Control Strategies for a LLC Multi-Resonant DC-DC

Converter in Battery Charging Applications

1

Fariborz Musavi, Marian Craciun, Deepak Gautam,

Murray Edington

School of Eng. | 2 Dept. of Electrical and Computer Eng.

University of British Columbia | 1 Okanagan | 2 Vancouver
1
Kelowna, BC, Canada | 2 Vancouver, BC, Canada
1
wilson.eberle@ubc.ca | 2 wgd@ece.ubc.ca

Department of Research, Engineering

Delta-Q Technologies Corp., Burnaby, BC, Canada
fmusavi@delta-q.com, mcraciun@delta-q.com,
dgautam@delta-q.com, medington@delta-q.com
AbstractIn this paper, a control strategy is presented for a
high performance LLC multi-resonant dc-dc converter in a two
stage smart charger for neighborhood electric vehicle
applications. It addresses several aspects and limitations of LLC
resonant dc-dc converters in battery charging applications, such
as very wide output voltage range while keeping the efficiency
maximized, implementation of the current mode control at the
secondary side and optimization of burst mode operation for
current regulation at very low output voltage. The proposed
control scheme minimize both low and high frequency current
ripple on the battery while maintaining stability of the dc-dc
converter, thus maximizing battery life without penalizing the
volume of the charger. Experimental results are presented for a
prototype unit converting 390 V from the input dc link to an
output voltage range of 48 V to 72 V dc at 650 W. The prototype
achieves a peak efficiency of 96 %.

I.

INTRODUCTION

Neighborhood Electric Vehicles (NEVs) are propelled by

an electric motor that is supplied with power from a
rechargeable battery [1, 2]. Presently, the performance
characteristics required for many electric vehicle (EV)
applications far exceed the storage capabilities of conventional
battery systems. However, battery technology is improving
and as this transition occurs, the charging of these batteries
becomes very complicated due to the high voltages and
currents involved in the system and the sophisticated charging
algorithms [3]. Quick charging of high capacity battery packs
causes increased disturbances in the ac utility power system,
thereby increasing the need for efficient, low-distortion smart
chargers. The accepted charger power architecture includes an
ac-dc converter with power factor correction (PFC) [4],
followed by an isolated dc-dc converter, as shown in Fig. 1
[5]. This architecture virtually eliminates both the low- and
high-frequency current ripple on the battery, thus maximizing
battery life without penalizing the volume of the charger
circuit. The front end ac-dc PFC converter is a conventional
CCM boost topology [6, 7]. The following dc-dc section is a
half-bridge multi-resonant LLC converter. The half-bridge
resonant LLC converter is widely used in telecom industries
for its high efficiency at the resonant frequency and its ability

to regulate the output voltage during the hold-up time, where

the output voltage is constant and the input voltage might drop
significantly [8-11].

Figure 1. Typical battery charging power architecture.

However, its application for battery charging impacts the

design criteria significantly, as to address the following:
A. Un-controlled area operation:
The output voltage requirement for a battery charger is
drastically different and challenging compared to telecom
applications. Fig. 2 illustrates a simplified battery charging
profile for a 48 V system. As it indicates, the battery voltage,
at the dc-dc converter output, can vary from as low as 36 V
and as high as 72 V. In addition, in the case of severely
discharged batteries it is required to control current down to
almost 0A when the voltage is below about 50% of maximum
output voltage in the Un-controlled Area of Fig. 3, where
the LLC output V-I plane is illustrated [12].

Figure 2. Simplified adaptive 4 step lead acid battery charging profile.

This work has been sponsored and supported by Delta-Q Technologies

Corporation.

978-1-4673-4355-8/13/$31.00 2013 IEEE

Wilson Eberle and 2 William G. Dunford

1804

Figure 3. LLC output V-I plane with un-controllered area.

B. Beat frequency quadratic pole phenomena:

This is a special characteristic for resonant converters [1315]. Frequency-to-Output transfer function of the LLC
resonant converter contains a quadratic pole, as illustrated in
[13] and [16]. Both, damping factor Q and of the quadratic
pole vary with the converter operating condition. This term
could introduce either a pair of complex poles or two real
poles affecting the power stage dynamics. When it results in
complex poles, the frequency is approximately given by the
difference between the switching and the resonant tank
frequencies, therefore it is called beat frequency double
pole. It is of particular importance for a battery charger as the
operating conditions and load models vary widely, requiring
current or voltage regulation in any point of the highlighted
area of Fig. 3 with constant voltage or/and constant resistance
load. In order to compensate for the additional phase lag, it is
required to reduce the bandwidth of the control loop. As a
consequence, a voltage mode converter will have a slow
transient and poor rejection of the line frequency ripple that
needs to be addressed.
2

fnmins

1.7
1.6
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.1
1
0.9

1) Selecting half bridge topology with split resonant

capacitor as shown in Fig. 5 will ensure the capacitors are
already charged at the DC steady state level prior to start
switching, reducing the startup inrush currents.

0.8
0.7
0.6
1.2

1.65

BURST MODE OPERATION (NL, SC)

Burst mode operation [18] can be used for depleted

batteries that require operation of the LLC converter in the uncontrolled area of the V-I plane, shown in Fig. 3. This method
is used solely for reviving neglected batteries. In this region,
the charger voltage is below 1.5 V/Cell (36 V) and the
switching frequency has reached its maximum value (500
kHz). At this point of operation, the converter is switched to
ON/OFF mode while operating at fixed frequency fsw-max. In
order to reduce components stresses during repetitive ONOFF operation several precautions have to be considered:

1.8

0.75

Figure 5. Simplified seconday side current mode control.

II.

fnmax

1.9

0.5
0.3

C. Secondary Side Current Mode Control:

In a battery charger, it is desired to control the charge rate,
which is in fact the charger current. In addition, rejecting the
low frequency ripple on the dc link bus is required. This
means reducing the transconductance of the dc-dc converter.
And in order to satisfy these conditions, a current mode
control with high current loop gain at twice the line frequency
is desired. Current mode control can be implemented either in
the primary side or secondary side [13, 15, 17]. Primary side
control requires isolation of feedback control signal, which is
usually accomplished by using an optocoupler. The main
disadvantages of using an optocoupler would be significant
variation of the control loop gain due to optocouplers poor
CTR initial tolerance, reduced bandwidth and degradation
with the temperature and ageing. In order to compensate for
these variations, a larger gain margin, and in some cases phase
margin, in control loop design is mandatory. Secondary side
control removes optocouplers limitations enabling more
repeatable performance. One implementation is as shown in
Fig.5, where the gating signals are transferred to the primary
side. However, the disadvantage is now sensing the input bus
voltage across the isolation barrier for brown out and undervoltage protection of the DC-to-DC stage.

2.09

Figure 4. Typical DC transfer ratio of an LLC DC to DC converter obtained

using FHA.

2) Shorter duration of the first gate drive pulse at startup

ensures soft switching condition of the MOSFET switches at
power ON and allows fast transition to steady state values of

1805

the resonant inductor current. As shown in Fig. 6, the resonant

current reaches steady state in few switching cycles avoiding
high peak current transitions.

Among these factors, the charge mode has a significant impact

on battery life and capacity. EV batteries should be charged
with current and voltage levels with low ripple

3) Energy stored in resonant tank creates minor battery

current tail after gate pulses are stopped as shown in Fig.7,
limiting choice of maximum burst frequency and/or maximum
burst duty cycle.

Figure 8. Depleted battery conditioning.

Ch1 = Battery Voltage 5 V/div. Ch2 = Battery Current 2 A/div. Ch4 = ILr
2A/div.

Depleted batteries can be conditioned in burst mode with

low RMS ripple current as demonstrated in Fig. 8 showing
1.9A RMS when charging at 1.5ADC with 8kHz/30% duty
cycle burst mode.

Figure 6. Start up soft switching consideration.

Ch1 = MOSFET Gate drive 5 V/div. Ch2 = Battery Current 2 A/div. Ch3=
Half Bridge Node voltage 50 V/div. Ch4 = ILr 2A/div.

There are two control strategies proposed for burst mode:

fixed frequency variable on-time (FFVOT) and variable
frequency fixed on-time (VFFOT).
A. Fixed frequency variable on-time (FFVOT)
As the name of the control method implies, operation in
the un-controlled area occurs by varying the ON time and
keeping the frequency constant. The converter hardware sets
the maximum burst frequency, capable of supporting up to
maximum frequency of 30 kHz with no limit on minimum
burst frequency. The choice of the burst frequency is based on
the digital hardware limitations and battery ripple current
tolerance given by battery manufacturer.

Figure 7. Shut down battery current consideartion.

Ch1 = Half Bridge Node voltage 100 V/div. Ch2 = Battery Current 2 A/div.
Ch4 = ILr 2A/div.

Battery manufacturers recommend less than C/20 (5 A

RMS for a 100 Ah battery) low frequency ripple current (line
frequency or double-line frequency) to minimize heat
generation while charging. Tests performed on VRLA
batteries for UPSs with three times the recommended ripple
current have demonstrated that the heating effect is minimal
(<1 F) with less than 3 % impact on battery life [19]. The life
and capacity of EV batteries depend on several factors, such as
cycle count, charge mode, maintenance, temperature, and age.

Figure 9. Top: FFVOT operation concept, Bottom: Transition from FFVOT

to continuous operation mode.

Fig. 9 illustrates the FFVOT operation concept. Moreover

when the battery voltage is in the normal range and the duty
cycle is very large (e.g. 98%), the LLC controller is enabled,

1806

thereby reverting the converter to normal (low ripple)

operation.
B. Variable frequency fixed on-time (VFFOT)
In addition to battery ripple current tolerance, battery
manufacturers provide the minimum duty cycle for pulsed
current charging. Accordingly, with the FFVOT control
strategy enables operation at low O/P current ripple and high
ON/OFF frequency with a minimum ON duration. If in
FFVOT, once the charger reaches the minimum ON duration
limit, the frequency must begin to reduce and the converter
enters VFFOT. The purpose of switching the control strategy
from FFVOT to VFFOT is to maintain the charge current at
very low value. Fig. 10 illustrates the VFFOT operation
concept and the transition from VFFOT to FFVOT modes.

Figure 10. Top: VFFOT operation concept, Bottom: Transition from VFFOT
to FFVOT.

C. Control principle and implementation

An example method of battery charging control is
provided in Fig. 11.
At the beginning, the battery charger detects if the battery
voltage is less than 1.5 V/Cell. If the battery voltage is equal
to or more than 1.5 V/Cell, the DC-to-DC can achieve charge
rate regulation in the continuous operating area, therefore
continuous operation mode will be enabled.
If the battery voltage is less than 1.5V/cell the VFFOT
mode of operation is enabled. In this mode of operation the
battery is charged with a current pulse of duration tMIN and
amplitude less than ISC, charge regulation being achieved by
means of changing the repetition rate of the current pulses fON.
Then the battery current is measured and the average value is
compared to the reference current, IREF from the charging
algorithm. If the averaged battery current is less than IREF, the
pulse repetition frequency fON is increased by a f increment
and the resulting new repetition frequency is compared to the
current pulse duration. The result of these comparisons
decides if the process is repeated or if the operation mode is
changed to FFVOT mode. If a new value IREF is received from
the charging algorithm, it is compared to the old value. If the
new IREF value is less than the old one the process is restarted.
If the new IREF value is more or equal to the old value the
measured battery voltage is compared to 1.5V/Cell. If the
battery voltage is less than 1.5V/Cell the process is repeated, if
the battery voltage is more or equal to 1.5V/Cell the operation
mode is changed to continuous operation mode.

Figure 11. Flowchart of battery charging control.

While operating in VFFOT mode, the battery current pulse

duration tON is compared to the pulse repetition period. (The
period is the inverse function of the pulse repetition frequency,
1/fON). If the pulse duration is more than half of the repetition
period, the operation mode is changed to FFVOT.
In FFVOT mode of operation the battery is charged with a
current pulse of an amplitude less than ISC at a fixed repetition
frequency fPWM with a variable duration tON, charge regulation
being achieved by means of changing the current pulse
duration tON. Then the battery current is measured and the
average value is compared with the reference current IREF from
the charging algorithm. If the averaged battery current is less
than IREF, the pulse duration tON is increased by a t increment
and the resulting new pulse duration is compared to 98% of
the pulse repetition period. The result of these comparisons
decides if the process is repeated or if the operation mode is
changed to continuous operation mode. If a new value IREF is

1807

received from the charging algorithm it is compared to the old

value. If the new IREF value is less than the old one the
process is restarted. If the new IREF value is more or equal to
the old value the measured battery voltage is compared to
1.5V/Cell. If the battery voltage is less than 1.5V/Cell the
process is repeated, if the battery voltage is more or equal to
1.5V/Cell the operation mode is changed to continuous
operation mode.
Fig. 12 illustrates the area of implementation of FFVOT
and VFFOT modes in un-controlled lead acid battery V-I
plane.

An overall compensated current loop phase and gain at Vo

= 72 V and FL, Pi(s)Ci(s) for resistive and battery load is
shown in Fig. 15. It can be observed that with battery the gain
is increased to 25 dB, which will provide line frequency
current ripple rejection. The closed looped compensated
current plant is the uncompensated plant (power stage) for the
voltage loop, as shown in Fig. 16. The compensated voltage
loop transfer function is given in Fig. 17 at full load, 48 V and
72 V output.
However, the battery will reduce the gain of the voltage
loop, as shown in Fig. 17. Also it is observed that the cut-off
frequency drops by two decades (from 1.5 kHz to 16 Hz).

Figure 14. Plant transfer function phase and magnitude at: Vo = 48 V and Vo
= 72 V.
Figure 12. Implementation of FFVOT and VFFOT modes in battery V-I
plane.

III.

CONTROL STABILITY CONSIDERATION

In order to address beat frequency and verify the stability

of the system, both current and voltage plant stability must be
verified in the extreme operating conditions, using the
previous plant modeling. Fig. 13 illustrates the block diagram
representation of the system with an inner current loop and
outer voltage loop. Fig. 14 illustrates the uncompensated plant
phase and gain frequency responses, Pi(s) at full load, 48 V
and 72 V output. The beat frequencies could be observed at 10
kHz and 20 kHz, for 72 V and 48 V respectively. The closed
loop cross over frequency must be placed at least one octave
below the beat frequencies, due to excessive phase shift.

Figure 13. Block diagram representation of the system with an inner current
loop and outer voltage loop.

Figure 15. Compensated current plant transfer function phase and magnitude
at: Vo = 72 V and FL.

Figure 16. Closed current loop (Voltage plant transfer function) phase and
magnitude at: Vo = 72 V and FL.

1808

The measured efficiencies of the converter as a function of

load are given in Fig. 19, at output voltages of 48, 60 and 72
V. This clearly shows that the efficiency is kept almost
constant and independent of output voltage, at full load. These
measurements were taken with the output relay; common
mode EMI inductor and output fuse in the circuit.
TABLE II.

Components Used in LLC Resonant Converter Prototype

Power Train Components

Stage

Figure 17. Compensated voltage plant transfer function phase and magnitude
at: Vo = 72 V and FL.

IV.

SIMULATION AND EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

A prototype of the half-bridge LLC multi-resonant

converter was built to provide a proof-of-concept and verify
the analytical work presented in this paper. Fig. 18 shows a
picture of the LLC dc-dc multi-resonant converter prototype.
Table I provides the design criteria for the prototype LLC
converter. In Table II, the key components used the prototype
converter is given.

COMPONENTS USED IN THE PROTOTYPE CONVERTER

Manufacturer

Part #

MOSFET

Component

STMicroelectronics

STB23NM60ND

Diode Rectifiers

STMicroelectronics

STTH2002C

EPCOS MKP

28.2 [nF]

Resonant Inductor

EPCOS

RM12 - N97

Magnetizing Inductor

EPCOS

RM14 - N97

EPCOS MKT

33.3 [F]

On Semiconductor

NCP1395

Resonant Film Capacitor

Output Film Capacitors

Controller IC

Simulation and experimental waveforms of the resonant

tank current, resonant capacitor voltage and voltage across
bottom MOSFET- Q2 are provided in Fig. 20 and Fig. 21 at
Vin = 390 V, and Po = 650 W. The waveforms in Fig. 20 are
given at close the unity gain resonant frequency, fsw = 211
kHz, and output voltage, Vo = 48 V. The waveforms in Fig. 21
are given at fsw = 152 kHz, and an output voltage of Vo = 72
V.
98
96

Efficiency (%)

94

Resonant Tank
Componnets

Design Specification for LLC Resonant Converter

Input Votage Nominal

Vin_nom

390 [V]

Output Votage Range

Vo_min ~ Vo_max

36 - 72 [V]

Vo_nom

48 [V]

Switching Frequency

fs_min ~ fs_max

150 - 450 [kHz]

Resonant Frequency

fo

200 [kHz]

Transformer Ratio

Nn

4:1:1

Resonant Inductor

Lr

35 [H]

Resonant Capacitor

Cr

28.2 [nF]

Magnetizing Inductor

Lm

105 [H]

Output Votage Nominal

Vo=72 V
86
84
Output Power (W)

700

370 - 410 [V]

600

Vin_min ~ Vin_max

Input Votage Range

Vo=60 V

88

500

Value

400

Designator

Vo=48 V

300

Parameter

90

Initial Design Parametrs

Stage

DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS

200

TABLE I.

92

100

Figure 18. Prototype of LLC dc-dc converter.

Figure 19. Measured effeciency vs output power for: Vo = 48 V, Vo = 60 V

and Vo = 72 V.

Fig. 22 provides example waveforms of transition from

fixed frequency variable on-time (FFVOT) control to
Continuous operation mode.
Fig. 23 illustrates example waveforms of the fixed
frequency variable on-time (FFVOT) control strategy.
Fig. 24 illustrates example waveforms of the variable
frequency fixed on-time (VFFOT) control strategy.

1809

a)

b)
Figure 21. ILr, VCr, and VQ2 for Vo = 72V, Po = 650 W;
a) Simulation, b) Experimental
Ch1 = VQ2 100 V/div. Ch2 = VCr 100 V/div. Ch4 = ILr 2A/div.

b)
Figure 20. ILr, VCr, and VQ2 for Vo = 48V, Po = 650 W;
a) Simulation, b) Experimental
Ch1 = VQ2 100 V/div. Ch2 = VCr 100 V/div. Ch4 = ILr 2A/div.

a)

Figure 22. Transition from Fixed frequency variable on-time (FFVOT)

control to Continuous operation mode Don = 98% and Io = 7 A, Vo = 20 V.

Figure 23. Fixed frequency variable on-time (FFVOT) control strategy:

fPWM = 1 kHz, Don = 60%, Io = 5 A, Vo = 5V.

1810

Resonant
Current (ILr)

[5]

[6]

[7]

Battery Current
(IBATT)

[8]

Figure 24. Variable frequency fixed on-time (VFFOT) control strategy:

fBurst = 31 kHz, VBATT = 3 V, On Duration = 1 Resonant Cycle, IBATT = 1.3 A.

Note that the overshoot seen in the current waveforms is

due to the small impedance of the battery simulator. Real life
depleted batteries will have higher internal resistance so a
lossy damper was not deemed necessary for this mode of
operation and the waveforms looked more like those of Fig. 8.
V.

[9]

[10]

[11]

CONCLUSIONS

A control strategy is presented for a high performance

LLC multi-resonant dc-dc converter in a two stage smart
charger for neighborhood electric vehicle applications. It
addresses several aspects and limitations of LLC resonant dcdc converters in battery charging applications, such as very
wide output voltage range while keeping the efficiency
maximized, the beat frequency double pole at frequencies
close to resonant frequency, and implementation of the current
mode control at the secondary side. The proposed control
scheme minimize both low and high frequency current ripple
on the battery while maintaining stability of the dc-dc
converter, thus maximizing battery life without penalizing the
volume of the charger. Experimental results are presented for
a prototype unit converting 390 V from the input dc link to an
output voltage range of 48 V to 72 V dc at 650 W. The
prototype achieves a peak efficiency of 96 %.

[12]

[13]

[14]

[15]

[16]

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