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SECTION 2
STEAM CONDENSING
SYSTEMS AND AUXILIARIES
Surface-Condenser Circulating-Water
Pressure Loss 2.20
Surface-Condenser Weight Analysis
2.22
2.12
Calculation Procedure:
River flow
River flow
POWER GENERATION
Recirculating systems use small amounts of water from the river or sea, once
the system has been charged with water. Condenser circulating water is reused in
this system after passing through one or more cooling towers. Thus, the only water
taken from the river or sea is that needed for makeup of evaporation and splash
losses in the cooling tower. The only water discharged to the river or sea is the
cooling-tower blowdown. Advantages of the recirculating-water system include: (a)
low water usage from the river or sea; (b) little or no thermal pollution of the
supply water source because the cooling-tower blowdown is minimal; (c) remote
chance of the need for service reductions during drought seasons. Disadvantages
of recirculating systems include: (a) possible higher cost of the cooling tower(s)
compared to the discharge piping in the once-through system; (b) greater operating
2.3
complexity of the cooling tower(s), their fans, motors, pumps, etc.; (c) increased
maintenance requirements of the cooling towers and their auxiliaries.
The nal choice of the type of cooling system to use is based on an economic
study which factors in the reliability of the system along with its cost. For the
purposes of this procedure, we will assume that a once-through system with an
intake length of 4500 ft (1372 m) and a discharge length of 4800 ft (1463 m) is
chosen. The supply water level (a river in this case) can vary between 5 ft (1.5
m) and 45 ft (13.7 m).
2. Plot the operating-point diagram for the pumping system
The maximum cooling-water ow rate required, based on full-load steam ow
through the turbine-generator, is 314,000 gpm (19,813 L / s). Intermediate ow rates
of 283,000 gpm (17,857 L / s) and 206,000 gpm (12,999 L / s) for partial loads are
also required.
To provide for safe 24-hour, 7-day-per-week operation of a circulating-water
system, plant designers choose a minimum of two water pumps. As further safety
step, a third pump is usually also chosen. That will be done for this plant.
Obtaining the pump characteristic curve from the pump manufacturer, we plot
the operating-point diagram, Fig. 2, for one-pump, two-pump, and three-pump operation against the system characteristic curve for river (weir) levels of 5 ft (1.5
m) and 45 ft (13.7 m). We also plot on the operating-point diagram the seal-well
weir curve.
The operating-point diagram is a valuable tool for both plant designers and
operators because it shows the correct operating range of the circulating-water
pumps. Proper use of the diagram can extend pump reliability and operating life.
3. Construct the energy-gradient curves for the circulating-water system
Using the head and ow data already calculated and assembled, plot the energygradient curve, Fig. 3, for several heads and ow rates. The energy-gradient curve,
like the operating-point diagram, is valuable to both design engineers and plant
operators. Practical experience with a number of actual circulating-water installations shows that early, and excessive, circulating-pump wear can be traced to the
absence of an operating-point diagram and an energy-gradient curve, or to the lack
of use of both these important plots by plant operating personnel.
In the once-through circulating-water system being considered here, the total
conduit (pipe) length is 4500 4800 9300 ft (2835 m), or 1.76 mi (2.9 km).
This conduit length is not unusualsome plants may have double this length of
run. Such lengths, however, are much longer than those met in routine interior plant
design where 100 ft (30.5 m) are the norm for long pipe runs. Because of the
extremely long piping runs that might be met in circulating-water system design,
the engineer must exercise extreme caution during system designchecking and
double-checking all design assumptions and calculations.
4. Analyze the pump operating points
Using the operating-point diagram and the energy-gradient curves, plot the intersection of the system curves for each intake water level vs. the characteristic curves
for the number of pumps operating, Fig. 3. Thus, we see that with one pump
operating, the circulating-water ow is 120,000 gpm (7572 L / s) at 48.2 ft (14.7 m)
total dynamic head.
With a weir level of 5 ft (1.5 m), and two pumps operating, the ow is 206,000
gpm (12,999 L / s) at 79 ft (24.1 m) total dynamic head. When three pumps are
POWER GENERATION
FIGURE 2 Operating-point diagram shows the correct operating range of the circulating-water
pumps. (Power.)
used at the 5-ft (1.5 m) level, the ow is 225,000 gpm (14,198 L / s) at 79 ft (24.1
m) total dynamic head.
Using the sets of curves mentioned here you can easily get a complete picture
of the design and operating challenges faced in this, and similar, plants. The various
aspects of this are discussed under Related Calculations, below.
5. Choose the type of intake structure and trash rack to use
Every intake structure must provide room for the following components: (a) circulating-water or makeup-water pumps; (b) trash racks; (c) trash-removal
screenseither xed or traveling; (c) crane for handling pump removal or installation; (d) screen wash pump; (e) access ladders and platforms.
2.5
FIGURE 3 Energy-gradient diagram shows the actual system pressure values and is valuable in
system design and operation. (Power.)
POWER GENERATION
FIGURE 4 Intake structure has trash rack, traveling screen, pumps, and crane for dependable
operation of the circulating-water system. (Power.)
loads. Log booms, skimmer walls, channel modications, and specialized raking
equipment can sometimes alleviate raking problems.
Traveling screens follow the trash racks. These usually are of the vertical owthrough type. European practice uses alternative screens, such as center-ow, dualow, and drum screens. Traveling screens may be one- or two-speed. Most twospeed screens operate in the range of 3 to 12 fpm (0.9 to 3.7 m / min) but speeds
as high as 30 fpm (9.1 m / min) have been used. Wear is much greater at higher
speeds.
Depending on the type of piping used in the circulating-water systemconcrete
or steelsome form of cathodic protection may be needed, in addition to the trash
racks and rakes. Cathodic protection is needed primarily when steel pipe is used
for the circulating water system. Concrete pipe does not, in general, require such
protection. Since the piping in once-through systems can be 10 to 12 ft ( 3 to 3.7
m) in diameter, use of the cathodic protection is an important step in protecting an
expensive investment. Cathodic protection methods are discussed elsewhere in this
handbook.
Related Calculations. Designing a condenser circulating-water system can be
a complex task when the water supply is undependable. With a xed-level supply,
the design procedure is simpler. The above procedure covers the main steps in such
designs. Head loss, pipe size, and other considerations are covered in detail in
separate procedures given elsewhere in this handbook.
2.7
POWER GENERATION
Power Supply
Protected
structure
(cathode)
Auxiliary
anode
(a)
Sacrificial
anode
Protected
structure
(b)
FIGURE 5 a. Impressed-current cathodic protection system uses external source to provide protective current. Fig. 5b. Sacricial-anode cathodic
protection uses piece of metal more electronegative than the structure for
protection. (Power.)
erage, 5 percent of the surface will be exposed through coating faults. Hence, the
required protective current will be 0.05(200) 10 amp. Clearly, gross miscalculations are possible if the effectiveness of the coating is incorrectly estimated. The
value of 0.2 amp / ft2 (2.15 amp / m2) is taken from the table mentioned above.
Another problem in estimating protective-current requirements occurs when condensers are tubed with noble alloy tubing such as stainless steel or titanium. In this
case, a signicant length of tubing (up to 20 ft6.1 m) may be involved in the
galvanic action, depending on the water salinity, temperature, and the tube material.
This length dictates the anode / cathode area ratio and, thus, the rate of galvanic
corrosion. Protective-current needs for this type of condenser can be unusually high.
Design
current density
Condenser materials
Waterbox
Carbon steel
Tubesheet
Average
water salinity
ppm
amp / ft2
amp / m2
90-10 Cu Ni
0.05
0.54
1000
AL-6X stainless
steel
Titanium
0.1
1.08
35,000
0.07
0.75
35,000
0.06
0.06
0.2
0.65
0.65
2.2
1000
1000
30,000
Tubes
Cast iron
Aluminum
bronze
Muntz
Epoxy-coated
carbon steel
Carbon steel
Carbon steel
Carbon steel
Epoxy-coated
copper-nickel
Muntz
Aluminum brass
Muntz
90-10 Cu Ni
Muntz
Aluminum brass
*Power
TABLE 2 Current Output that can be Expected from Typical Sacricial Anodes Materials*
Magnesium
Zinc
Aluminum
Current range
seawater, amp
Current range
fresh water, amp
1.42.3
0.50.8
0.50.8
0.0140.023
0.0050.008
0.0050.008
*Power
POWER GENERATION
2.11
POWER GENERATION
by John Reason and reported in Power magazine, using the report mentioned earlier.
SI values were added by the handbook editor.
FIGURE 8 Temperatures
condenser performance.
governing
2.13
690 Btu / (ft2 F) [14,104.8 kJ / (m2 C)] LMTD (log mean temperature difference).
Also read from Fig. 9 the temperature correction factor for an inlet-water temperature of 80F (26.7C) by entering at the bottom at 80F (26.7C) and projecting
vertically upward to the temperature-correction curve. From the intersection with
this curve, project to the right to read the correction as 1.04. Correct U for temperature and cleanliness by multiplying the value obtained from the chart by the
POWER GENERATION
2.15
0.95. Now the value of U already computed must be corrected, and all dependent
quantities recalculated.
8. Recalculate the condenser proportions
First, correct U for loading. Or, U 585(0.95) 555. Then x 0.812(555 / 500)
0.90; e x 2.71830.90 2.46; t2 101.1 (101.1 85 / 2.46) 94.6F (34.8C).
Check t ts t2 101.1 94.6 6.5F (3.6C), which is greater than 5F
(2.8C). The cooling-water ow rate, gal / min 950(25,000) / [500(94.6 85)]
4950 gal / min (312.3 L / s). Then A 0.812(4950) 4020 ft2 (373.5 m2), and
loading 25,000 / 4020 6.23 lb / ft2 (30.4 kg / m2).
Check the correction factor for this loading in Fig. 9. The correction factor is
0.94, compared with 0.95 for the rst calculation. Since the value of U would be
changed only about 1 percent by using the lower factor, the calculations need not
be revised further. Where U would change by a larger amountsay 5 percent or
moreit would be necessary to repeat the procedure just detailed, applying the
new correction factor.
Note that the 5F (2.8C) increase in cooling-water temperature (from 80 to 85F
or 26.7 to 29.4C) requires an additional 1020 ft2 (94.8 m2) of condenser surface
and 125 gal / min (7.9 L / s) of cooling-water ow to maintain the same back pressure. These increments will vary, depending on the temperature level at which the
increase occurs. The effect of reduced steam ow on the steam pressure in the
condenser shell will not be computed because the recalculation above is the last
step in part (b) of this procedure.
(c) Reduced steam ow to condenser.
9. Determine the condenser loading
From procedure (a) above, the cooling-water ow 3700 gal / min (233.4 L / s);
condenser surface A 3000 ft2 (278.7 m2). Then, with a 15,000-lb / h (1.9-kg / s)
steam ow, loading S / A 15,000 / 3000 5 lb / ft2 (24.4 kg / m2).
10. Compute the heat-transfer coefcient
Correct the previous heat-transfer rate U 690 Btu / (ft2 h F) [3.9 kJ / (m2 C
s)] LMTD for temperature, cleanliness, and loading. Or, U 690(1.04)(0.80)(0.89)
511 Btu / (ft2 h F) [2.9 kJ / (m2 C s)] LMTD, given the correction factors from
Fig. 9.
11. Compute the nal steam temperature
As before, x (kL / V )(U / 500 ) (0.377)(14 / 6.5)(511 / 500) 0.830. Then t
t2 t1 950S / (500gpm) 950(15,000) / [500(3700)] 7.7F (4.3C). With t1
80F (26.7C), t2 t t1 7.7 80 87.7F (30.9C). Since t2 ts t1) / e
x
, e x ts t1 / (ts t2), or 2.71830.830 ts 80 / (ts 87.7). Solve for ts; or, ts
201.1 80 / 1.294 93.6F (34.2C).
At a saturation temperature of 93.6F (34.2C), the steam table (saturation temperature) shows that the steam pressure in the condenser shell is 1.59 inHg (5.4
kPa).
Check the t terminal temperature difference. Or, t ts t2 93.6 87.7
5.9F (3.3C). Since the terminal temperature difference is greater than 5F
(2.8C), the calculated performance can be realized.
Related Calculations. The procedures and data given here can be used to compute the required cooling-water ow, cooling-water temperature rise, quantity of
steam condensed by a given cooling-water ow rate and temperature rise, required
POWER GENERATION
condenser surface area, tube length per pass, water velocity, steam temperature in
condenser, cleanliness factor, and heat-transfer rate. Whereas Fig. 9 is suitable for
all usual condenser calculations for the ranges given, check the Heat Exchange
Institute for any new curves that might have been made available before you make
the nal selection of very large condensers (more than 100,000 lb / h or 12.6 kg / s
of steam ow).
Note: The design water temperature used for condensers is either the average
summer water temperature or the average annual water temperature, depending on
which is higher. The design steam load is the maximum steam ow expected at the
full-load rating of the turbine or engine. Usual shell-and-tube condensers have tubes
that vary in length from about 8 ft (2.4 m) in the smallest sizes to about 40 ft (12.2
m) or more in the largest sizes. Each square foot of tube surface will condense 7
to 20 lb / h (0.88 to 2.5 g / s) of steam with a cooling-water circulating rate of 0.1
to 0.25 gal / (lb min) [0.014 to 0.035 L / (kg s)] of steam condensed. The method
presented here is the work of Glenn C. Boyer.
2.17
Related Calculations. The partial vapor pressure in step 2 was found at 84F
(29C) under Table 1, Saturation: Temperatures of Thermodynamic Properties of
Water Including Vapor, Liquid, and Solid Phases, 1969, Keenan, et al., John Wiley
& Sons, Inc. Use the later versions of such tables whenever available, as necessary.
The gas constant for water vapor in step 3 was obtained from Principals of Engineering Thermodynamics, 2d edition, by Kiefer, et al., John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
STEAM-CONDENSER SELECTION
Select a condenser for a steam turbine exhausting 150,000 lb / h (18.9 kg / s) of steam
at 2 inHg absolute (6.8 kPa) with a cooling-water inlet temperature of 75F
(23.9C). Assume a 0.85 condition factor, 78-in (2.2-cm) no. 18 BWG tubes, and
an 8-ft / s (2.4-m / s) water velocity. The water supply is restricted. Obtain condenser
constants from the Heat Exchange Institute, Steam Surface Condenser Standards.
Calculation Procedure:
POWER GENERATION
Were ts t2 less than 5F (2.8C), another ratio value would be assumed and
the difference computed again. You would continue doing this until a value of
ts t2 greater than 5F (2.8C) were obtained. Then LMTD (t2 t1) / ln[(ts
t1) / (ts t2)]; LMTD 15.68 / ln (26.1 / 10.46) 17.18F (9.5C).
3. Determine the heat-transfer coefcient
From the Heat Exchange Institute or manufacturers data U is 740 Btu / (ft2 h F)
[4.2 kJ / (m2 C s)] LMTD for a water velocity of 8 ft / s (2.4 m / s). If these data
are not available, Fig. 9 can be used with complete safety for all preliminary selections.
Now U must be corrected for the inlet-water temperature, 75F (23.9C), and
the condition factor, 0.85, which is a term used in place of the correction factor by
some authorities. From Fig. 9, the correction for 75F (23.9C) inlet water 1.04.
Then actual U 740(1.04)(0.85) 655 Btu / (ft2 h F) [3.7 kJ / (m2 C s)] LMTD.
4. Compute the steam condensation rate
The heat-transfer rate per square foot of condenser surface with a 17.18F (9.5C)
LMTD is U(LMTD) 655(17.18) 11,252.9 Btu / (ft2 h) [35.5 kJ / (m2 s)].
Condensers serving steam turbines are assumed, for design purposes, to remove
950 Btu / lb (2209.7 kJ / kg) of steam condensed. Therefore, the steam condensation
rate for any condenser is [Btu / (ft2 h)] / 950, or 1252.9 / 950 11.25 lb / (ft2 h) [15.3
g / (m2 s)].
5. Compute the required surface area and water ow
The required surface area steam ow (lb / h) / [condensation rate, lb / (ft2 h)], or
with a 150,000-lb / h (18.9-kg / s) ow, 150,000 / 11.25 13,320 ft2 (1237.4 m2).
The water ow rate, gal / min 950S / [500(t2 t1)] 950(150,000) /
[500(15.68)] 18,200 gal / min (1148.1 L / s).
Related Calculations. See the previous calculation procedure for steps in determining the water-pressure loss through a surface condenser.
To choose a surface condenser for a steam engine, use the same procedures as
given above, except that the heat removed from the exhaust steam is 1000 Btu / lb
(2326.9 kJ / kg). Use a condition (cleanliness) factor of 0.65 for steam engines because the oil in the exhaust steam fouls the condenser tubes, reducing the rate of
heat transfer. The condition (cleanliness) factor for steam turbines is usually assumed to be 0.8 to 0.9 for relatively clean, oil-free cooling water.
At loads greater than 50 percent of the design load, ts t1 follows a straightline relationship. Thus, in the above condenser, ts t1 26.14F (14.5C) at the
full load of 150,000 lb / h (18.9 kg / s). If the load falls to 60 percent (90,000 lb / h
or 11.3 kg / s), then ts t1 26.14(0.60) 15.7F (8.7C). At 120 percent load
(180,00 lb / h or 22.7 kg / s), ts t1 26.14(1.20) 31.4F (17.4C). This straightline law is valid with constant inlet-water temperature and cooling-water ow rate.
It is useful in analyzing condenser operating conditions at other than full load.
Single- or multiple-pass surface condensers may be used in power services.
When a liberal supply of water is available, the single-pass condenser is often
chosen. With a limited water supply, a two-pass condenser is often chosen.
2.19
stages to use, the approximate steam consumption and the quantity of air and vapor
mixture the ejector will handle.
Calculation Procedure:
POWER GENERATION
SURFACE-CONDENSER CIRCULATING-WATER
PRESSURE LOSS
Determine the circulating-water pressure loss in a two-pass condenser having
12,000 ft2 (1114.8 m2) of condensing surface, a circulating-water ow rate of 10,000
gal / min (630.8 L / s), 34-in (1.9-cm) no. 16 BWG tubes, a water ow rate of 7 ft /
s (2.1 m / s), external friction of 20 ft of water (59.8 kPa), and a 10-ft-of-water
(29.9-kPa) siphonic effect on the circulating-water discharge.
2.21
Calculation Procedure:
POWER GENERATION
With an actual velocity of 7 ft / s (2.1 m / s), the water ow rate per tube is 7(0.94)
2.23
Calculation Procedure:
POWER GENERATION
steam is 0.5067 psia (3.39 kPa), from the steam tables. In the condensing condition,
there are 0.622 lb (0.28 kg) of water per pound (kg) of dry air. Since the water
content of the air is a function of the partial pressures, (0.622) (0.5067) / [(2
0.5067)] 0.673 lb of water per lb of dry air (0.305 kg).
3. Compute the percent of air by weight
Use the relation, percent of air by weight (100)(1) / (1 0.672) (100)(1) / (1
0.672) 59.8 percent by weight of air.
Related Calculations. Use this general procedure for analyzing the air in surface condensers serving steam turbines of all types.
Calculation Procedure:
2.25
[ ft 3 / min (m3 / s) at 70F or 21.1C air and vapor mixture, 712 below vacuum temperature or
4.2 for Celsius]
allowance for air in the 50F (10.0C) cooling water is 3.3 ft3 / min (0.09 m3 / min)
of air at 70F (21.1C) per 1000 gal / min (63.1 L / s) of cooling water, Fig 12. The
total dry-air leakage is the sum, or 3.0 3.3 6.3 ft3 / min (0.18 m3 / min). Thus,
the ejector must be capable of handling at least 6.3 ft3 / min (0.18 m3 / min) of dry
air to serve this barometric condenser at its rated load of 25,000 lb / h (3.1 kg / s) of
steam.
Where the condenser will operate at a lower vacuum (i.e., a higher absolute
pressure), overloads up to 50 percent may be met. To provide adequate dry-air
handling capacity at this overload with the same cooling-water inlet temperature,
nd the free, dry-air leakage at the higher condensing rate from Table 6 and add
POWER GENERATION
this to the previously found allowance for air in the cooling water. Or, 4.5
3.3 7.8 ft3 / min (0.22 m3 / min). An ejector capable of handling up to 10 ft3 / min
(0.32 m3 / min) would be a wise choice for this countercurrent barometric condenser.
4. Determine the pump head required
Since a countercurrent barometric condenser operates at pressures below atmospheric, it assists the cooling-water pump by sucking the water into the condenser.
The maximum assist that can be assumed is 0.75V, where V design vacuum,
inHg.
In this condenser with a 26-in (88.0-kPa) vacuum, the maximum assist is
0.75(26) 19.5 inHg (66.0 kPa). Converting to feet of water, using 1.0 inHg
1.134 ft (3.4 kPa) of water, we nd 19.5(1.134) 22.1 ft (66.1 kPa) of water. The
total head on the pump is then the sum of the static and friction heads less 0.75V,
expressed in feet of water. Or, the total head on the pump 40 15 22.1
32.9 ft (98.4 kPa). A pump with a total head of at least 35 ft (104.6 kPa) of water
would be chosen for this condenser. Where corrosion or partial clogging of the
piping is expected, a pump with a total head of 50 ft (149.4 kPa) would probably
be chosen to ensure sufcient head even though the piping is partially clogged.
Related Calculations. (1) When a condenser serving a steam engine is being
chosen, use the appropriate dry-air leakage value from Table 6. (2) For ejector-jet
barometric condensers, assume the nal condensate temperature tc as 10 to 20F
(5.6 to 11.1C) below the saturation temperature corresponding to the absolute pressure in the condenser. This type of condenser does not use an ejector, but it requires
25 to 50 percent more cooling water than the countercurrent barometric condenser
for the same vacuum. (3) The total pump head for an ejector-jet barometric condenser is the sum of the static and friction heads plus 10 ft (29.9 kPa). The additional positive head is required to overcome the pressure loss in spray nozzles.
2.27
POWER GENERATION
cold well for the pump suction and suitable valving for control of the incoming
water must be provided, as shown in Fig 13. The water depth in the pond should
be 2 to 3 ft (0.6 to 0.9 m).
4. Compute the total pumping head
The total head, ft of water static head friction head required nozzle head
10 35 80(0.434) 48.5 ft (145.0 kPa) of water. A pump having a total
head of at least 50 ft (15.2 m) of water would be chosen for this spray pond. If
future expansion of the pond is anticipated, compute the probable total head required at a future date, and choose a pump to deliver that head. Until the pond is
expanded, the pump would operate with a throttled discharge. Normal nozzle inlet
pressures range from about 6 to 10 lb / in2 (41.4 to 69.0 kPa). Higher pressures
should not be used, because there will be excessive spray loss and rapid wear of
the nozzles.
Related Calculations. Unsprayed cooling ponds cool 4 to 6 lb (1.8 to 2.7 kg)
of water from 100 to 70F / ft2 (598.0 to 418.6C / m2) of water surface. An alternative design rule is to assume that the pond will dissipate 3.5 Btu / ft2 h) (11.0
W / m2) water surface per degree difference between the wet-bulb temperature of
the air and the entering warm water.