Artin Daryabari

Per. 4

Chapter 10 Outline
I. Overview of Muscular Tissue
A. Functions
1. Producing body movements- Movements of the whole body such as walking and running, and
localized movements such as grasping a pencil or nodding the head, rely on the integrated
functioning of bones, joints, and skeletal muscles.
2. Stabilizing body positions- Skeletal muscle contractions stabilize joints and help maintain body
positions, such as standing or sitting. Postural muscles contract continuously when you are awake;
for example, sustained contractions of your neck muscles hold your head upright.
3. Storing and moving substances within the body- Storage is accomplished by sustained
contractions of ring like bands of smooth muscle called sphincters, which prevent outflow of the
contents of a hollow organ. Temporary storage of food in the stomach or urine in the urinary
bladder is possible because smooth muscle sphincters close off the outlets of these organs.
4. Generating heat- As muscular tissue contracts, it produces heat, a process known as
thermogenesis. Much of the heat generated by muscle is used to maintain normal body
temperature. Involuntary contractions of skeletal muscle, known as shivering, can increase the rate
of heat production.
B. Properties
1. Electrical excitability- a property of both muscle and nerve cells, is the ability to respond to
certain stimuli by producing electrical signals called action potentials.
2. Contractility- is the ability of muscular tissue to contract forcefully when stimulated by an
action potential. When a muscle contracts, it generates tension (force of contraction) while pulling
on its attachment points.
3. Extensibility- is the ability of muscular tissue to stretch without being damaged. Extensibility
allows a muscle to contract forcefully even if it is already stretched. Normally, smooth muscle is
subject to the greatest amount of stretching.
4. Elasticity- is the ability of muscular tissue to return to its original length and shape after
contraction or extension.
C. Nerve and Blood Supply- An artery and 1 or 2 veins accompany each nerve that penetrates a skeletal
muscle. The neurons that stimulate skeletal muscle to contract are somatic motor neurons. Each somatic
motor neuron had a threadlike axon that extends from the brain or spinal cord to a group of skeletal muscle
fibers. Microscopic blood vessels called capillaries are plentiful in muscular tissue; each muscle fiber is in
close contact with one or more capillaries. The blood capillaries bring in oxygen and nutrients and remove
heat and the waste products of muscle metabolism.

D. Muscular Atrophy and Hypertrophy- Muscular Atrophy- (a=without, trophy= nourishment)- is a

wasting away of muscles. Individual muscle fibers decrease in size because of progressive loss of
myofibrils. Bedridden individuals and people with casts experience disuse atrophy because the flow of
nerve impulses (nerve action potentials) to inactive skeletal muscle is greatly reduced.
E. Exercise Induced Muscle Damage- is an increase in the diameter of muscle fibers due to increased
production of myofibrils, mitochondria, sarcoplasmic reticulum, and other organelles. It results from very
forceful, repetitive muscular activity, such as strength training.
F. Muscle Proteins- Myofibrils built from three kinds of proteins: 1. Contractile proteins, which generate
force during contraction; 2. Regulatory proteins, which help switch the contraction process on and off; 3.
Structural proteins, which keep the thick and thin filaments in the proper alignment, give the myofibril
elasticity and extensibility, and link the myofibrils to the sarcolemma and extracellular matrix. Myosin
functions as a motor protein in all three types of muscle tissue. Motor proteins push or pull various cellular
structures to achieve movement by converting the chemical energy in ATP to the mechanical energy of
motion or the production of force. Actin- Individual actin molecules join to form an actin filament that is
twisted into a helix. Smaller amounts of two regulatory proteins- tropomyosin and troponin- are also part of
the thin filament.
G. Sliding Filament Mechanism (diagram and simply explain how it works)- The contraction cycle- the
repeating sequence of events that causes the filaments to slide begins. Contraction four steps: 1.
ATPhydrolysis- the myosin head includes an ATP-binding site and an ATPase, an enzyme that hydrolyzes
ATP into ADP (adenosine diphosphate) and a phosphate group.
2. Attachment of myosin to actin to form crossbridges- The energized myosin head attaches to the
myosin- binding site on actin and releases the previously hydrolyzed phosphate group. When the
myosin heads attach to actin during contraction, they are referred to as crossbridges.
3. Power stroke- after the crossbridges form, the power stroke occurs. Durin the power stroke, the
site on the crossbridge where ADP is still bound opens, As a result, the crossbridge rotates and
releases the ADP.
4. Detachment of myosin from actin- at the end of the power stroke, the crossbridge remains
firmly attached to actin until it binds another molecule of ATP. As ATP binds to the ATP-binding
site on the myosin head, the myosin head detaches from actin.
H. Rigor Mortis- After death, cellular membranes become leaky. The resulting condition, in which muscles
are in a state of rigidity (cannot contract of stretch), is called rigor mortis (rigidity of death). Begins 3-4
hours after death and lasts about 24 hours.
I. Neuromuscular Junction- The synapse between a somatic motor neuron and a skeletal muscle fiber.
J. Electromyography- (electro= electricity; myo= muscle; graph= to write) or EMG is a test that measures
the electrical activity (muscle action potentials) in resting and contracting muscles. Normally, resting
muscle produces no electrical activity; a slight contraction produces some electrical activity; and a more
forceful contraction produces increased electrical activity.
II. Muscle Metabolism
A. Creatine Supplementation- Creatine is both synthesized in the body (in the liver, kidneys, and pancreas)
and derived from foods such as milk, red meat, and some fish. Adults need to synthesize and ingest a total

of about 2 grams of creatine daily to make up for the urinary loss of creatine, the breakdown product
creatine.
B. Muscle Fatigue- The inability of a muscle to maintain force of contraction after prolonged activity is
called muscle fatigue. Fatigue results mainly from changes within muscle fibers.
C. Oxygen Debt- refers to the added oxygen, over and above the resting oxygen consumption, that is taken
into the body after exercise. This extra oxygen is used to "pay back" or restore metabolic conditions to the
resting level in three ways. 1. To convert lactic acid back into glycogen stores in the liver, 2. To
resynthesize creatine phosphate and ATP in muscle fibers, and 3. To replace the oxygen removed from
myoglobin.
III. Control of Muscle Tension
A. Motor unit- consists of a somatic motor neuron plus all the skeletal muscle fibers it stimulates. A single
somatic motor neuron makes contact with an average of 150 skeletal muscle fibersm and all of the muscle
fibers in one motor unit contract in unison.
B. Twitch Contraction- is the brief contraction of all the muscle fibers in a motor unit in response to a
single action potential in its motor neuron. In the laboratory a twitch can be produced by direct electrical
stimulation of a motor neuron of its muscle fibers.
C. Frequency of stimulation. What are the 2 types of tetanus?- When a second stimulus occurs after the
refractory period of the first stimulus is over, but before the skeletal muscle fiber has relaxed, the second
contraction will actually be stronger than the first. Unfused (incomplete) tetanus (tetan=rigid, tense), the
result is a sustained but wavering contraction. Fused (complete) tetanus, sustained contraction in which
individual twitches cannot be detected.
D. Aerobic Training versus Strength Training- Regularm repeated activities such as jogging or aerobic
dancing increase the supply of oxygen-rich blood available to skeletal muscles for aerobic cellular
respiration. By contrast, activities such as weight lifting rely more on anaerobic production of ATP through
glycolysis. Such aerobic activities stimulate synthesis of muscle proteins and result, over time, in increased
muscle size (muscle hypertrophy).
E. Muscle Tone- (tonos= tension)- a small amount of tautness or tension in the muscle due to weak,
involuntary contractions, of its motor units. When the motor neurons serving a skeletal muscle are damaged
or cut, the muscle becomes flaccid, a state of limpness in which muscle tone is lost.
F. Hypotonia and Hypertonia- Hypotonia(hypo=below) refers to decreased or lost muscle tone. Such
muscles are said to be flaccid. Flaccid muscles are loose and appear flattened rather than rounded; the
affected limbs are hyperextended. Hypertonia(hyper=above) refers to increased muscle tone and is
expressed in two ways:spasticity or rigidity. Spasticity is characterized by increased muscle tone (stiffness)
associated with an increase in tendon reflexes and pathological reflexes.
G. Isotonic and Isometric Contractions- Isotonic contraction (iso= equal; tonic= tension), the tension (force
of contraction) developed by the muscle remains almost constant while the muscle changes its length.
Isometric Contractions (metro=measure or length) the tension generated is not enough to exceed the
resistance of the object to be moved and the muscle does not change its length. An example would be
holding a book steady using an outstretched arm.

IV. Exercise and Skeletal Muscle Tissue

A. Muscle Changes- The transformed muscle fibers show slight increases in diameter, number of
mitochondria, blood supply, and strength. Endurance exercises also result in cardiovascular and respiratory
changes that cause skeletal muscles to receive better supplies of oxygen and nutrients but do not increase
muscle mass.
B. Anabolic Steroids- by atheletes has received widespread attention. These steroid hormones, similar to
testosterone, are taken to increase muscle size and thus strength during athletic contests. However, the large
doses needed to produce an effect have damaging, sometimes even devastating side effects, including liver
cancer, kidney damage, increased risk of heart disease, stunted growth, wide mood swings, increased acne,
and increased irritability and aggression.
V. Table 10.2, Page 317
VI. Aging and Muscle- With aging, humans undergo a slow, progressive loss of skeletal muscle mass that is replaced
largely by fibrous connective tissue and adipose tissue. In part, this decline is due to decreased levels of physical
activity. Accompanying the loss of muscle mass in a decrease in maximal strength, a slowing of muscle reflexes, and
a loss of flexibility.
VII. Disorders: Homeostatic Imbalances
A. Myasthenia Gravis- (mys= muscle; aesthesis= sensation) is an autoimmune disease that causes chronic,
progressive damage of the neuromuscular junction. The immune system inappropriately produces
antibodies that bind to and block some Ach receptors, thereby decreasing the number of functional Ach
receptors at the motor end plates of skeletal muscles.
B. Muscular Dystrophy- (dys= difficult; trophy= nourishment) refers to a group of inherited muscledestroying diseases that cause progressive degeneration of skeletal muscle fibers. The most common form
of muscular dystrophy is Duchenne muscular dystrophy or DMD. Because the mutated gene is on the X
chromosome, and males have only one, DMD strikes boys almost exclusively.
C. Fibromyalgia- (algia= painful condition) is a painful, nonarticular rheumatic disorder that usually
appears between the ages of 25 and 50. An estimated 3 million people in the United States suffer from
fibromyalgia, which is 15 times more common in women than men. The disorder affects the fibrous
connective tissue components of muscles, tendons, and ligaments.
D. Abnormal Contractions of Skeletal Muscle
Spasm- One kind of abnormal muscular contraction, a sudden involuntary contraction of a single muscle in
a large group of muscles.
Cramp- A painful spasmodic contraction, cramps may be caused by inadequate blood flow to muscles,
overuse of a muscle, dehydration, injury, holding a position for prolonged periods, and low blood levels of
electrolytes, such as potassium.
Tic- is a spasmodic twitching made involuntarily by muscles that are ordinarily under voluntary control.
Twitching of the eyelid and facial muscles are examples of tics.
Tremor- is arrhythmic, involuntary, purposeless contraction that produces a quivering or shaking
movement.

Fasciculation- is an involuntary, brief twitch of an entire motor unit that is visible under the skin; it occurs
irregularly and is not associated with movement of the affected muscle.
Fibrillation- is a spontaneous contraction of a single muscle fiber that is not visible under the skin but can
be recorded by electromyography. Fibrillations may signal destruction of motor neurons.

VIII. Medical Terminology

A. Muscle Strain- Tearing of a muscle because of forceful impact, accompanied by bleeding and severe
pain. Also known as charley horse or pulled muscle. It often occurs in contact sports and typically affects
the quadriceps femoris muscle on the anterior surface of the thigh. The condition is treated by RICE
therapy: rest (R), ice immediately after the injury (I), compression via a supportive wrap (C), and elevation
of the limb (E).
B. Myalgia- (algia= painful condition) Pain in or associated with muscles.
C. Myoma- (oma= tumor)- A tumor consisting of muscle tissue.
D. Myositis- (itis= inflammation of) Inflammation of muscle fibers (cells).
E. Volkmann's Contracture- (contra= against) Permanent shortening of a muscle due to replacement of
destroyed muscle fibers by fibrous connective tissue, which lacks extensibility. Destruction of muscle fibers
may occur from interference with circulation caused by a tight bandage, a piece of elastic, or a cast.

Chapter 11 Outline
I. How Skeletal Muscles Produce Movements
A. Muscle Attachment Sites: Origin and Insertion:
1. The attachment of a muscles tendon to the stationary bone is called the origin; the attachment
of the muscles other tendon to the moveable bone is called the insertion.
2. The fleshy portion of the muscle between the tendons is the called the belly (gaster). It is also
the fattest part of the muscle.
3. Tenosynovitis it is an inflammation of the tendons, tendon sheaths, and synovial membranes
surrounding certain joints. The tendons most often affected are at the wrists, shoulders, elbows
(resulting in tennis elbow), finger joints (resulting in trigger finger), ankles, and feet.
B. Lever Systems and Leverage:
A (1) lever is a rigid structure that can move around a fixed point called a (2) fulcrum. A lever is
acted on at two different points by two different forces: the (3) effort (E), which causes movement,
and the load (L) or resistance, which opposes movement. The effort is the force exerted by
muscular contraction; the load is typically the weight of the body part that is moved. Motion
occurs when the effort applied to the bone at the insertion exceeds the load.

4. The fulcrum is between the effort and the load in the first-class levers. Scissors and seesaws are
examples of first-class levers. A first-class lever can produce either a mechanical advantage or
disadvantage depending on whether the effort or the load is closer to the fulcrum. One example is
the lever formed by the head resting on the vertebral column. When the head is raised, the
contraction of the posterior neck muscles provides the effort (E), the joint between the atlas and
the occipital bone forms fulcrum (F), and the weight f the anterior portion of the skull is the load.
The load is between the fulcrum and the effort in second-class levers. They operate like a
wheelbarrow. Second-class levers always produce a mechanical advantage because the load is
always closer to the fulcrum than the effort. This arrangement sacrifices speed and range of
motion for force.
The effort is between the fulcrum and the load in third-class levers. These levers operate
like a pair of forceps and are the most common levers in the body. Third-class levers always
produce a mechanical disadvantage because the effort is always closer to the fulcrum than the
load.
5. Intramuscular Injections it penetrates the skin and subcutaneous tissue to enter the muscle
itself. Intramuscular injections are preferred when prompt absorption is desired, when larger doses
than can be given subcutaneously are indicated, or when the drug is too irritating to give
subcutaneously.
C. Coordination Within Muscle Groups
1. Within opposing pairs, one muscle, called prime mover or agonist, contracts to cause an action
while the other muscle, the antagonist, stretches and yields to the effects of the prime mover. In the
process of flexing the forearm at the elbow, the biceps brachii is the prime mover, and the triceps
brachii is the antagonist. The antagonist and prime mover are usually located on opposite sides of
the bone or joint, as is the case in this example.
2. To prevent unwanted movements at intermediate joints or to otherwise aid the movement of the
prime mover, muscles called synergist contract and stabilize the intermediate joints. They are
usually located close to the prime mover.
3. Some muscles in a group also act as fixators, stabilizing the origin of the prime mover so that it
can act more efficiently. Fixators steady the proximal end of a limb while movements occur at the
distal end.
4. The overall goal of stretching is to achieve normal range of motion of joints and mobility of soft
tissues surrounding the joints. Improved physical performance, decreased risk of injury, and
reduced muscle soreness.
II. How Skeletal Muscles are Named
Several features of skeletal muscles provide descriptive ways to name muscles. The names of most
of the nearly 700 skeletal muscles contain combinations of word roots for their distinctive features.
Learning the terms that refer to these features will help you remember the names of muscles. Such muscle
feature includes the pattern of the muscles fascicles; the size, shape, action, number of origins, and
location of the muscle; and the sites of origin and insertion of the muscle.

III. Principal Skeletal Muscle Health Issues

A. Bells Palsy also known as facial paralysis, is a unilateral paralysis of the muscles of facial expression.
It is due to damage or disease of the facial nerve. Possible causes include inflammation of the facial nerve
due to an ear infection, ear surgery that damages the facial nerve, or infection by the herpes simplex virus.
80% of patients recover completely within a few weeks to a few months. The symptoms of Bells palsy
mimic those of a stroke.
B. Strabismus it is a condition in which the two eyes are not properly aligned. This can be hereditary or it
can be due to birth injuries, poor attachments of the muscles, problems with the brains control center, or
localized disease.
C. Inguinal Hernia - a rupture or separation of a portion of the inguinal area of the abdominal wall resulting
in the protrusion of a part of the small intestine. Hernia is much more common in males than in females
because the inguinal canals in males are larger to accommodate the spermatic cord and ilioinguinal nerve.
D. Urinary Stress Incontinence- the leakage of the urine whenever intra-abdominal pressure is increasedfor example, during coughing. One way to treat urinary stress incontinence is to strengthen and tighten the
muscle that supports the pelvic viscera.
E. Impingement Syndrome- common causes for shoulder pain, and dysfunction in athletes, the repetitive
movement of the arm over the head that is common in baseball, overhead racquet sports, lifting weights
over the head, spiking a volleyball, and swimming puts these athletes at risk. Can also be cause by direct
blow or stretch injury.
F. Carpal Tunnel Syndrome - Compression of the median nerve leads to sensory changes over the lateral
side of the hand and muscle weakness in the thenar eminence. This results in pain, numbness, and tingling
of the fingers.
G. Back Injuries and Heavy Lifting the four factors associated with increased risk of back injury are
amount of force, repetition, posture, and stress applied to the backbone. Poor physical condition, poor
posture, lack of exercise, and excessive body weight contribute to the number and severity of sprains and
strains.
H. Groin Pull - A rupture or tear of one or more of these muscles. Groin pulls most often occur during
sprinting or twisting, or from kicking a solid, perhaps stationary object. Symptoms of a groin pull may be
sudden, or may not surface until the day after the injury, and include sharp pain in the inguinal region,
swelling, bruising, or inability to contract the muscles.
I. Pulled Hamstrings - A strain or partial tear of the proximal hamstrings muscles. Like pulled groins, they
are common sports injuries in individuals who run very hard and/ or are required to perform quick starts
and stops.
J. Shin Splint Syndrome - refers to pain or soreness along the tibia, specifically the medial, distal 2/3. It
may be caused by tendinitis of the anterior compartment muscles, especially the tibialis anterior muscle,
inflammation of the periosteum (periostitis) around the tibia, or stress fractures of the tibia.
K. Plantar Fasciitis - or painful heel syndrome is an inflammatory reaction due to chronic irritation of the
plantar aponeurosis (fascia) at its origin on the calcaneus (heel bone).
IV. Disorders: Homeostatic Imbalances

A. Running Injuries running injuries are frequently related to faulty training techniques. This may involve
improper or lack of sufficient warm-up routines, running too much, or running too soon after an injury. Or
it might involve extended running on hard/or uneven surfaces.