Designing for Disasters

identify what disasters an airport might need protecting against and decide
how to minimise the risks for each.
the integration of architecture with structural and mechanical systems
enabled us to create stable, welcoming and architecturally elegant buildings.
featured cluster columns that provide a stable footprint.
The mechanical system fits into the void space between the four columns
that make up each cluster.
These umbrella columns raise up to support the terminal roof and its series
of undulating trusses and help distribute the structural load through the
terminal, stabilising the building.
The design orients the terminal so the short side faces the ocean. As a result,
less water was able to collect and exert force against the building.
the prevailing winds dictated that the runway be east-west. But, as with
placing passenger activity on the second level, its a lesson for airports
planning a terminal near a large body of water.

Structure as the Driving Force

To ensure that all the components of a terminal have a clear, modular

relationship with the structure, the structural systems need to be part of the
early thinking about how to organize the building. The structure becomes the
driving force.
in an earthquake, long-span structures such as airport terminals behave
differently than other buildings.
If you lock in both ends of a long-span structure, then you are locking in the
stresses and it will be subject to buckling, says Nancy Hamilton, a structural
engineer and the director of engineering services at HOK.
Though making the building extremely stiff at both ends, or strong-arming
it, is a common design approach for airports, this requires complex,
expensive roof systems.
A better way to design a terminal in an active seismic region is to secure the
roof system with lateral restraints at one end and to let the building flex and
move at the other. If a local structural element fails in a disaster, others can
take its place.
Designing for structural resiliency and redundancy has a significant impact on
a terminals plan and passenger flows. A plan, for example, may position
most of a buildings bracing elements at the front of the terminal so the
structural system does not compete with passenger flows and baggage
handling systems on the interior.
The building design creates large column-free areas with wide spans and a
tall roof.

Columns are typically 50 feet high, but extend to 88 feet in some locations.
This primary design feature provided one of the main structural challenges
with respect to seismic design.
Designing the columns as composite reinforced concrete with steel billets
reduced their footprint. To ensure the ductility of the structure in a seismic
event,

Consider Climate and Place

Every airport in the world is vulnerable to some type of natural disaster, and
every design strategy should be based on the local climate and place. Among the
natural disasters we design for are:

Dust storms and sandstorms

In areas of the world threatened by dust and sand storms, a terminal must be
designed to protect incoming air from the dust. We study the prevailing winds and
strategically place air intakes and exhausts. Rooftop photovoltaic systems will
collect dust unless the building is oriented so that the winds blow it off.

Flooding
Many existing airports are in coastal regions on reclaimed areas. Here, they
are exposed to hurricanes and ocean flooding around the perimeter.
Designers can provide master drainage plans and underground storm
retention basins that capture stormwater for re-use. These basins also act as
overflow buffers that prevent an airfield from being flooded.
High winds
The intense storms we have experienced in recent years suggest that
terminals could be exposed to higher winds than historic records (and the
building codes based on these records) indicate. Because terminals have
such large, open facades, they need to be redundant and ductile to withstand
strains.
Tornadoes
Unknown winds and atmospheric conditions create unknown forces. Our
architects and engineers consider the potential for increased wind pressures,
dramatic changes in atmospheric conditions and debris acting as projectile
missiles that can breach the facade. Berms (an artificial ridge or
embankment) around the terminal can provide a basic level of protection.
Snow and ice storms
Snow and ice storms generate higher structural loads than building codes
allow for. The large roofs of terminals must be shaped to shed snow, ice and
winds.

Sustainable and Low-Energy Terminal Design

To reduce our impact on the planets ecology, we need to design low-energy airports shaped
by a response to the local natural environment.
the sheltering roof form, skylight and high-performance curtain wall systems to work together
to mitigate heat gain and assure that primary building lighting is not required on the
departure level during daylight hours.
unique mechanical system of radiant floors and stratified ventilation that only condition air to
human comfort in the buildings inhabited zone, below three metres.

Taking the Terminal off the Grid

We want to reduce the building envelope and processing load, maximise passive design
strategies, use high performance building systems and generate substantial energy from
renewables, so that a terminal can be as self-sufficient as possible, says John Pulley,
HOKs director of MEP engineering. Net zero energy is the ultimate goal.

Airport roles in disasters

Receiving aid

Dispatching aid

Quarantine (initial)

Helicopter base for rescue and reconn

Logistics hub intermodal terminus

Communications node or backup

Backup EOC

Security area

Stages of emergency and disaster management

Prevention

Preparedness

Mitigation

Response

Recovery

Reconstruction

Sustainability

Generally applied to normal range of activities

Applies to structural and organization designs that promote efficient and

effective operations with minimum use of resources

Could be stretched to include activities outside the normal range =>

MITIGATION

All too often overlooks disasters

Resiliency

Ability of a structure, organization, or system to do at least ONE of the

following:

to avoid damage => PREVENTION

to retain an acceptable but reduced level of functioning =>

MITIGATION

to return to an acceptable level of functioning after a disaster or

catastrophe => MITIGATION & RECOVERY

Cutting the 72-hour wait

Get airport designated as critical infrastructure/critical facilities list

Smart plans and strategies

Promoting self-help capabilities

Developing special response and recovery capabilities

Giving and receiving mutual help beyond mutual aid pacts regional
cooperation and coordination - DOGs

Structural
(Physical facilities)

Redundancy on site

Back-up emergency operations center (EOC)

Alternative sites

Hardening

Hardened communications and IT

CBRNE prevention and mitigation

Perimeter control

Fuel system protection

Air traffic control system protection

Alternate utilities

Interoperability standards

Special structural concerns

Design and construction to resist damage from multihazards

Rapid post-incident evaluation

Rapid post-incident repair

Communications

Alternative logistics, especially fuel and electricity

Shelter-in-place capabilities

Sustainment for essential employees

Documentation as-built and modified

Operational

Preparedness

Alternative modes of transport

Internal security

Interoperability

Standards

Pre-siting

Staging

Pull, not push: hold logistics at intermediate airports rather than jamming up
airport(s) in the middle of the disaster

Off-site logistic support and storage

Avoidance of non-essential uses

Training, drilling, and exercising

Interoperability

Standards national and international

Access and credentialing

Access to airfield by mutual aid and other outside responders is a difficult

issue.

Credentialing of responders for on-airport action is needed.

Flexibility is needed for extreme cases.

Conclusions

Disaster management at airports involves airports internally and airports in a

community context

Coordination and cooperation among airports is needed

Strong airport-emergency management agency cooperation and coordination

is cost-effective mitigation against all hazards

Preparedness against multihazards works for natural disasters, pandemics,

and manmade threats

Other components of aviation critical infrastructure have parallel concerns

and needs for preparedness

In a disaster, an airport can substitute for

almost anything else, but nothing can substitute
for an airport. But nothing matters unless the
airport and its functions have been protected or
restored.
Influences on Airport Layout
When runways are built, their layout is influenced by many factors:

Federal Aviation Regulations

environmental concerns

noise level impacts

terrain and soil considerations

natural and man-made obstructions

annual weather patterns

the size and performance characteristics of the airplanes that will use the runways

These are all factors in runway and airport planning. Many issues are studied before final decisions on
airport location and runway layout are determined.

Impact Report Maps for Ames Research Center, 1999

Cultural and Historic

Wetlands and Habitat

Noise and Safety

Site Pollution

Environmental impact requirements for airports were first established with the National Environmental Policy
Act of 1969 and in 1970 with the Airport and Airway Development Act. These acts ensure that due
consideration is given to the effects on the quality of the environment and the surrounding communities in
regard to airport expansion, use and development. Before building a new facility or expanding an existing
facility, an impact study or feasibility study must be done. These studies include a critical assessment of all
impact issues from soil to air quality.
Controlling water pollution from airports has been well-mastered by planners. Airports can be major
contributors to water pollution if suitable treatment facilities are not provided for the various types of airport
wastes. These wastes include the following: domestic sewage, industrial wastes such as oil and fuel spills
and high temperature water degradation that stems from the heat of various power plants in nearly constant
use at an airport.
One of the most severe problems is that of aircraft noise in and around an airport. Laying out runways so
that air traffic patterns occur minimally over heavily populated areas is a practice now widely employed
during runway expansion and when building new airports. Controlling the land use around an airport also
helps reduce the interference of aircraft noise with the public. Noise abatement procedures
during takeoff and landing make for quieter airport operations. Such procedures consist of a faster takeoff
speed quickly followed by slowing the engine once airborne over a populated area, then returning the
engines to full speed and resuming normal flight operations. This lessens the amount of engine noise over
the populated area without adversely affecting the flight. Improvements in engine design have also been a
successful factor in reducing aircraft noise.
Airports attract business and people, but airports are noisy. Businesses and people do not like airport noise.
There are very few airports in the world where no noise complaints have been recorded. Dallas/Ft. Worth
International Airport (DFW) records the time and track of every arriving and departing aircraft. If a complaint
is received DFW personnel can identify the aircraft that was the cause. There is an organization called the
San Francisco Airport Roundtable that keeps tabs on noise and other concerns at the San Francisco
International Airport (SFO).
The goal of NASA's Quiet Aircraft Technology project (sponsored by NASA's Aeronautics Research Mission
Directorate) is to reduce perceived aircraft noise by 50 percent by 2015 and by 75 percent in 25 years, using
1997 levels as the baseline.
Noise in the vicinity of airports generated from aircraft operations has an adverse impact on a community's
quality of life. At the very least, aircraft noise is distracting and it can be unhealthy. Noise is generated from
the propulsion system by the rotating machinery, the combustion process, the jet flow from the nozzle as
well as by the aircraft from airflow over wing flaps and around the landing gear. Noise is measured as sound
pressure levels in decibels (dB). Noise impact on communities is a function of both the noise (dB) from a
single aircraft operation and the number of aircraft operations. Therefore, as operations increase, overall
community noise impact increases. NASA's objective is to lower aircraft source noise such that there is a
substantial reduction in community noise impact even as the number of aircraft operations increase.
The Federal Aviation Agency (FAA) makes the regulations (CFR, Part 36) but airport operators are primarily
responsible for planning and implementing action designed to reduce the effect of noise on residents of the
surrounding area. Such actions include optimal site location, improvements in airport design, and noise
abatement procedures. Noise abatement procedures can include designated arrival and/or departure paths
and procedures. Land acquisition and restrictions on airport use should not unjustly discriminate against any
user or impede the federal interest in safety and management of the air navigation system.
During the 1990s, aircraft were required to become less noisy. This change was accomplished with the
design of quieter engines and in some cases "hush kits" were installed on some older aircraft. The change
came in three stages where the aircraft noise level in decibels was reduced to less objectionable and less
dangerous levels. As of the first of January 2000 Stage 3, the final stage, was implemented.
The noise level of Stage 3 aircraft is comparable to a busy urban street and is much quieter than the Stage 2
aircraft noise level which is similar to an amplified rock music concert.
To find noise restrictions for individual airports check out the Boeing Corporation web site:
http://www.boeing.com/commercial/noise/index.html
The ground on which the airport is to be built must have a stable stratum of earth upon which building
foundations can be anchored. The soil must be capable of supporting heavy loads without shifting or sinking.
If the airport's runways are to be used by heavy aircraft (airplanes with a gross weight 300,000 pounds and
heavier) the underlying soil and/or bedrock must be able to support the weight of the runway plus the
aircraft's weight. Many airport runways have several feet of reinforced concrete to support the airplanes
without cracking.

Land at a greater elevation surrounding an airport such as mountains also have a profound effect on winds.
In the daytime, air next to a mountain slope is heated by contact with the ground as it receives radiation from
the sun. This air usually becomes warmer than the air farther up the slope. Colder, denser air in the area
settles downward and forces the warmer air near the ground up the mountain slope. This wind is called a
"valley wind" because the air is flowing up and out of the valley. At night, the air in contact with the mountain
slope is cooled by terrestrial radiation and becomes heavier than the surrounding air. It sinks along the slope
producing the "mountain wind" which flows like water down the mountain slope. Mountain winds are usually
stronger than valley winds, especially in winter. The wind pattern on the leeward side of a mountain contains
dangerous downdrafts or "rotor waves". An aircraft flying through such wind would encounter
hazardous turbulence that would push the airplane towards the ground. These are all considered when
orienting runways in an area near mountains.

There are many airports within mountainous areas where the runway headings generally run parallel with
the length of the valley in which they are located or run along neighboring rivers. The terrain often influences
development of the runways in the mountains. The airport runway at Aspen, CO, Aspen-Pitkin County/Sandy
Field (ASE) is located near the end of a long valley. Airplanes land up the valley and takeoff down the valley.
Mountains rise abruptly from the airport elevation of 7,815 feet to above 14,000 feet on three sides of the
airport.
Man-made obstructions like multi-storied high rises, transmissions towers and bridges can and do influence
runway orientation. Landing at Reagan National Airport on Runway 15 requires a curving approach that
follows above the Potomac River's course. Takeoff on Runway 33 from the same airport requires the reverse
trip following above the Potomac River because of government buildings to the north of the river and many
high buildings south of the river.
Consideration of local weather patterns is also a factor in determining an airport's layout. The weather
patterns of an area, especially the prevailing winds, are a major factor in determining runway headings.
Prevailing winds are defined as the direction from which the winds blow most frequently. Remember that
airplanes take off and land into the wind. Let's say that at a given airport the prevailing winds blow in from
the west 65% of the year, while 30% of the year the wind blows in from the east, and the remaining 5%
coming from the northwest. It would be best then to orient the runway W (27) and E (9). That would mean
that approximately 95% of the year airplanes would be landing and taking off into the wind. In most of Texas
and Oklahoma the runways are generally N-S runways because the winds are usually from either the North
or South. In parts of the Eastern United States there are many airports with NE-SW and NW-SE runways
because the winds are more likely to change between those two directions.

erminal Configuration
Although there are many types of terminal configurations currently in use at airports across the United States, the five
basic types are given below with a brief description of each.
Simple terminal
This configuration consists of one building holding a common ticketing and waiting area with several exits leading

to a small aircraft parking apron for boarding. This is used at mainly small aircraft airports and some older large
airports.

Linear terminal/ Curvilinear terminal

This is simply an extension of the simple terminal concept providing more gates and more room within the terminal for
ticketing and passenger processing.

Pier finger terminal

This terminal configuration evolved during the 1950s when gate concourses were added to the simple
terminal building designs. A concourse is actually defined as an open space where paths meet.
Passengers are usually processed at the simple terminal location and then routed down a "pier"
where aircraft are parked in the "finger" slots or gates for boarding.

Pier satellite terminal/ Remote satellite terminal

This configuration involves a single terminal where all the ticketing and passenger processing
takes place. Connected to this are numerous concourses that lead to one or more satellite
structures. At the end of each concourse the aircraft are parked in a cluster. This increases the
distance a passenger must walk to get from one terminal to another or one gate to another.
People-mover systems are employed in these settings to reduce these walking distances. These
systems can be high-speed escalators, monorails or electric-powered carts. This design concept
lends itself to a compact central terminal, but is difficult to expand without disrupting airport
operations.
Mobile lounge or transporter terminal (remote aircraft parking concept)
This concept is currently in use at Dulles International Airport and Tampa International Airport.
In this concept passengers are transported to and from the building to the parked airplane.
The mobile lounge can also be used as holding rooms for waiting passengers at gate positions.
Airplanes are parked at gates placed along parallel rows. Several sets of parallel parking rows
can be created as increased traffic deems such expansion necessary. This design has excellent
expansion capabilities and can maintain the pace with increased airport usage. With this concept,
aircraft can be parked remotely from the terminal buildings thus increasing the amount of aircraft
enplaning and deplaning passengers. Airplane taxiing time to and from the runway is decreased
as well as the amount of aircraft engine noise around the terminal.