Solid State DC Drives Part1 PDF

SOLID STATE DRIVES AND
APPLICATIONS
FIRST EDITION
J. Gopi
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
Specialization-Power Electronics and Drives
SOLID STATE DC DRIVES AND APPLICATIONS-J.GOPI-AP-EEE-MIET

gopieng_84@yahoo.co.in
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The principal advantage of a d.c. motor is that its speed can be changed over a
wide range by a variety of simple methods. Such a fine speed control is generally
not possible with a.c. motors. In fact, fine speed control is one of the reasons for
the strong competitive position of d.c. motors in the modem industrial applications
Speed Control of D.C. Motors
Flux control method

by varying the flux , the motor speed (N 1/) can be changed and hence the
name flux control method. In this method, a variable resistance (known as shunt
field rheostat) is placed in series with shunt field winding .

The shunt field rheostat reduces the shunt field current Ish and hence the flux .
Therefore, we can only raise the speed of the motor above the normal speed
Generally, this method permits to increase the speed in the ratio 3:1. Wider speed
ranges tend to produce instability and poor commutation.
Advantages
(i) This is an easy and convenient method.

(ii) It is an inexpensive method since very little power is wasted in the

shunt field rheostat due to relatively small value of Ish.
(iii) The speed control exercised by this method is independent of load
on the machine.
Disadvantages
(i) Only speeds higher than the normal speed can be obtained since the
total field circuit resistance cannot be reduced below Rshthe shunt
field winding resistance.
(ii) There is a limit to the maximum speed obtainable by this method.
It is because if the flux is too much weakened, commutation becomes
poorer.
Note. The field of a shunt motor in operation should never be opened because its
speed will increase to an extremely high value.
Armature control method

This method is based on the fact that by varying the voltage available across the
armature, the back e.m.f and hence the speed of the motor can be changed. This is
done by inserting a variable resistance RC (known as controller resistance) in series
with the armature.

N V IaRa RC
where RC = controller resistance
Due to voltage drop in the controller resistance, the back e.m.f. (Eb) is decreased.
Since N Eb, the speed of the motor is reduced. The highest speed obtainable is
lhat corresponding to RC = 0 i.e., normal speed. Hence, this method can only
provide speeds below the normal speed
Disadvantages
(i) A large amount of power is wasted in the controller resistance since it
carries full armature current Ia.
(ii) The speed varies widely with load since the speed depends upon the
voltage drop in the controller resistance and hence on the armature current
demanded by the load.
(iii) The output and efficiency of the motor are reduced.
(iv) This method results in poor speed regulation.

Due to above disadvantages, this method is seldom used to control tie speed
of shunt motors.
Note. The armature control method is a very common method for the speed
control of d.c. series motors. The disadvantage of poor speed regulation is not
important in a series motor which is used only where varying speed service is
required.
Voltage control method

The voltage source supplying the field current is different from that which supplies
the armature. This method avoids the disadvantages of poor speed regulation and
low efficiency as in armature control method. is quite expensive. Therefore, this
method of speed control is employed for large size motors where efficiency is of
great importance.
Multiple voltage control

the shunt field of the motor is connected permanently across a-fixed voltage
source. The armature can be connected across several different voltages through a
suitable switchgear. In this way, voltage applied across the armature can be
changed. The speed will be approximately proportional to the voltage applied
across the armature. Intermediate speeds can be obtained by means of a shunt field
regulator.
Ward-Leonard system
the adjustable voltage for the armature is obtained from an adjustable-voltage
generator while the field circuit is supplied from a separate source.

The armature of the shunt motor M (whose speed is to be controlled) is connected

directly to a d.c. generator G driven by a constant-speed a.c.motor A. The field of
the shunt motor is supplied from a constant-voltage exciter E. The field of the
generator G is also supplied from the exciter E. The voltage of the generator G can
be varied by means of its field regulator. By reversing the field current of generator
G by controller FC, the voltage applied to the motor may be reversed. Sometimes,
a field regulator is included in the field circuit of shunt motor M for additional
speed adjustment. With this method, the motor may be operated at any speed upto
its maximum speed.
Advantages
(a) The speed of the motor can be adjusted through a wide range without
resistance losses which results in high efficiency.
(b) The motor can be brought to a standstill quickly, simply by rapidly reducing the
voltage of generator G. When the generator voltage is reduced below the back
e.m.f. of the motor, this back e.m.f. sends current through the generator armature,

establishing dynamic braking. While this takes place, the generator G operates as a
motor driving motor A which returns power to the line.
(c) This method is used for the speed control of large motors when a d.c. supply is
not available
The disadvantage of the method is that a special motor-generator set is required for
each motor and the losses in this set are high if the motor is operating under light
loads for long periods.
Speed Control of D.C. Series Motors

The speed control of d.c. series motors can be obtained by
(i) flux control method
(ii) armature-resistance control method.
Flux control method

In this method, the flux produced by the series motor is varied and hence the
speed. The variation of flux can be achieved in the following ways:
Field diverters.

A variable resistance (called field diverter) is connected in parallel with series field
winding . Its effect is to shunt some portion of the line current from the series field
winding, thus weakening the field and increasing the speed (N 1/). The
lowest speed obtainable is that corresponding to zero current in the diverter (i.e.,
diverter is open). Obviously, the lowest speed obtainable is the normal speed of the
motor. Consequently, this method can only provide speeds above the normal
speed. The series field diverter method is often employed in traction work.
Armature diverter.
In order to obtain speeds below the normal speed, a variable resistance (called
armature diverter) is connected in parallel with the armature .The diverter shunts
some of the line current, thus reducing the armature current. Now for a given load,
if Ia is decreased, the flux must increase (T Ia). Since N 1/, the motor
speed is decreased. By adjusting the armature diverter, any speed lower than the
normal speed can be obtained.
Tapped field control.

the flux is reduced (and hence speed is increased) by decreasing the number of
turns of the series field winding .The switch S can short circuit any part of the field
winding, thus decreasing the flux and raising the speed. With full turns of the field
winding, the motor runs at normal speed and as the field turns are cut out, speeds
higher than normal speed are achieved.

Paralleling field coils.

This method is usually employed in the case of fan motors. By regrouping the field
coils, several fixed speeds can be obtained.
Armature-resistance control

a variable resistance is directly connected in series with the supply to the complete
motor. This reduces the voltage available across the armature and hence the speed
falls. By changing the value of variable resistance, any speed below the normal
speed can be obtained. This is the most common method employed to control the
speed of d.c. series motors. Although this method has poor speed regulation, this
has no significance for series motors because they are used in varying speed
applications. The loss of power in the series resistance for many applications of
series motors is not too serious since in these applications, the control is utilized
for a large portion of the time for reducing the speed under light-load conditions
and is only used intermittently when the motor is carrying full-load.
Series-Parallel Control
Another method used for the speed control of d.c. series motors is the seriesparallel
method. In this system which is widely used in traction system, two (or more)
similar d.c. series motors are mechanically coupled to the same load.
When the motors are connected in series , each motor armature will receive onehalf the normal voltage. Therefore, the speed will be low. When the motors are
connected in parallel, each motor armature receives the normal voltage and the

speed is high ,Thus we can obtain two speeds. Note that for the same load on the
pair of motors, the system would run approximately four times the speed when the
machines are in parallel as when they are in series.
Series-parallel and resistance control

In electric traction, series-parallel method is usually combined with resistance
method of control. In the simplest case, two d.c. series motors are coupled
mechanically and drive the same vehicle.
(i) At standstill, the motors are connected is series via a starting rheostat. The
motors are started up in series with each other and starting resistance is cut out step
by step to increase the speed. When all the resistance is cut out, the voltage applied
to each motor is about one-half of the line voltage. The speed is then about onehalf of what it would be if the full line voltage were applied to each motor.
(ii) To increase the speed further, the two motors are connected in parallel and

at the same time the starting resistance is connected in series with the combination.
The starting resistance is again cut out step by step until full speed is attained.
Then field control is introduced.

Speed Control of Compound Motors

Speed control of compound motors may be obtained by any one of the methods
described for shunt motors. Speed control cannot be obtained through adjustment
of the series field since such adjustment would radically change the
performance characteristics of the motor.
Necessity of D.C. Motor Starter

At starting, when the motor is stationary, there is no back e.m.f. in the armature.
Consequently, if the motor is directly switched on to the mains, the armature will
draw a heavy current (Ia = V/Ra) because of small armature resistance. As an
example, 5 H.P., 220 V shunt motor has a full-load current of 20 A and an
armature resistance of about 0.5 . If this motor is directly switched on to supply,
it would take an armature current of 220/0.5 = 440 A which is 22 times the fullload current. This high starting current may result in:
(i) burning of armature due to excessive heating effect,
(ii) damaging the commutator and brushes due to heavy sparking,
(iii) excessive voltage drop in the line to which the motor is connected. The
result is that the operation of other appliances connected to the line may be
impaired and in particular cases, they may refuse to work.
In order to avoid excessive current at starting, a variable resistance (known as
starting resistance) is inserted in series with the armature circuit. This resistance
is gradually reduced as the motor gains speed (and hence E b increases) and
eventually it is cut out completely when the motor has attained full speed. The
value of starting resistance is generally such that starting current is limited to
1.25 to 2 times the full-load current.
Types of D.C. Motor Starters

The stalling operation of a d.c. motor consists in the insertion of external resistance
into the armature circuit to limit the starting current taken by the motor and the
removal of this resistance in steps as the motor accelerates. When the motor attains
the normal speed, this resistance is totally cut out of the armature circuit. It is very
important and desirable to provide the starter with protective devices to enable the
starter arm to return to OFF position
1. when the supply fails, thus preventing the armature being directly across the
mains when this voltage is restored. For this purpose, we use no-volt release
coil.
2. when the motor becomes overloaded or develops a fault causing the motor to
take an excessive current. For this purpose, we use overload release coil.
There are two principal types of d.c. motor starters viz., three-point starter and
four-point starter. As we shall see, the two types of starters differ only in the
manner in which the no-volt release coil is connected.
Three-Point Starter
This type of starter is widely used for starting shunt and compound motors.
It is so called because it has three terminals L, Z and A. The starter consists of
starting resistance divided into several sections and connected in series with the
armature. The tapping points of the starting resistance are brought out to a number
of studs. The three terminals L, Z and A of the starter are connected respectively to
the positive line terminal, shunt field terminal and armature terminal. The other
terminals of the armature and shunt field windings are connected to the negative
terminal of the supply. The no-volt release coil is connected in the shunt field
circuit. One end of the handle is connected to the terminal L through the over-load
release coil. The other end of the handle moves against a spiral spring and makes
contact with each stud during starting operation, cutting out more and more starting
resistance as it passes over each stud in clockwise direction.

Operation of Three-Point Starter
(i) To start with, the d.c. supply is switched on with handle in the OFF position.
(ii) The handle is now moved clockwise to the first stud. As soon as it comes in

contact with the first stud, the shunt field winding is directly connected across the
supply, while the whole starting resistance is inserted in series with the armature
circuit.
(iii) As the handle is gradually moved over to the final stud, the starting resistance
is cut out of the armature circuit in steps. The handle is now held magnetically by
the no-volt release coil which is energized by shunt field current.
(iv) If the supply voltage is suddenly interrupted or if the field excitation is
accidentally cut, the no-volt release coil is demagnetized and the handle goes back
to the OFF position under the pull of the spring. If no-volt release coil were not
used, then in case of failure of supply, the handle would remain on the final stud. If
then supply is restored, the motor will be directly connected across the supply,
resulting in an excessive armature current.
(v) If the motor is over-loaded (or a fault occurs), it will draw excessive current
from the supply. This current will increase the ampere-turns of the over-load
release coil and pull the armature C, thus short-circuiting the novolt release coil.
The no-volt coil is demagnetized and the handle is pulled to the OFF position by
the spring. Thus, the motor is automatically disconnected from the supply.
Drawback
In a three-point starter, the no-volt release coil is connected in series with the
shunt field circuit so that it carries the shunt field current. While exercising
speed control through field regulator, the field current may be weakened to such
an extent that the no-volt release coil may not be able to keep the starter arm in
the ON position. This may disconnect the motor from the supply when it is not
desired. This drawback is overcome in the four point starter.

Four-Point Starter
In a four-point starter, the no-volt release coil is connected directly across the
supply line through a protective resistance R. Now the no-volt release coil circuit is
independent of the shunt field circuit. Therefore, proper speed control can be
exercised without affecting the operation of novolt release coil. Note that the only
difference between a three-point starter and a four-point starter is the manner in
which no-volt release coil is connected. However, the working of the two starters is
the same. It may be noted that the threepoint starter also provides protection
against an openfield circuit. This protection is not provided by the four-point
starter.

Grading of Starting ResistanceShunt Motors

For starting the motor satisfactorily, the starting resistance is divided into a number
of sections in such a way that current fluctuates between maximum (I m) and
minimum (I) values. The upper limit is that value established as the maximum
permissible for the motor; it is generally 1.5 times the full-load current of the
motor. The lower limit is the value set as a minimum for starting operation; it may
be equal to full-load current of the motor or some predetermined value. Fig. shows
shunt-wound motor with starting resistance divided into three sections between
four studs. The resistances of these sections should be so selected that current
during starting remains between Im and I
(i) When arm A is moved from OFF position to stud 1, field and armature circuits
are energized and whole of the starting resistance is in series with the armature.
The armature current jumps to maximum value given by;
where R1 = Resistance of starter and armature

(ii) As the armature accelerates, the generated e.m.f. increases and the armature
current decreases as indicated by curve ab. When the current has fallen to I, arm A
is moved over to stud 2, cutting out sufficient resistance to allow the current to rise
to Im again. This operation is repeated until the arm A is on stud 4 and the whole of
the starting resistance is cut out of the armature circuit.
(iii) Now the motor continues to accelerate and the current decreases until it settles
down at some value IL such that torque due to this current is just sufficient to meet
the load requirement.
Starter Step Calculations for D.C. Shunt Motor

Consider d.c. shunt motor starter with n resistance sections and (n + 1)
studs.
Let R1 = Total resistance in the armature circuit when the starter arm is on
stud no. 1
R2 = Total resistance in the armature circuit when the starter arm is on
stud no. 2 and so on
Im = Upper current limit

I = Lower current limit
n = Number of sections in the starter resistance
V = Applied voltage
Ra = Armature resistance
On stud 1. When the starter arm-moves to stud 1, the total resistance in the
armature circuit is R1 and the circuit current jumps to maximum values Im given
By
Since torque Ia, it follows that the maximum torque acts on the armature to

accelerate it. As the armature accelerates, the induced e.m.f. (back e.m.f.)
increases and the armature current decreases When the current has fallen to the
predetermined value I, the starter arm is moved over to stud 2. Let the value of
back e.m.f. be Eb1 at the instant the starter arm leaves the stud 1. Then I is given
by
On stud 2. As the starter arm moves over to stud 2, sufficient resistance is cut
out (now total circuit resistance is R2) and current rises to maximum value Im
once again given by

The acceleration continues and the back e.m.f. increases and the armature current
decreases. When the current has fallen to the predetermined value I, the starter arm
is moved over to stud 3. Let Eb2 be the value of back e.m.f. at the instant the starter
arm leaves the stud 2. Then,
On stud 3.
As the starter arm moves to stud 3,
As the starter arm leaves stud 3,


Electric Braking
Sometimes it is desirable to stop a d.c. motor quickly. This may be necessary in
case of emergency or to save time if the motor is being used for frequently
repeated operations. The motor and its load may be brought to rest by using either
(i) mechanical (friction) braking or (ii) electric braking. In mechanical braking, the
motor is stopped due to the friction between the moving parts of the motor and the
brake shoe i.e. kinetic energy of the motor is dissipated as heat. Mechanical
braking has several disadvantages including non-smooth stop and greater stopping
time.
In electric braking, the kinetic energy of the moving parts (i.e., motor) is converted
into electrical energy which is dissipated in a resistance as heat or alternativley, it
is returned to the supply source (Regenerative braking). For d.c. shunt as well as
series motors, the following three methods of electric braking are used:
(i) Rheostatic or Dynamic braking
(ii) Plugging
(iii) Regenerative braking
It may be noted that electric braking cannot hold the motor stationary and
mechanical braking is necessary. However, the main advantage of using electric
braking is that it reduces the wear and tear of mechanical brakes and cuts down
the stopping time considerably due to high braking retardation.

Rheostatic or Dynamic braking

In this method, the armature of the running motor is disconnected from the supply
and is connected across a variable resistance R. However, the field winding is left
connected to the supply. The armature, while slowing down, rotates in a strong
magnetic field and, therefore, operates as a generator, sending a large current
through resistance R. This causes the energy possessed by the rotating armature to
be dissipated quickly as heat in the resistance. As a result, the motor is brought to
standstill quickly.
Consider dynamic braking of a shunt motor. The braking torque can be controlled
by varying the resistance R. If the value of R is decreased as the motor speed
decreases, the braking torque may be maintained at a high value. At a low value of
speed, the braking torque becomes small and the final stopping of the motor is due
to friction. This type of braking is used extensively in connection with the control
of elevators and hoists and in other applications in which motors must be started,
stopped and reversed frequently.

We now investigate how braking torque depends upon the speed of the motor.
Plugging
In this method, connections to the armature are reversed so that motor tends to
rotate in the opposite direction, thus providing the necessary braking effect.
When the motor comes to rest, the supply must be cut off otherwise the motor
will start rotating in the opposite direction.

Considering plugging of a d.c. shunt motor. Note that armature connections are
reversed while the connections of the field winding are kept the same. As a result
the current in the armature reverses. During the normal running of the motor ,the
back e.m.f. Eb opposes the applied voltage V. However, when armature
connections are reversed, back e.m.f. Eb and V act in the same direction around the
circuit. Therefore, a voltage equal to V + Eb is impressed across the armature
circuit. Since Eb ~ V, the impressed voltage is approximately 2V. In order 10 limit
the current to safe value, a variable resistance R is inserted in the circuit at the time
of changing armature connections.
Thus braking torque decreases as the motor slows down. Note that there is some
braking torque (TB = k5) even when the motor speed is zero.
Regenerative braking
In the regenerative braking, the motor is run as a generator. As a result, the
kinetic energy of the motor is converted into electrical energy and returned to
the supply. The two methods of regenerative braking for a shunt motor.

*In one method, field winding is disconnected from the supply and field current is
increased by exciting it from another source (in fig i).As a result, induced e.m.f. E
exceeds the supply voltage V and the machine feeds energy into the supply. Thus
braking torque is provided upto the speed at which induced e.m.f. and supply
voltage are equal. As the machine slows down, it is not possible to maintain
induced e.m.f. at a higher value than the supply voltage. Therefore, this method is
possible only for a limited range of speed.
*In a second method, the field excitation does not change but the load causes the
motor to run above the normal speed (e.g., descending load on a crane). As a
result, the induced e.m.f. E becomes greater than the supply voltage V (in fig ii) .
The direction of armature current I, therefore, reverses but the direction of shunt
field current If remains unaltered. Hence the torque is reversed and the speed falls
until E becomes less than V.


The 90 kW fan has an inertia of 60 kgm2. The nominal operating point for the fan
is 1000 rpm. The fan is required to be stopped within 20 seconds. The natural
braking effect caused by the load characteristics is at its maximum at the beginning
of the braking.
The maximum energy of inertia can be calculated from formula. The average
braking power can be calculated by dividing this braking energy by time. This
value is, of course, on the very safe side due to the fact that the fan load
characteristics are not taken into account.
When the braking chopper is dimensioned for this 16.4 kW value and the motor
braking capability at a higher speed is far more than 16.4 kW, the drive has to

include a supervision function for maximum regeneration power. This function is

available in some drives.
If one wants to optimise the dimensioning of the brake chopper for a specific
braking time ,The speed reduces quickly from 1000 to 500 rpm without any
additional braking. The natural braking effect is at its maximum at the beginning of
the braking. This clearly indicates that it is not necessary to start braking the motor
with the aforementioned 16 kW power in the first instance. the speed comes down
from 1000 rpm to 500 rpm without any additional braking within less than 10
seconds. At that point of time the load torque is only 25% of nominal and the
kinetic energy conserved in the fan is also only 25% of the energy at 1000 rpm. If
the calculation done at 1000 rpm is repeated at 500 rpm, it can be seen that the
braking power in order to achieve deceleration from 500 rpm to 0 rpm is appr. 8
kW. As stated in previous calculations this is also on the safe side because the
natural braking curve caused by the load characteristics is not taken into account.
To summarize, the target for a 20 second deceleration time from 1000 rpm down to
0 rpm is well achieved with a braking chopper and resistor dimensioned for 8.2
kW. Setting the drive regenerative power limit to 8.2 kW sets the level of braking
power to an appropriate level.

Constant torque application:

The load torque characteristic does not depend on the speed. The load torque
remains approximately the same over the whole speed area.
The power increases linearly as the speed increases and vice versa.
Typical constant torque applications: cranes and conveyors.
Quadratic torque application:

The load torque increases to speed to the power of two.
When the speed increases, the power increases to speed to the power of three.
Typical quadratic torque applications: fans and pumps.
Braking power evaluation:

The quadratic load characteristics mean fast natural deceleration between 50100% of nominal speeds. That should be utilized when dimensioning the braking
power needed.
The quadratic load torque means that at low speeds the natural deceleration is
mainly due to friction.
The constant load torque characteristic is constant natural deceleration.
The b raking power is a function of torque and speed at that specified operating
point. Dimensioning the braking chopper according to peak braking power
typically leads to over dimensioning.
The braking power is not a function of motor nominal current (torque) or power
as such.
If the load torque disappears when braking starts the natural braking effect is
small. This affects the dimensioning of the braking chopper.

Principle of the braking chopper
The other possibility to limit DC bus voltage is to lead the braking energy to a
resistor through a braking chopper. The braking chopper is an electrical switch that
connects DC bus voltage to a resistor where the braking energy is converted to
heat. The braking choppers are automatically activated when the actual DC bus
voltage exceeds a specified level depending on the nominal voltage of the inverter.
The main benefits of the braking chopper and resistor solution are:
Simple electrical construction and well-known technology.
Low fundamental investment for chopper and resistor.
The chopper works even if AC supply is lost. Braking during main power loss
may be required, eg, in elevator or other safety related applications.
The main drawbacks of the braking chopper and resistor are:

The braking energy is wasted if the heated air can not be utilised.
The braking chopper and resistors require additional space.

May require extra investments in the cooling and heat recovery system.
Braking choppers are typically dimensioned for a certain cycle, eg, 100% power
1/10 minutes, long braking times require more accurate dimensioning of the
braking chopper.
Increased risk of fire due to hot resistor and possible dust and chemical
components in the ambient air space.
The increased DC bus voltage level during braking causes additional voltage
stress on motor insulation.
The braking cycle is needed occasionally.
The amount of braking energy with respect to motoring
energy is extremely small.
Braking operation is needed during main power loss.

CHOPPER CIRCUITS FOR DC MOTOR CONTROL
DC motor drives are used for many speed and position control systems where their
excellent performance, ease of control and high efficiency are desirable
characteristics. DCmotor speed control canbe achieved using switchmode DC-DC
chopper circuits. For both mains-fed and battery supplied systems, power
MOSFETs and FREDFETs are the ideal switching devices for the converter stage.
PowerMOS devices includes devices suitable for most DC-DC converters for
motor control applications. Additionally, due to the ease with which MOSFETs
and FREDFETs can be parallelled, PowerMOS devices can easily be used in
chopper circuits for both low power and high power DC motor drives for vehicle,
industrial or domestic applications.
DC motor drives
In a DCmotor, the static field flux is established using either permanent magnets or
a stator field winding. The armature winding, on the rotor of a dc machine, carries
the main motor current. The armature winding is a series of coils, each connected
to segments of a commutator. In order that the motor develops constant torque as
the rotor moves, successive armature coils must be connected to the external dc
circuit. This is achieved using a pair of stationary brushes held in contact with the
commutator.

The motor torque is produced by the interaction of the field flux and the armature
current and is given by:
The back emf developed across the armature conductors increases with the motor
speed:
Permanent magnet DC motors are limited in terms of power capability and control
capability. For field wound DC motors the field current controls the flux and hence
the motor torque and speed constants. The field winding can be connected in series
with the armature winding, in shunt with it, or can be separately excited. For the
separately excited dc motor, the field flux is controlled and the motor can be made
to operate in two distinct modes: constant torque operation up to the rated speed of
the motor, and then constant power operation above rated speed,
The steady state operation of the motor is described by:

For normal motor operation Ea and Ia are positive and the motor is operating in its
first quadrant. The motor is said to be operating in its second quadrant, that is
braking or regenerating, by reducing Va below Ea such that Ia is negative. If the
polarity of the applied voltage is reversed then motoring and regenerating
operation can occur with the direction of rotation reversed. Thus by controlling the
armature voltage and current polarities, full four-quadrant operation, as can be
achieved.

SINGLE QUADRANT (STEP DOWN) CONVERTER
For single quadrant operation the chopper,. The average voltage applied to the
motor, and hence its speed, is controlled by varying the duty cycle of the switch, S.
fig shows the switching waveforms for the circuit. During the on time, ton, the
supply voltage, Vdc, is applied to the motor and the armature current starts to
increase. Neglecting the on-state resistance of the switch and the armature winding
resistance the voltage across the armature inductance is Vdc-Ea and so the rate of
rise of armature current is given by:
When the switch turns off the energy stored in the armature inductance must be
dissipated. The polarity of the voltage across La reverses, the diode D becomes
forward biased and the armature current continues to flow. Assuming that the
motor speed remains constant and neglecting the forward voltage drop of the
freewheeling diode the inductor voltage is equal to -Ea. The rate of fall of armature
current is given by:


FOUR QUADRANT, FULL-BRIDGE CONVERTER
If motoring and regenerating operation are required with both directions of rotation
then the full bridge converter is required. Using this configuration allows the
polarity of the applied voltage to be reversed, thus reversing the direction of
rotation of the motor. Thus in a full bridge converter the motor current and voltage
can be controlled independently. The motor voltage Va is given by:
whereV12 is controlled by switchingS1 and S2 as described above, andV34 by

switching S3 and S4. The usual operating mode for a full bridge converter is to
group the switching devices so that S1 and S3 are always on simultaneously and
that S2 and S4 are on simultaneously. This type of control is then referred to as
bipolar control.


DC- DRIVE SYSTEM SCHEMATIC

Four quadrant operation was implemented for DC motor with single controllable
switch. The common regenerative braking methods include adding an extra
converter, or adding an extra ultra-capacitor, or switching sequence change of
power switches. But the method of adding a converter not only increases cost but
also reduces conversion efficiency. The method of adding an ultra capacitor
doesnt require extra DC-DC converter, but it needs a sensor to detect the ultracapacitor voltage. This makes the circuit very complex and hard to implement. It
conserves energy in the regenerative braking mode. Relay circuits are employed to
run the motor during the accelerating mode The position signals obtained from the
proxy sensors of the motor are read by the I/O lines of the dsPIC controller. The
sensor inputs give the position of the rotor which is fed to the controller. The
controller compares it with the reference speed and generates an error signal. The
required direction of rotation either clockwise or counter clockwise can also be fed
to the digital controller.

The PWM module of the controller generates appropriate PWM signals, which are
applied to the DC motor. appropriate voltage signals. The gate signals are
generated by comparing the actual speed with the reference speed. Thus a closed
loop speed control is achieved with the help of PI control, present in the controller
block. when the duty cycle is varying the armature current and the speed of the
motor is varying. Similarly when the duty cycle of the gating pulse becomes
constant the armature current and the speed also becomes constant.





DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF DC MOTOR WITH PID CONTROLLER

DC motors, because of their simplicity, ease of application, reliability and
favourable cost have been a backbone of industrial applications. In these
applications, the motor should be precisely controlled to give the desired
performance. Modelling of any system is an important task in control applications
because the electrical and mechanical components should be represented in
mathematical form. Although several methods are available for representing DC
Motor model, the state space approach is unique in the sense, accurate and precise
control is possible. This paper presents the state space approach in modelling of
DC Motor. Mathematical models are developed for simple closed loop control of

DC Motor and closed loop control with proportional Integral and Derivative (PID)
controller.
In most of the advanced control algorithms DC Motors are used because of stable
and linear characteristics associated with it. Also various speed control methods
are available for DC Motor to meet the desired performance. Hence modelling
should be done in such a way that every control algorithm available can be
implemented. Generally modelling of any system is to represent mechanical,
electrical or any physical systems or components in mathematical form. The DC
Motor can be modelled by using four basic equations. Regularly every physical
system is represented in the form of transfer function which is a relation between
input and output, but absence of initial conditions limits this form of modelling.
DC Motor can also be modelled by using state space equations. The state space
representation is relation between state variables, their derivatives, input and
output. Feasibility of defining initial conditions and being simple first order
differential equations the state space approach finds its application in modelling
various physical systems.

DC MOTOR MODELLING.
The DC motor modeling is done summing the torques acting on the rotor inertia
and integrating the acceleration to the velocity and also Kirchhoffs laws to
armature circuit.
The mathematical model of DC motor can be constructed by suing four basic

equations of motor.
---- (1)
---- (2)
--- (3)
--- (4)
TRANSFER FUNCTION OF DC MOTOR
The transfer function of DC Motor is derived by simplifying four basic equations
and applying Laplace transform. Here we will take that the input of the system is
the reference voltage (Va ) applied to the motor's armature, while the output is the
rotational speed of the shaft (Wr).


(7)
(8)
In closed loop network the difference between the reference input and feedback
input is fed to the armature of DC Motor.
STATE SPACE EQUTATIONS FOR PID CONTROLLED DC MOTOR

The speed of the DC Motor can be controlled by installing a PID controller in the
closed loop network of DC motor. With PID controller we get three state space
variables and the single input single output DC Motor network is converted into
five input and single output network.
Therefore equations (5) (6) and (15) form the state space equations for PID
Controlled DC Motor. From the equation (15) it is observed that the input to the

DC Motor or the armature voltage is becoming a state variable in the presence of

the PID controller.
The state space equations can be represented in the matrix form given below:
Example output




choppers
Chopper is a static device.
A variable dc voltage is obtained from a constant dc voltage source.
Also known as dc-to-dc converter.
Widely used for motor control.
Also used in regenerative braking.
Thyristor converter offers greater efficiency, faster response, lower maintenance,
smaller size and smooth control.
Types of Choppers
Step-down choppers.
Step-up choppers.
In step down chopper output voltage is less than input voltage.
In step up chopper output voltage is more than input voltage.
Step-down choppers
Chopper
i0
V0

A step-down chopper with resistive load.

The thyristor in the circuit acts as a switch.
When thyristor is ON, supply voltage appears across the load
When thyristor is OFF, the voltage across the load will be zero.
v0
V
Vdc
t
tON
tOFF
i0
V/R
Idc
t
T
Average Output Current

V
I dc dc
R
V t V
I dc ON d
R T R
RMS value of output voltage
VO
1
T
tON
v dt
But during tON , vo V

Therefore RMS output voltage
1
VO
T
VO
tON
dt
t
V2
tON ON .V
T
T
VO d .V
2
o
Output power PO VO I O
But
IO
VO
R
Output power
VO2
R
dV 2
PO
R
PO

Principle Of Step-up Chopper

I
D
+
V
Chopper
L
O
A
D
VO
Step-up chopper is used to obtain a load voltage higher than the input
voltage V.
The values of L and C are chosen depending upon the requirement of output
voltage and current.
When the chopper is ON, the inductor L is connected across the supply.
The inductor current I rises and the inductor stores energy during the ON
time of the chopper, t .
ON
When the chopper is off, the inductor current I is forced to flow through the
diode D and load for a period, t
.
OFF
The current tends to decrease resulting in reversing the polarity of induced

EMF in L.
Therefore voltage across load is given by:VO V L
dI
i.e., VO V
dt

Class A Chopper
i0
v0
Chopper
V
FWD
L
O
A
D
v0 V
ig
i0
Thyristor
gate pulse
t
i0
Output current
CH ON
t
FWD Conducts
v0
Output voltage
tON
t
T

Class A Chopper is a step-down chopper in which power always flows form

source to load.
It is used to control the speed of dc motor.
The output current equations obtained in step down chopper with R-L load
can be used to study the performance of Class A Chopper.
Class B Chopper
i0
v0
+
R
L v0
V
Chopper
E
ig
i0
Thyristor
gate pulse
t
i0
tOFF
tON
T
Output current
Imax
Imin
v0
D
conducts Chopper
conducts
Output voltage

When chopper is ON, E drives a current through L and R in a direction

opposite to that shown in figure.
During the ON period of the chopper, the inductance L stores energy.
When Chopper is OFF, diode D conducts, and part of the energy stored in
inductor L is returned to the supply.
Average output voltage is positive.
Average output current is negative.
Therefore Class B Chopper operates in second quadrant.
In this chopper, power flows from load to source.
Class B Chopper is used for regenerative braking of dc motor.
Class B Chopper is a step-up chopper.
OUTPUT CURRENT
During the interval diode 'D' conducts
voltage equation is given by
LdiO
RiO E
dt
For the initial condition i.e.,
V
iO t I min at t 0
The solution of the above equation is obtained
along similar lines as in step-down chopper
with R-L load
iO t
At t tOFF
I max
R
R
t
t
V E
L
L
1
I
e
0 t tOFF
min
R
iO t I max
R
R
tOFF
tOFF
V E
L
L
1 e
I min e
R
During the interval chopper is ON voltage

equation is given by
0
LdiO
RiO E
dt

Redefining the time origin, at t 0 iO t I max

The solution for the stated initial condition is
iO t I max e
R
t
L
R
t
E
L
1
iO t I min
At t tON
I min I max e
0 t tON
R
tON
L
R
tON
E
L
1
CLASS C CHOPPER
CH1
D1
i0
v0
V
CH2
D2
L v0
Chopper
E
i0
Class C Chopper is a combination of Class A and Class B Choppers.

For first quadrant operation, CH is ON or D conducts.
1
2
For second quadrant operation, CH is ON or D conducts.
2
1
When CH is ON, the load current is positive.
1
The output voltage is equal to V & the load receives power from the
source.
When CH is turned OFF, energy stored in inductance L forces current to
1
flow through the diode D and the output voltage is zero.
2

ig1
Gate pulse
of CH1
t
ig2
Gate pulse
of CH2
t
i0
Output current
t
D1
CH1
ON
D2
CH2
ON
D1
CH1
ON
D2
V0
CH2
ON
Output voltage
Current continues to flow in positive direction.

When CH is triggered, the voltage E forces current to flow in opposite
2
direction through L and CH .

2
The output voltage is zero.

On turning OFF CH , the energy stored in the inductance drives current
2
through diode D and the supply

1
Output voltage is V, the input current becomes negative and power flows
from load to source
Average output voltage is positive
Average output current can take both positive and negative values.
Choppers CH & CH should not be turned ON simultaneously as it would
1
result in short circuiting the supply.

Class C Chopper can be used both for dc motor control and regenerative
braking of dc motor.
Class C Chopper can be used as a step-up or step-down chopper.

CLASS D CHOPPER
v0
CH1
D2
R i0
v0
+
D1
i0
CH2
Class D is a two quadrant chopper.

When both CH and CH are triggered simultaneously, the output voltage v
1
= V and output current flows through the load.

When CH and CH are turned OFF, the load current continues to flow in
1
the same direction through load, D and D , due to the energy stored in the
1
inductor L.
Output voltage v = - V .
O
Average load voltage is positive if chopper ON time is more than the OFF
time
Average output voltage becomes negative if t
< t
ON
.
OFF
Hence the direction of load current is always positive but load voltage can be
positive or negative.

ig1
Gate pulse
of CH1
t
ig2
Gate pulse
of CH2
t
i0
Output current
v0
CH1,CH2
ON
t
D1,D2 Conducting
Output voltage
V
Average v0

ig1
Gate pulse
of CH1
t
ig2
Gate pulse
of CH2
t
i0
Output current
CH1
CH2
t
D1, D2
v0
Output voltage
V
Average v0

CLASS E CHOPPER
FOUR QUADRANT OPERATION
Class E is a four quadrant chopper
When CH and CH are triggered, output current i flows in positive
1
direction through CH and CH , and with output voltage v = V.

1
This gives the first quadrant operation.

When both CH and CH are OFF, the energy stored in the inductor L drives
1
i through D and D in the same direction, but output voltage v = -V.

O
Therefore the chopper operates in the fourth quadrant.

When CH
and CH are triggered, the load current i
flows in opposite
O
direction & output voltage v = -V.

O
Since both i and v are negative, the chopper operates in third quadrant
O
When both CH and CH are OFF, the load current i continues to flow in
2
the same direction D and D and the output voltage

1
v = V.
Therefore the chopper operates in second quadrant as v
is positive but i is
O
negative.


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SOLID STATE DRIVES AND

SOLID STATE DC DRIVES AND APPLICATIONS-J.GOPI-AP-EEE-MIET

Speed Control of D.C. Motors

Flux control method

SOLID STATE DC DRIVES AND APPLICATIONS-J.GOPI-AP-EEE-MIET

SOLID STATE DC DRIVES AND APPLICATIONS-J.GOPI-AP-EEE-MIET

(ii) It is an inexpensive method since very little power is wasted in the

Armature control method

SOLID STATE DC DRIVES AND APPLICATIONS-J.GOPI-AP-EEE-MIET

where RC = controller resistance

SOLID STATE DC DRIVES AND APPLICATIONS-J.GOPI-AP-EEE-MIET

Voltage control method

Multiple voltage control

SOLID STATE DC DRIVES AND APPLICATIONS-J.GOPI-AP-EEE-MIET

The armature of the shunt motor M (whose speed is to be controlled) is connected

SOLID STATE DC DRIVES AND APPLICATIONS-J.GOPI-AP-EEE-MIET

Speed Control of D.C. Series Motors

Flux control method

SOLID STATE DC DRIVES AND APPLICATIONS-J.GOPI-AP-EEE-MIET

Tapped field control.

SOLID STATE DC DRIVES AND APPLICATIONS-J.GOPI-AP-EEE-MIET

Paralleling field coils.

SOLID STATE DC DRIVES AND APPLICATIONS-J.GOPI-AP-EEE-MIET

SOLID STATE DC DRIVES AND APPLICATIONS-J.GOPI-AP-EEE-MIET

Series-parallel and resistance control

SOLID STATE DC DRIVES AND APPLICATIONS-J.GOPI-AP-EEE-MIET

SOLID STATE DC DRIVES AND APPLICATIONS-J.GOPI-AP-EEE-MIET

Speed Control of Compound Motors

Necessity of D.C. Motor Starter

1.25 to 2 times the full-load current.

Types of D.C. Motor Starters

SOLID STATE DC DRIVES AND APPLICATIONS-J.GOPI-AP-EEE-MIET

Operation of Three-Point Starter

SOLID STATE DC DRIVES AND APPLICATIONS-J.GOPI-AP-EEE-MIET

SOLID STATE DC DRIVES AND APPLICATIONS-J.GOPI-AP-EEE-MIET

SOLID STATE DC DRIVES AND APPLICATIONS-J.GOPI-AP-EEE-MIET

Grading of Starting ResistanceShunt Motors

where R1 = Resistance of starter and armature

Starter Step Calculations for D.C. Shunt Motor

Im = Upper current limit

SOLID STATE DC DRIVES AND APPLICATIONS-J.GOPI-AP-EEE-MIET

SOLID STATE DC DRIVES AND APPLICATIONS-J.GOPI-AP-EEE-MIET

As the starter arm leaves stud 3,

SOLID STATE DC DRIVES AND APPLICATIONS-J.GOPI-AP-EEE-MIET

SOLID STATE DC DRIVES AND APPLICATIONS-J.GOPI-AP-EEE-MIET

SOLID STATE DC DRIVES AND APPLICATIONS-J.GOPI-AP-EEE-MIET

Rheostatic or Dynamic braking

SOLID STATE DC DRIVES AND APPLICATIONS-J.GOPI-AP-EEE-MIET

SOLID STATE DC DRIVES AND APPLICATIONS-J.GOPI-AP-EEE-MIET

SOLID STATE DC DRIVES AND APPLICATIONS-J.GOPI-AP-EEE-MIET

SOLID STATE DC DRIVES AND APPLICATIONS-J.GOPI-AP-EEE-MIET

SOLID STATE DC DRIVES AND APPLICATIONS-J.GOPI-AP-EEE-MIET

SOLID STATE DC DRIVES AND APPLICATIONS-J.GOPI-AP-EEE-MIET

include a supervision function for maximum regeneration power. This function is

SOLID STATE DC DRIVES AND APPLICATIONS-J.GOPI-AP-EEE-MIET

Constant torque application:

Quadratic torque application:

Braking power evaluation:

SOLID STATE DC DRIVES AND APPLICATIONS-J.GOPI-AP-EEE-MIET

Principle of the braking chopper

The main drawbacks of the braking chopper and resistor are:

SOLID STATE DC DRIVES AND APPLICATIONS-J.GOPI-AP-EEE-MIET

SOLID STATE DC DRIVES AND APPLICATIONS-J.GOPI-AP-EEE-MIET