mating in which india
with similar genotypes/phenotypes mate with one another
Neutral mutation: Mutation with no selective advantage or disadvantage.
Heterozygote advantage: Evolutionary circumstance in which individuals that are heterozygous at a particular locus
have a higher relative fitness than either homozygote.
Genetic diversity: Refers to both the vast numbers of different species as well as the diversity within a species. More
genetic diversity within a species = long-term survival.
Qualitative variation: Variation that exists in two or more discrete states, with intermediate forms often being absent.
Polymorphism: The existence of discrete variants of a character
among individuals in a population. (ex. Blood types in humans)
2. How to interpret/create a histogram to display information
about a population and evolution

3. Identify novel examples of, distinguish between, and predict outcomes of different types of selection
Directional selection: Goes toward the favoured extreme phenotype. One side of the individuals has the highest
relative fitness.
Stabilizing Selection: Individuals expressing the intermediate phenotype have the highest relative fitness.
Heterozygous genotypes have the highest fitness. Reduces genetic and phenotypic variation and increases the
frequency of intermediate phenotypes.
Disruptive selection: Favours the phenotypic extremes and is not in favour of intermediate phenotypes. Promotes
polymorphism
Sexual selection: Form of natural selection established by male competition for access to females and by the
females choice of mate. (ex. showy feathers, lots of colours) Shifts the phenotypes to which one is highly favoured
even though it can cause harm
Frequency-dependent selection: Fitness of a phenotype is a function of common that phenotype is
- Positive: Most common phenotype is most fit. Common allele has highest fitness

- Negative: Least common phenotype is most fit. Least common allele has the highest fitness
4. Different types of mutations and consequences on genetic variation
Mutation = heritable change in DNA that introduces new genetic variation into population
- Neutral Mutations

- Neither harmful or helpful

- Can be beneficial or detrimental later if the environment changes
- Ex. Change an organisms phenotype without influencing its survival and reproduction
- Deleterious mutations
- Alter an individuals structure, function or behaviour in harmful ways
- Lethal mutations
- Cause the death of an organism
- If dominant = both homozygous & heterozygous carriers suffer from its effects
- Recessive = affets only homozygous recessive individuals
- Advantageous mutation
- Some sort of benefit for an organism
- Natural selection may preserve the new allele and even increase its frequency over time
5. Role that mutations to regulatory genes have in creating genetic variation

6. Describe/explain the various origins of genetic variation

MUTATIONS
(Look at #5)
Point mutations: Affect one/few nucleotides within a gene
Chromosomal mutations: Change the number of chromosomes or number or arrangement of genes in a
chromosome
Ploidy

7. Define, predict the consequences of, identify novel situations, demonstrating the various mechanisms of
evolution
Agent

Defintion

Effect on Genetic Variation

Mutation

A heritable change in DNA

Introduces new genetic variation into

population

Gene Flow

Change in allele frequencies as

individuals join a population and
reproduce

May introduce genetic variation from

another population

Genetic Drift

Random changes in allele frequencies

Reduces genetic variation, especially

Agent

Defintion

Effect on Genetic Variation

caused by a chance events

in small populations can eliminate

alleles

Natural Selection

Differential survivorship or
reproduction of individuals with
different genotypes

One allele may increase in frequency

or allelic variation can be preserved

Nonrandom mating

Choice of mates based on their

phenotypes and genotypes

Does not directly affect allele

frequencies, but usually prevents
genetic equilibrium

Mutations
- Harmful or beneficial

- Ex. Mutation that makes organisms produce enzymes that will allow them to eat more
food. Those with the mutation will survive over time and those without it could die

Gene flow
- Migration of individuals from one group to another

- Ex. Animals driven off from a herd and join new population bringing only those
genes to the gene pool.

- Tends to increase similarity b/w remaining populations of the same species b/c
it makes gene pools more similar to one another

- Bad b/c wont be able to adapt ex. Koalas

Genetic Drift
- Small group of individuals leaves a population and establishes a new one in an isolated region

- Ex. Releasing a group of fish into a lake but then after some time, they evolve into
fish that are different from the original species
Natural Selection
- Organism is subject to their environment

- Survival of the fittest

- Contribute genes to their offspring so that they will survive and adapt to the
given environment

Assortative mating
- Selection of a male with preference to a particular genotype

- Not everyone has a chance at mating b/c some people are so shallow and some people are just plain freaky
- Affects the homozygosity and total variance of the population
Inbreeding
- Special form of nonrandom mating in which genetically related individuals mate with each other
- Metabolic disorders, structural abnormalities and inherited disease conditions

- Many similarities because mating is from two very close relatives

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- Inbreeding depression
8. Distinguish between random and non-random mating (include inbreeding)
Non-random mating
- Can have cultural values and social rules to it

- Positive non-random
- Individuals mate with others who are phenotypically identical for selected
traits (ex. Tall people w/ tall people)
Can have

Homozygous dominant
Heterozygous w/ heterozygous
Homozygous recessive

- Negative non-random
- Individuals select mates who are phenotypically different from themselves for selective traits (Tall & super short)
- Can have
- Heterozygous genotypes (inc)
- Decrease of homozygous genotypes
- Opposite effect of positive non-random
- Inbreeding
- Mating between related individuals
- Can be bad b/c loss of genetic variance means birth defects, weak bone structure, joint issues, etc
- Less chance of adaptating if something bad happens
Random mating
- Just screw anybody #teamfeelnoways

- Ration will always be

- 25% homozygous dominant
- 25% homozygous recessive
- 50% heterozygous

Speciation
Learning Outcomes
1. Vocabulary
Speciation: Process of species formation
Sympatric: Speciation that occurs without the geographic isolation of populations
Parapatric: Speciation between populations with adjacent geographic distributions
Reproductive Isolation: A biological characteristic that prevents the gene pools of two species from mixing
Post-Gametic: Gamete = sperm/egg so post-gametic = one cell?
Mechanical Isolation: Prezygotic reproductive isolating mechanisms caused by differences in the structure of
reproductive organs or other body parts.
Secondary contact: Simulatenous occurrence in one area of two taxa that were previously geographically isolated
and had accumulated some genetic divergence.
Species: Group of living organisms consisting of similar individuals capable of exchanging genes or interbreeding
Taxon: Name designating a group of organisms included within a category in the Linnaean taxonomic hierarchy.
2&3. Microevolution vs Macroevolution
Macroevolution: Major evolutionary changes over time
- Origin of new types of organisms from previously existing but different ancestral types

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ex. Fish descending from invertebrate animal

- Evolutionary concept demands these bizarre changes

- All of evolution has one common ancestor
Microevolution: Varieties within a given type. Change happens within a group but the descendent is of the same
ancestor
- Also known as adaptation but the changes are horizontal

Breeding dogs

- Recombining existing genetic material within the group

- Focuses on smaller groups of organisms living within well-defined habitats and attempts to correlate changes in the
habitat with changes in the genetic makeup of the organisms living within it.

- Sources:

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Genetic Drift
Nonrandom mating

Mutation
Natural Selection
Gene flow

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- Population genetics = branch

- Tries to explain and predict change in allele frequencies using stats
4&5. Different species concepts
Biological Species Concept
- Defines a species as a group of organisms that can successfully interbreed and produce fertile offspring

- Species are groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations that are reproductively isolated from
other such groups

- Appearance is helpful in identifying species but doesnt define species

- Organisms can look alike but be different species
- Organisms can look different but be the same species
- Asexual Organisms? Hybrids?
- How far can you draw the line on distance before separating species?
- By their approach to reproduction, whole groups of organisms sit outside the conventional
definition of species. Patterns of reproduction can blur the definition of species.

Phylogenetic Species Concept

- Defines a species as a group of organisms bound by a unique ancestry

- A species is the smallest monophyletic group of common ancestry

- Monophyletic: descended from a common evolutionary ancestor or ancestral group, esp one not shared with
any other group

- Problem = multiplication of species names

Ecological Species Concept
- Defines a species as a group of organisms that share a distinct ecological niche

- A species is a lineage that occupies an adaptive zone minimally different from that of any other lineage in its range
and which evolves separately from all lineages outside its range.

- The more similar two organisms are then the more likely that their needs will overlap, the more likely they will
compete over resources such as food and shelter = members of the same species.

- Concerns
- Organisms dont usually occupy the same ecological niche in a lifetime
Evolutionary Species Concept
- A species is a single lineage of populations or organisms that maintains its identity from other lineages and has its
own evolutionary tendencies and historical fate

Recognition Species Concept

- A species is the most inclusive population of individual biparental organisms that share a common fertilization
system

- Problems

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- Asexual species? Hybridizing species? Too much emphasis on fertilization system - what about postreproductive isolation barriers?
Cohesion Species Concept
- A species is the most inclusive population of individuals having the potential for phenotypic cohesion through
intrinsic cohesion mechanisms
Morphological Species Concept
- Individuals of a species share measurable traits that distinguish them from individuals of other species

- Used for fossils

- Species are the smallest groups that are consistently and persistently distinct, and distinguishable by ordinary
means

- Problems
- A species can be arbitrary
- Super closely related < is it the same species or nah?
- Genetically distinct but nearly identical morphology
- Genetically very similar or identical but large differences in morphology.
6&7. Link reproductive isolation to underlying genetic differences between individuals/species
Reproductive Isolation: Biological characteristic that prevents the gene pools of two species from mixing even if they
are sympatric.
- Can either happen by

Prezygotic isolating mechanisms: Exert their effects before the production of a zygote/fertilized egg
Postzygotic isolating mechanisms: Operate after zygote formation

Prezygotic Isolating Mechanisms

- Ecological isolation: Species living in the same geographic region if they live in different habitats

- ex. Lions and tigers dont live in the same habitats but if they are held under captivity you get ligers

- Temporal Isolation: Species living in the same habitat if they mate at different times of the day or year
- ex. Two types of flies (Drosphila persimilis & Drosophila pseudoobscura)
- Both live in areas that overlap each other but dont interbreed b/c persimilis mates in the morning while
pseudoobscura mates in the afternoon
- Behavioural Isolation: When signals used by one species are not recognized by another
- Ex. Female songbirds rely on song, colour and displays of males to identify their species

- *Mate choice by females and sexual selection generally drive the evolution of mate recognition signals*
- Mechanical Isolation: Difference in the structure of sex organs prevent successful mating b/w individuals of
different species.

- Ex. Two species of monkey flower attract different animal pollinators b/c of different structure
- Gametic Isolation
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- Individuals of different species do mate, or incompatibility between the sperm of one and the eggs of another
prevent fertilization

- Ex. The sperm of one species may not survive or function within the reproductive tract of the other
Postzygotic Isolating Mechanisms
- Reduce the fitness of hybrid individuals

- Hybrid Inviability: Occur because many genes govern the complex processes that transform a zygote into a mature
organism

- Usually die premature (embryo)

- ex. Sheep + goat can have embryo but will die b/c the developmental programs are different for each parent
- Hybrid sterility
- Can have successful offspring but they cant produce fertile gametes
- Parents differ in number of chromo or structure and cant pair properly in meiosis
- Ex. Female horse and male donkey = mule but theyre fertile
- Hybrid breakdown: Hybrids are capable of reproducing, but their offspring have either reduced fertility or reduced
viability

- ex. Fruit fly = produce functional hybrids but offspring experience a high rate of chromosomal abnormalities and
harmful genetic recombination
Timing Relative to Fertilization

Mechanism

Mode of Action

Prezygotic mechanisms

Ecological Isolation

Species live in different habits

Temporal Isolation

Species breed at different times

Behavioural Isolation

Species cannot communicate

Mechanical Isolation

Species cannot physically mate

Gametic Isolation

Species have non matching receptors on

gametes

Hybrid Inviability

Hybrid offspring do not complete

development

Hybrid Sterility

Hybrid offspring cannot produce

gametes

Postzygotic mechanisms

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Timing Relative to Fertilization

Mechanism

Mode of Action

Hybrid Breakdown

Hybrid offspring have reduced survival or

fertility

8. Mechanisms that cause speciation given appropriate

information/descriptions
Allopatric Speciation (different)
- Physical barrier subdivides a large population OR small population
separated from main geographic distribution

- Most common mode

- How it works
- Population distributed geographically
- Geographical change separates original population creating a barrier to gene flow
- Absence of gene flow = separated populations evolve independently and diverge into different species
- When geographical change is gone, the two individuals can mate (Secondary contact) they do not interfere
- HOWEVER if the species havent really evolved (gene pools arent that different) during secondary contact
there is a possibility that they will interbreed

Parapatric Speciation (beside)

- Species is distributed across a discontinuity in environmental conditions so that natural
selection favours different alleles and phenotypes on either side of the discontinuity

- Divergence may occur b/c of reduced gene flow within the population and varying selection
pressures across the populations range

- Non-random mating
- Most likely to mate with geographic neighbours than with individuals in a different part of the populations range
- Must have continuous population b/w the two species unless there is a barrier - then everything changes
- Ex. Strains of bent grass

- Some are copper-tolerant and some aren't

- The ones that are copper-tolerant can grow on heavily polluted soils
- The ones that are not copper-tolerant, they can grow on unpolluted soils
- But there is an in between = mosaic
- The pollen is readily transferred from both because of this in between
mosaic
- Their flowering times are close too - if they were further apart = reproductive
isolation
Sympatric speciation (together)

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- Occurs among subgroups of a population. Neither geographic nor reproductive isolation is necessary for sympatric
speciation to occur.
- Changes in diet, behaviour or chromosomes can use sympatric speciation

- DOES NOT require a large scale geographic distinct reduce gene flow
- Using a new niche can reduce gene flow ASAP with the individuals from the other niche
- Ex. Apples
- Before it was only one apple that the apple maggot flies laid eggs on but now they lay their eggs on the apple
that they were born on.

- Mates are also found on the same apple that they were born on
- Gene flow = reduced now and after a few years .. you have two new species of apple maggot flies
9. Describe the mechanisms that cause speciation
Genetic Divergence (allopatric)
- The separation of a populations gene pool from the gene pools of other populations due to mutation, genetic drift

and selection. Continued divergence (what were looking at) leads to speciation
- Natural selection cant work here because in allopatric situations, they dont see each other which means there
are no hybrids. BUT it can help with adaptive changes that make secondary contact mating not possible
- IF post zygotic isolating mechanisms reduce fitness of hybrids, natural selection reinforces evolution in these pre
zygotic isolating mechanisms

- How much genetic divergence is needed?

- In order to determine this, yo need to identify why there was reproductive isolation and then you can use gene
sequencing and see where it started from

- Also, many of the pre zygotic reproductive isolation mechanisms could have originated from sexual selection

- Sometimes, the evolution of reproductive isolation may not require much genetic change at all
Polyploidy (sympatric)
- >2n sets of chromosomes

- Can arise from chromosome duplications within a single species or through hybridization
- Usually in plants - not really in animals
- Autoployploidy
- 2n 4n
- Error in mitosis or meiosis
- Gametes spontaneously receive same number of chromos as a somatic cell
- Can have 3n b/c of mutations
- Offspring is usually sterile
- Allopolyploidy
- Different-many-form
- Offsprings chromosomes come from two DIFF species
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Fertile offspring
You have two different species with chromo

Interbreeding

They go from diploid haploid

They fertilize and make a cell however the chromo dont have homologous pairs so it self duplicates
The cell can then go through meiosis and then self-fertilizes
Compared to genetic divergence, allopolploidy is extremely rapid new species in one gen w/o geographic

isolation
- Both autopolyploidy & allopolyploidy are very important to agriculture b/c offspring is larger than parents

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Phylogenetics
Learning Outcomes
1. Vocabulary
Common Ancestor: Single species from which two or more other species are derived
Phylogenetic Tree: A branching diagram depicting the evolutionary relationship of groups of organisms
Closest Relative: Very similar species
Monophyletic: Descended from a common evolutionary ancestor or ancestral group, esp one not shared with any
other group
Homology: A state of similarity in structure and anatomical position but not necessarily in function between diff
organisms indicating a common ancestry or evolutionary origin
Convergent Evolution: Evolution of similar adaptations in distantly related organisms
that occury similar environments
Parsimony: Unwillingness to use any resources
2. Interpret a phylogenetic tree
- A&B are sister groups so they are closest relatives

- Outgroup: Taxon outside the group of interest. Stem from the base of the tree
- Monophyletic taxa: Derived from a single ancestral species and all of its descendants
- Polyphyletic taxa: Include species from separate evolutionary lineages. Ex. presence of
wings = bats, birds, and insects
- Paraphyletic taxon: Includes ancestor and some descendants

Ex. Reptilia b/c includes obvious reptiles but nothing else

- Assumption of parsimony: Simplest explanation should be most accurate

- Phylogenetic trees are representations of hypotheses that place all organisms on a single
branch
3&4&7. Homoplasy vs Homology
Homology: Similarity b/w characters that is due to their shared ancestry
- Vertebrate limbs

Homoplasy: Characters are simlar but are not derived from a common ancestor
- Convergent evolution: Evolution of similar adaptations in distantly related organisms that occury similar environments

- Bird and bat wings

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- Old and New World Vultures

- Both eat carrion
- Old Vultures related to eagles but New Vultures related to storks
5. Identify types of evolution
Convergent Evolution
- Species that are not closely related to each other evolve similar traits
Ex. Dragonflies, bats and hawks all have wings

B/c each wing was evolved independently, flight = way of survival and reproduction.
Analogous structures: Structures of different species having similar or corresponding
function but not from same evolutionary origin

Divergent Evolution
- Trait held by a common ancestor evolves into different variations over time
Vertebrate limbs

Horses, whale flippers, human arms

Called homologous structures

- Important consequence = speciation divergence of one species into two or more descendant species
Parallel Evolution
- Different species start with similar ancestral origins then evolve similar traits over time

- Two different species experience similar environmental pressures and survive by

undergoing similar adaptations

- Plants several similar but distinct forms of leaf evolved in parallel and evident today
Coevolution
- Closely interacting species exert selective pressures on each other and evolve in
adaptations. (Species INFLUENCE each other)
- Hummingbirds and flowers from which they get near from and pollinate
6. Pros/Cons of using molecular data for phylogenetics
Advantages
- Provide abundant data b/c all the amino acids and bases in nucleic acid = independent character in analysis

- Compared b/w distantly related organisms that share no organismal characters

- Study closely related species that have minor morphological differences
- Many proteins and nucleic acids are not directly affected by the developmental or environmental factors that cause
non genetic morphological variations

- Represent the genome directly, and great success in phylogenetic analyses and in embryology
Disadvantages
- Only 4 alternative character states at each position in DNA/RNA and only 20 alternative states for amino acids in
proteins

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- If two species have same base sub at a section of DNA = similarity evolved independently.
- Difficult to say if molecular similarities were inherited from a common ancestor or nah
- No embryonic development so they cant say the significance of most molecular differences
8. Distinguish and identify traits separating taxa in a phylogenetic tree
- Look at homology

- Separate based on similarities after

- Look for the monophyletic, polyphyletic and paraphyletic patterns
9. Ancestral and derived character states
Ancestral: Old forms of traits
- Trait that was present in distant common ancestor
Derived: New forms of traits
- A new version of a trait found in the most recent common ancestor of a group

- Provide the most useful information about evolutionary relationships

- Once a derived character is established, it is present in all of the descendent
- Serve as markers for entire evolutionary lineages
Example
- Brain to body size ratio in human evolution

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- Larger brains = derived

- Smaller brains = ancestral

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- Vertebral column
- Fishes, amphibians, reptiles and malls didnt have them at first = ancestral
- Slowly there was a presence of the vertebral column = derived
10. Parsimony to phylogenetic trees
- Used when using homologies to make phylogeny

MUST BE THE FEWEST/SIMPLEST assumptions to explain an observation (hypothesis)

Invokes the minimal number of evolutionary changes to infer phylogenetic relationship.
States: Trait origination is much less likely than trait inheritance in ancestor-descendent relationship
Maximizes homology and minimizes analogy
Ex. Vertebral Column

- One common ancestor instead of showing that the fish and amphibian and etc each evolved at their own time

11. Apply the concept of monophyly to identify species undertake phylogenetic species concept & identify
taxa which do not fulfill the requirement of monophyly
Monophyly: groups based on synapomorphy
- Synamorphy: characteristic present in an ancestral species and shared exclusively (in more or less modified form) by
its evolutionary descendants.
Refer to monophyletic notes
12. Explain and apply outgroup analysis to identify ancestral vs derived traits in developing a phylogenetic
tree
- Outgroup: Taxon outside the group of interest. Stem from the base of the tree

- It is assumed that anything that is ancestral is the outgrip of the taxon

- Anything that is different from the ancestral would be derived
- Outside group is determined by looking for the one that is very distantly related to the others in the taxa

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Sexual Selection
Learning Outcomes
1. Vocabulary
Intrasexual: Occuring or existing between the sexes (hermaphrodite)
Sexual selection: A form of natural selection established by male competition for access to females and by the
females choice of mates
Parental investment: Amount of time, money, energy, etc that parents spend on their offspring hoping in beneficial
outcomes. Starts at sexual reproduction
Ornaments: Structure of an animal that appears to serve a decorative function. Usually used to attract mates. Usually
in males and females choose them.
2. Intrasexual vs Intersexual selection
Intrasexual selection
- Selection within in the same sex

Ex. Crazy elephant seals who compete with each other for access to a female
Means of mating as a selective advantage

Intersexual selection
- Selection between the two sexes

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Ex. Peacocks

Females prefer a peacock with more brightly coloured feather

- Selection based on one sex of the species preferring some characteristic in the other sex
3. Identify examples of traits that should evolve (effect on genetic variation) from sexual selection
Female choice or mate competition
Female = Intersex Male Competition = Intrasex
- Highly ornamental plumage of male birds (female choice)

- Neck of the giraffe (mate competition)

- Large relative sizes of males (mate competition)
- Highly elaborate courtship rituals of animals (both, mainly female)
- Bowers of bowerbirds (female)
- Maladaptive traits b/c it is costly to develop, maintain and survival could decrease as well

4. Natural selection vs Sexual Selection

*Note: Sexual selection is a special case of natural selection*
Natural Selection
- Differential survival and reproduction of individual organisms based on one or more of their heritable traits

- Favours traits that improve ability of an individual to survive and reproduce

- Will cut off any organism that has relative low fitness

Sexual Selection
- Differential mating success of individuals based on traits that may or may not have anything to do with their ability
to survive

- Favours traits that improve an organisms chance of finding a mate

- Attempts at giving everyone a chance at mating even if it results in maladaptive traits
5.Concept of differential parental investment b/w sexes to predict characteristics of mate choice and
outcome of sexual selection
Parental Investment : Amount of time, money, energy, etc that parents spend on their offspring hoping in beneficial
outcomes. Starts at sexual reproduction
- Sex that makes the least parental investment is the greatest b/c they can bang each other more and not be tied
down
Females = choosier because they make a larger parental investment in their offspring
- Quality over quantity

- Females will look for the one that will be able to support the offspring and family financially and also willing to take
care of the child

- Also looking for someone with a social standing and older than them
Males = Looks
- Younger women (because fertility)

- Physical beauty (health)

- Body shape (waist-hip ration of less than 70%)
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6. Advantages and disadvantages of asexual and sexual selection (reproduction?)

Asexual
Advantages
- Less complex = less energy in comparison to sexual reproduction

- Dont need to look for a mate.

- No need for time and energy to produce offspring.
- Some plants and animals can produce as many offspring as they want w/o worrying about the amount of time
and energy that wouldve been needed

- No problem regarding the environment.

- Disadvantage: Sexual reproduction, organism may not survive in a harsh environment and sensitive stages or
organs will certainly find it impossible to live

- When a particular organism has been established in a habitat = faster reproduction

Disadvantages
- No genetic diversity

- No mixing of a gene pool to produce diversity

- Less variation in offspring
- Organism becomes less adapted to certain environmental changes and wont be able to survive and then the
whole organism is gone ):
- Leads to struggle for existence and overcrowding
- Only one parent taking care of offspring
- Due to fission, sometime the parent will disappear b/c body doesnt exist anymore

Sexual
Advantages
- Produces a new organism that results from a combination of traits of two parents

- Increases the genetic variability in organisms of the same species and even within the offspring of one couple
- Allows the best adaptations to be widespread within a species, especially in changing circumstances
- Variability of organisms within a species guarantees that a higher proportion will survive in harmful circumstances
- Sometimes the baby daddy will stay
Disadvantages
- Finding a partner and producing gametes = lots of energy and time

- Mechanisms for transportation of gametes, attraction of the opposite sex and competition within a species must be
put in place

- One must be male and the other female (gametes for fertilization)
- Meiosis is not predictable
- Genetic error happen more frequently because meiosis is more complex than mitosis and diploid organisms have
more chromosomes to double
- Offspring are not necessarily as well adapted to their environment as the parents

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- Many organisms never become parents b/c they forever alone and those gametes are lost forever

7. Identify explanations for intersexual selection

Good Gene Hypothesis
- Ex. Swallow

- Females look at males and assess the symmetry

- Symmetry in tail feathers = how healthy they are and the underlying genes that contribute to the individual

Acquisition of Resources
Sexy Sons
- Sons will have the nice eyes and then they will have high fitness if they
choose the dude with nice sexy eyes (sexy can I?)

8. Lottery model for the evolution of sexual reproduction

First diagram = asexual b/c all identical

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Asexual Reproduction

Sexual Reproduction

Number of Organisms Involved

One parent needed

Two parents are req to mate

Cell Division

Cells divide by Fission, budding or

regeneration

Cells divide by cell cycle - meiosis

Types

Budding, vegetative reproduction,

fragmentation, spore formation

Syngamy and conjugation

Syngamy = fusion of gametes zygote

Advantages

Time Efficient; no need to search for

mate, requires less energy

Variation, Unique, organism is more

protected

Disadvantages

No variation - if parents has genetic

disease, offspring does too

Requires two organisms, requires more

energy

Evolution

There is very little change of variation

with asexual reproduction. Mutations in
DNA can still occur but not nearly as
frequently as in sexual reproduction

Sexual reproduction leads to genetic

variation in new generations of offspring.
This is fundamental to evolution

Involvement of sex cells

No formation or fusion of gametes

Formation or fusion of gametes occurs

Found in

Lower organisms

Higher invertebrates and all vertebrates

Unit or Reproduction

May be whole parent body or a bud or

Gamete

Second diagram = sexual b/c all different

Lottery Principle
- George C. Williams Sexual reproduction introduced genetic variety in order to enable genes to survive in

changing/novel environments
- Sexual reproduction is like purchasing a small amount of lottery tickets and giving them all different numbers
- Since sex introduces variability, organisms would have improved chance of offspring that will survive if they
reproduce a range of types rather than the same one

- HOWEVER
- Problem = conditions under which sexual reproduction is advantageous appear to be fairly restrictive

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