Phys 151L

Newton
Physics 151Lg/161L
Fundamentals of Physics I:
Mechanics and Thermodynamics
Laboratory Manual
Fall 2011
Department of Physics and Astronomy

University of Southern California
Los Angeles CA 90089-0484
ii
Acknowledgments
The current edition of this laboratory manual was written by Dr. Gkhan Esirgen. The following
people contributed to past editions: Professor Richard Thompson, Professor Steve Trullinger,
Professor Robert Cole (emeritus), Karla Souza-Dias, and Professor Chris Gould.
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Contents
Introduction
Physics 151Lg/161L laboratory rules and policies
Experiment 1
Measurements and experimental errors
Experiment 2
Presentation and analysis of data by means of graphs
Experiment 3
Free fall
Experiment 4
Atwoods machine
Experiment 5
Collisions in one dimension
Experiment 6
Collisions in two dimensions
Experiment 7
Moment of inertia of a rigid body
Experiment 8
Forces and torques in static equilibrium I: cantilever
Experiment 9
Simple harmonic motion
Experiment 10
Fluid flow
Experiment 11
Thermal conduction and radiation: case study and Leslies cube
Experiment 12
Ideal gas and the absolute zero of temperature
Experiment 13
Heat engine
Appendix A
DataStudio starter manual
Appendix B
Error analysis
Appendix C
Sample graph paper
Appendix D
Green sheets for laboratory-report summary
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Laboratory policy for 151Lg/161L

Laboratory purpose
The purpose of the laboratory is to train the students for hands-on skills, which is not within the scope
of the lecture. Therefore, students should not expect any close correlation between the lecture and the
laboratory.
Laboratory groups
You are expected to work in groups of two. Groups of three are only allowed if there are an odd number
of students or there is insufficient equipment.
Laboratory items
The laboratory manual is only available online on Blackboard (https://blackboard.usc.edu/). You dont
need to print the manual. You need to buy a laboratory notebook from the bookstore (National
Notebook 43-645 or equivalent), or you could use your old laboratory notebook if there are unused
pages. You should bring a calculator with standard deviation and linear regression functions with you to
the laboratory. Sometimes a ruler is also needed. All answers are to be recorded in the laboratory
notebook and sometimes printouts are to be attached. Your TA will return your work upon grading.
You should fully read the laboratory manual before you come to the laboratory. This will help you
substantially during the experiment.
Grading
There are three items: quiz, performance, and write-up.
Quiz: You must take the Blackboard quiz before your laboratory in order to get credit. The quiz is graded
NO CREDIT, SUBSTANDARD, or PASS.
Performance: This indicates your performance in the laboratory, based on successful completion of
each step, care and attention spent with the apparatus, accuracy of the data, and individual
participation in the experiment. It will be graded NO CREDIT, SUBSTANDARD, PASS, or EXCELLENT. The
expected grade is Pass. A small number of students in a section (not more than a few) may get the
Excellent grade if their performance clearly surpasses the other students. A small number of students
(not more than a few) in a section may get the Substandard grade if their performance is clearly not as
high as the other students. Note that it is quite common to get different grades for the two laboratory
partners.
Write-up: Your write-up consists of a stapled set of the following three items and should be turned in
before you leave the room:
1. The experiments green sheet from the back of your laboratory manual, with answers derived
from your measurements (the green sheet will be provided at equipment checkout);
2. The copies (carbon or carbonless) of your laboratory-notebook pages, showing your record of
measurements and calculations during the lab period that support the conclusions on the green
sheet; and
3. On the back of the green sheet, you must include a paragraph (or two) of your evaluation of the
lab, including a brief description of what you did and possible constructive criticisms. The more
specific your comments are the better.
Your write-up will be graded NO CREDIT, SUBSTANDARD, PASS, or EXCELLENT. The same grading criteria as for
the performance are used, with most students getting a Pass.
The TAs are required to enter the grades within 24 hours of the laboratory. Please check your grades
every week and contact the laboratory director immediately if there is any problem.
The weighting of the individual laboratory components will be determined by your lecture instructor.
Note that in general it is the relative achievement in the laboratory that counts, not the absolute grade.
The overall weight of the laboratory in the course is 20%.
Passing the laboratory
An experiment that you miss will result in a zero, unless it is made up (see the makeup policy below). If
you miss several experiments and fall well below the class average, you will fail the laboratory. You
should also try to complete every quiz since they constitute a substantial portion of the laboratory
grade. The quizzes you miss will also hurt your laboratory grade badly as a result. And if you fail the
laboratory, you will fail the entire course.
Makeup laboratory
At the end of the semester, there will be a makeup week. You can make up one laboratory, with no
questions asked, in your regular section during the makeup week. In order to make up more than one
laboratory, you need to get permission from the laboratory director.
Note that quizzes cannot be made up. Therefore, even if you may miss the laboratory, you must take the
online quiz.
Going to other laboratory sections
This is strictly not allowed and you will get no credit for your work, even if you complete the experiment.
If you think you really must go to another laboratory section, you need to obtain permission from the
laboratory director in advance.
Carrying over the laboratory grade
If a student completes all lecture work through the tenth week of classes and gets a minimum
laboratory grade of one standard deviation below the average, he/she could be allowed to carry over
the laboratory grade for up to one year, provided that he/she gets approval from the laboratory director
after filling out the pink laboratory-carryover-request form.
Incomplete
In rare instances if a student receives an incomplete for the lecture and there is incomplete laboratory
work, the student needs to contact the laboratory director. No laboratory work could be completed and
given credit without the prior approval of the laboratory director.
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Registering for full laboratory sections*

Due to space and equipment considerations, USC Department of Physics and Astronomy cannot
overload the laboratory sections.
Students may try to get into a full laboratory section in two ways:
1. Check the USC Web site for possible openings in full laboratory sections on a regular
basis both before and after the sections first meeting. If a space in a laboratory opens up,
no paperwork is neededonline-register for it.
2. Before a section meets for the first time, sign up for the official waiting list:
Official waiting lists are available in KAP-B16 starting at 8 AM during the first week of the
semester on the day the desired laboratory section meets.
Example: If you are trying to get into a Wednesday 5 PM 135AL laboratory section, you will be
able to sign onto the waiting list for that section starting Wednesday morning at 8 AM during the
first week of the semester.
Official waiting lists apply to the first meeting of a laboratory section only. Students must sign
onto the official waiting list in KAP-B16 before the laboratory section in question meets for the
first time. After a laboratory section begins its first session, all waiting lists for that section are
no longer valid.
No other waiting list (e.g., talking to a TA, any other list besides the official waiting list in KAPB16, etc.) is valid.
Signing up for the official waiting list does not guarantee a space in that section. On average
between zero and two students on the waiting list get in.
Students on the official waiting list must attend the first session of the laboratory section in
question. Failure to attend this first meeting results in removal from the list.
If someone who is registered for any full laboratory section does not arrive within the first fifteen
minutes or so of the beginning of the sections first meeting, then those who are on the official
waiting list and are in attendance at that time will be allowed to take their place (in officialwaiting-list sequential order). It is then the responsibility of the students who are removed from
the class to drop their laboratory section through the registration process.
Note that this is a university policy; see the current Schedule of Classes under Guaranteeing a
Space in a Class.
All laboratories will have their first meeting during the first week of the semester.
*Physics and Astronomy majors only may be exceptions to these policies. Contact the laboratory
director if you are a Physics or Astronomy major.
EXPERIMENT I
MEASUREMENTS AND EXPERIMENTAL ERRORS
1.0 Objective
To learn to deal with measurement uncertainty, to measure it, to find its effect on subsequent
calculations, and to correctly report confidence intervals in experimental results. To illustrate these
general principles, in this experiment we will measure the mass density of objects, and calculate
the uncertainty in their determinations.
2.0 Background
Measurements are how we quantify our experience of the world about us and they are the
distinguishing mark of science. Lord Kelvin, a nineteenth century Scottish scientist said,
When you can measure what you are speaking about and express it in
numbers, you know something about it; but when you cannot express it in
numbers, your knowledge is of a meager and unsatisfactory kind. It may be
the beginning of knowledge, but you have scarcely in your thoughts
advanced to the stage of science.
We must learn how to make meaningful measurements and how to evaluate experimental results.
You as the experimenter must learn to identify sources of uncertainty or error and evaluate the
precision of the final answer - a quantity that is as important as the final experimental result itself.
Can any measurement be exact? Not in the strictest meaning of this word. The definition of a
quantity may be exact, such as one inch equals 2.54 cm or one foot equals 12 inches, but
measurements will always have some associated uncertainty. As an example, let us determine the
width of this page. We do this by comparing the width to a standard - a ruler. We could set the scale
zero at one edge and read the corresponding width. But how closely can we set the zero to one
edge? How well can we read the ruler's scale? How accurate is the ruler? All measured quantities
will have some uncertainty.
2.1 Specifying Uncertainty

For any experimental measurement there is a correct answer. Unfortunately, not being omniscient,
we do not know what that answer is. Error estimates are bounds that we place on our results to
indicate a band of values in which we have a high degree of confidence that it contains the correct
answer.
1
I - MEASUREMENTS AND EXPERIMENTAL ERRORS
For example, we measure the length of a board to be 56.2 0.3 cm. This means that we have
determined the length to be between 55.9 cm and 56.5 cm. We know the length of the board to 3
significant figures with an uncertainty of 0.3 cm (in the significant figure). We can also quote the
relative uncertainty as a percent error: 56.2 0.5%. Here the 0.5% is the relative uncertainty or
relative error. The uncertainties are usually called experimental error or error.
Suppose we measure the mass of an object to be 34,700 300 grams. The two zeros following the
7 have no meaning other than where the decimal point is placed. We know the mass to only 3
significant figures so we should express our results in a notation that exhibits only these digits such
as scientific notation in which we write (3.47 0.03) 104 gm. This clearly indicates that we know
the mass to 3 significant figures with an error of 3 in the third figure.
2.2 Significant Figures

The term significant figures refers to the number of digits in a numerical answer for which the
experimenter has some confidence that they are correct. It is a crude but effective indicator of
confidence intervals. In doing calculations, only the significant figures should be retained in the
final result. The significant figures are those numbers that are reasonably well-known with the least
significant number having some uncertainty associated with it. In the previous example of the
measurement of the length of a board, the 2 is the least significant figure with an uncertainty of 3.
The position of the decimal point does not affect the number of significant figures. If a zero
represents a number read by an instrument, then it is a significant figure. Consider the following
example: Suppose a distance is measured using a ruler and is found to be 52.3 mm (millimeters)
where the 3 is estimated; then all three figures are significant. If, similarly, the last figure was zero,
then the distance 52.0 mm and not 52 mm should be recorded since here the zero would be a
significant figure.
In computations, a useful but rough rule exists for retaining significant figures in multiplication and
division: the result should have as many significant figures as the least accurate of the factors.
For example, if 7.62 cm and 3.81 cm are to be multiplied, the result would be 29.0322 cm2. The
product has six figures; however, not all of them are significant because each multiplication factor
only has three. Therefore, only three significant figures should be retained or the number should
be written as 29.0 cm2. In some borderline cases, one more significant figure than the least accurate
may be retained. For example, in multiplication, 9.8 1.28 = 12.544 may be written as 12.5, since
9.8 is close to 10.0, which would have 3 significant figures.
In addition and subtraction, carry the operation at least one figure beyond the first column that has
a doubtful figure. For example, if we add 806.5, 16.01, and 32.03, we would add 32.03 and 16.01
to 806.5, but since the three in the hundredths column has no counterpart in 806.5, the final answer
is rounded to 854.5.
In rounding off numbers (or dropping figures which are not significant), the last figure retained
should be unchanged if the first figure dropped is less than 5. It should be increased by 1 if the first
figure dropped is greater than 5. If the dropped figure is exactly 5, do not round off, but indicate
that the 5 has no meaning as significant figure.
2.3 Deducing Uncertainty from a Series of Measurements

How can we estimate the precision of a measurement? If only one measurement is made, the
problem of estimating the precision of the measurement is difficult and is often reduced to an
educated guess. For example, experimental uncertainty or error is often determined by one's
ability to read a measuring device, such as a meter stick; consequently, a single measurement of
any parameter has limited meaning.
One solution, and the one which is adopted repeatedly in this course, is to repeat the measurement
many times and assume that the average value of these measurements has greater significance than
any individual measurement. How closely the measurements agree with each other, the
reproducibility of the experiment, can be used as a measurement of experimental uncertainty. If the
spread of measurements is large compared to the average value, we infer that the reproducibility
and precision is poor and vice versa. Thus the width of the distribution of measurements is a
measure of the uncertainty or precision of our results.
In order to meaningfully convey the precision of our measured quantity to other people, we must
explain how it was obtained. This is usually done by standard statistical analysis methods. We
define the following:
1
the mean (average) of a set of n measurements <x> = --n
1
the variance: S = -----------n1
( xi <x> )
xi
i
the standard deviation: =
The standard deviation is a measure of the width of our distribution and consequently a measure
of the precision or experimental error. On your calculator this quantity may be called n-1.
Disregard the quantity called n.
When you want to report the level of uncertainty in a measurement in this laboratory, use the
standard deviation of the entire set of measurements you have made.
It should be noted that the significance of the statistical terms defined above depends on the
distribution of the measurements. If the distribution is significantly asymmetric, the interpretation
of these quantities should be considered with care. In this laboratory we will ignore the possibility
that our measurement distributions could by asymmetric. Even if they were, the amount of data
collected in any measurement in this laboratory is too small to demonstrate any asymmetry with
any level of statistical significance.
As an example of the application of these ideas, consider the ideal situation where a very large
number of measurements have been made resulting in a symmetric distribution about the mean. If
another measurement is made, the probability is about 68% that it will be within the range of
of the mean value and the probability is about 95% that it will be within 2 of the mean.
A number of inexpensive scientific calculators have these statistical functions included and the
determination of the mean and the standard deviation is quite simple. Without such a program, the
calculation of the standard deviation using the formula becomes tedious. A rough estimate of can
be obtained by examination of the distribution and quoting a value for so that about 68% of the
measurements fall within of the average value.
As an example, let us consider the following
measurements of the focal length of a lens
shown in table I-1. The data was collected on
a single lens by repeating a single
measurement procedure ten times. From the
data there we reach the following conclusion
regarding the lens's focal length:
Mean focal length = 150.6 mm
(best estimate) = 3.1 mm
Reported f = 151 3 mm
Note that only two of the 10 measurements
fall outside the range of f .
Table I-1: Measuring the Focal Length of a Lens
Measurement
i
Focal Length
fi (mm)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
148
151
156
149
148
150
154
146
153
151
2.4 What if All of the

Measurements are the Same?
One exceptional case (which happens, unfortunately, too frequently in introductory laboratory
courses) occurs when a series of measurements gives exactly the same answer. This does not mean
that the uncertainty in the measured quantity is zero. Instead it implies that the measurement was
done with insufficient precision to detect the actual uncertainty. If the goal of the measurement was
to measure some quantity to as high an accuracy as possible, then the whole job has to be done
better and repeated from scratch.
In the above example consider what the correct response would have been had every measurement
of the focal length been recorded as 151 mm. Certainly it is not correct to say that 151 mm is exact,
because the correct answer might be 151.34 mm. The problem here is that the measurement
technique could not detect an error less than the resolution of the measurement. A poor response
to this situation is to simply report the answer as 151 mm with an uncertainty less than 1 mm. A
better response would be to repeat the measurement, taking care to get greater resolution, so that
you might be able to report your best result as 151.2 0.3 mm.
2.5 Sources of Error

There is no end to the number of ways that experimental measurements can give results which
differ from the correct answer. These sources of error, however, can be grouped into three different
categories, each of which has a distinctly different source, and should call for completely different
responses:
Personal errors,
Systematic errors, and
Random errors.
Personal errors are blunders, such as mistakes in arithmetic, in recording data, or in reading
measurements. These can be minimized by repeating measurements and keeping redundant
records which are subject to cross-checks. When you report a final answer, it is assumed that you
are representing that you have done your best to eliminate all such errors, so that others can trust
your result.
Systematic errors include inherent defects in equipment, neglect of effects such as temperature,
pressure, humidity, etc., and even prejudice on the part of the observer. These errors are
characterized by their tendency to be in only one direction. For example, if a meter stick is slightly
worn at one end and measurements are taken from this end, then a constant error will occur in all
measurements. Unknown systematic errors can be discovered by comparing measurements of the
same physical quantity which are obtained by several methods.
Random errors, finally, are those that are left when all blunders and systematic errors are
eliminated. These are characterized by discrepancies in several measurements of a quantity under
apparently identical conditions. Any measurement will still contain variation due to causes that lie
beyond the control of the observer. This may result from limitations in the measurement device
(use a watch with one second resolution to time an object's fall - nothing will be measured more
accurately than one second), limitations in the measurement technique (use a stopwatch with
millisecond resolution to time an object's fall - your inherent reaction time introduces random
errors greater than the resolution), or from an intrinsic variation in the quantity being measured (the
weight of a random object being produced on an assembly line).
It is usually assumed that the reported magnitude of random errors is due to the combined effect of
a great number of independent causes which can produce a positive or negative effect with equal
probability. Random errors are statistical in nature and therefore can be analyzed by statistical
methods.
You will be expected to do an error analysis for every experiment. The best procedure is to make
many measurements and obtain the mean and the standard deviation as a measure of the error. If
this is not practical, you may estimate your error but you must justify your estimate.
2.6 Propagating Errors Through Calculations: Oversimple Rules

In this section we provide simple rules that are easy to use but which usually produce overestimates
of the true uncertainties. The reason is that these rules are too simple. The defect in them will be
explained in the next section where better rules which account for the defect are given. You will
not use these rules in evaluating uncertainties in this laboratory, but you should be aware that these
rules give correct results in certain cases (explained in the next section). You should also study how
badly (or not) these oversimple rules estimate uncertainties.
2.6.1 Addition and Subtraction
When numbers are added or subtracted, the absolute errors add. This simple rule is a worst case
estimate, which is correct only in the special case that all of the quantities going into the calculation
are in error in the same direction. Nonetheless, it is a useful estimate of how bad the answer is.
Examples:
56.2 0.3 m
20.0 0.1 m
9.70 0.07 m
85.90 0.47 m
56.2 0.3 kg
25.2 0.2 kg
31.0 0.5 kg
Usually, our answer to the addition will be reported as 85.9 0.5 m because the uncertainty in the
fourth significant digit is overwhelmed by that in the third.
2.6.2 Multiplication and Division
The relative error of the product or quotient is the sum of the relative errors of the individual
numbers. Again, this simple rule is a worst case estimate, which is correct only in the special case
that all of the quantities going into the calculation are in error in the same direction. Nonetheless,
it also is a useful estimate of how bad the answer is.
Examples: ( 15.30 0.03 ) ( 41.5 0.2 )

= ( 15.30 0.2% ) ( 41.5 0.5% )
= 634.95 0.7%
= 635 4
( 77.5 0.2 ) ( 82.6 0.3 )

= ( 77.5 0.3% ) ( 82.6 0.4% )
= 0.938 0.7%
= 0.938 .007
2.6.3 Powers
When a number is raised to the power n, it is multiplied by itself n times. The resultant relative
error is n times the relative error of the number.
Examples:
= 3
( 17.4 0.5 )
= ( 17.4 3% )
/2
36.0 1.4
= 5.27 10 9%
= ( 5.3 0.5 ) 10
= ( 36.0 4% )
= 6.0 2%
= 6.0 0.1
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2.7 Propagating Errors Through Calculations Correctly: Better Rules

The oversimple rules above usually produce overestimates of the size of our error. In this section
we present better rules that are usually better estimates of how good our results are, at the cost of
slightly more calculation.
The reason that the oversimple rules overestimate the most likely error in a calculation is that
they assume that all of the errors involved are perfectly positively correlated. However, it is more
usually the case that the errors in the components of a calculation are uncorrelated. While we will
not do so, it can be shown that in this case the square of the resultant error is generated by the sum
of squares of the input errors. We now review the application of this result to the elementary
processes.
2.7.1 Addition and Subtraction
The square of the error after addition or subtraction is the sum of the squares of the input errors.
Mathematically, we write
if S =
Xi
i
(probable error) = ( S ) =
( X i )
(I-1)
Consider the previous example for addition:

X
56.2
20.0
9.70
0.3
0.1
0.07
0.09
0.01
0.0049
85.90
0.47
0.1049
(X)2
Taking the square root of the sum of squared errors ( (0.1049)1/2 = 0.32), we find the final result:
85.9 0.3, instead of 0.5 as was found by the oversimple rule. The subtraction example proceeds
similarly, with the caution that errors always add, even though the quantities may be subtracted.
In this laboratory, you may use either method to obtain estimates of your errors, although the
second method is naturally preferred. The first method should be interpreted as your estimate of
maximum error or uncertainty. The second method gives the best estimate of probable error.
2.7.2 Multiplication and Division
The square of the relative error of the product or quotient is the sum of the squares of the relative
errors of the individual numbers. The term relative error means the ratio of the error to the value
of the quantity to which the error is referred. Relative error and percent error are synonymous,
though percent error is 100 times larger, e.g. a relative error of 0.04 is a 4% percent error.
Mathematically this improved error estimate is written
if P =
Xi
i
P 2
( probable relative error ) = ------- =
P
2
X i 2
------- Xi
(I-2)
In the multiplication/division example given for the oversimple rule, the product is still the same,
634.95, but the probable error is now calculated as
- 2
0.03- 2 --------0.2- 2
-------------- -----------=
+
634.95
15.30
41.5
so = 3.30..., so the best estimate for the correct answer and uncertainty is 635 3, as opposed to
4 that was found earlier.
2.7.3 Powers
When a number is raised to the power n, it is multiplied by itself n times. The resultant relative
error is n times the relative error of the number.
n
if P = X i
X i
P
( probable relative error ) = ------- = n --------
Xi
P
(I-3)
This is the same rule as given in the previous section because for this case it is correct. The reason
is that unlike multiplying numbers with uncorrelated errors, when raising a single number to a
power, it is multiplying itself, which means that the error in one number is precisely correlated with
the other, which is exactly what is required for the oversimple rule to give the best estimate of
probable error.
2.8 A Worked Example: Errors From Multiple Sources

The volume of a cylinder is obtained from measurements of its radius, R, and its length, L:
2
V = R L
The uncertainty of the volume V will now be calculated by two different approaches: direct
applications of the above formulae, and by the direct calculation of the influence of each input
quantity on the final uncertainty.
First, apply the formulae. The volume is given as a product, so that the square of the relative
uncertainty in V is the sum of the squares of the relative uncertainties in the quantities R2 and L.
The length term is easy, (L/L)2, but to find the relative uncertainty in R2 we need the rule about
powers which says that the relative uncertainty in R2 is twice the relative uncertainty in R. Putting
this altogether we find
V-
----- V
R
L
= 2 ------- + -------
R
L
(I-4)
The second approach is to calculate the influence of each input quantity on the final uncertainty,
and then add their squares. You might want to follow this approach if the formula you were using
was too complicated, or if you are lost on a desert island without recourse to the rules given above.
Here we systematically replace each input quantity by its probable error. Starting with the length
in our example,
10
V = R L V + V = R ( L + L ) = V + R L
V L
so ------- = ------V
L
Next replacing the radius we find,
2
V = R L V + V = ( R + R ) L
2
= { R + 2R R + ( R ) }L
2
so
= V + 2R ( R )L + ( R ) L
= V + 2R ( R )L + higher order terms
V
R
------- = 2 ------V
R
Squaring each of the contributions and adding them gives the same result as Eqn. (I-4). Both the
formula and direct techniques can be extended to arbitrarily complicated problems, but you may
find that this latter direct technique then becomes more convenient than a memorized formula set.
3.0 Apparatus
3.1 Bring From Home
Calculator
Manual for your calculator if you're not absolutely certain how to use the statistical
features of your calculator
3.2 Permanent Lab Apparatus
Triple beam balance
3.3 Check-out From Physics Stockroom
Vernier calipers
Ruler (two scales)
Set of objects whose density will be measured:
Rectangular block
Sphere
Ring
Rod with a partially drilled hole
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3.4 Vernier Calipers

Vernier calipers are designed to make precise measurements easier. As the name indicates, there
are two parts to the instrument. Calipers refers to the parallel bars which are brought into contact
with an object, so that the spacing of the calipers is equal to the dimension of the object. Vernier
refers to a short graduated scale running parallel to a long scale which is used for measuring
fractional parts of the shortest unit on the longer scale. Common usage is to mispronounce the
name of the seventeenth century French mathematician for whom it is named as vr n? er. The
central trick in the technique (which is widely used on precision measuring instruments) is that the
ruling of the vernier is fractionally shrunk with respect to the main scale, and this fractional
shrinkage is dependent upon the resolution desired. This is now explained through a specific
example using the same device you will be using.
The instrument is illustrated in
figure I-1. There are two main scales
which are fixed on the central body
of the calipers; we will use only the
lower scale which reads in
millimeters (mm). The vernier is on
the slider, which moves with one
jaw. If you close the jaws, you
should note that the zero of the
vernier lines up with the zero of the
main scale and the 10 of the vernier
lines up with the 39 mm mark of the
main scale. This means that 10
major vernier divisions equal
39 mm.
Figure I-1: Vernier Calipers Used in
Now open the jaws so that the zero

of the vernier lines up exactly with the 30 mm mark on the main scale. The vernier 10 will line up
exactly with the 69 mm mark of the main scale. This indicates that the jaws are open exactly 30 mm.
At this point look at where the 5 mark on the vernier is located with respect to marks on the main
scale. If you have the 0 mark (and 10 mark as well) lined up exactly with marks on the main scale,
then the 5 mark should be precisely half-way between marks above. In fact, every mark on the
vernier other than 0 and 10 will not match any mark on the main scale, with vernier marks to the
left of 5 being closer to marks on their right, while vernier marks to the right of 5 will be closer to
marks on their left.
Slowly move the jaws apart until the 5 mark on the vernier first matches a mark on the upper scale.
As you are moving the jaws keep looking at the earlier marks on the vernier (1-4) and you should
see them successively match some mark on the main scale, that is, first the 1 matches some mark,
then the 2, and so forth. It doesn't matter what the labelling of the main scale mark is - all that
12
matters is that some mark matches the vernier mark. You should notice that when one vernier mark
matches a main scale mark, no other vernier mark will. Repeat this operation of opening the jaws
from the 30.0 position to where the vernier 5 mark matches several times so that you can see how
each of the vernier marks moves relative to a corresponding main scale mark. You should see the
later marks on the vernier (6-9) move from being on the left half of their respective intervals to the
right half as the jaws open.
With the vernier 5 mark matching a main scale mark look at the position of the vernier 0 mark. It
will be precisely half-way between main scale marks corresponding to 30 and 31. If you had no
vernier scale at all, you would eyeball the location of the 0 mark on the upper scale and probably
say that the value was 30.5. Now slightly move the jaws apart until the vernier 7 mark matches a
main scale mark. From the position of the vernier 0 mark you should clearly see it to be right of the
half-way point between 30 and 31, but hard pressed to say on the basis of the 0 mark alone whether
the fraction value is 0.60, 0.70, or 0.80 (or 0.65, or 0.75 for these calipers). With the vernier,
however, you can answer this question definitively as 0.70.
We can now see how the vernier works. If the 7 of the vernier scale is lined up exactly with a mark
of the main scale, the jaws are open 14 of the 20 vernier marks, or 7/10 of 1 mm more than the main
scale mark just to the left of the vernier zero. The vernier allows us to accurately interpolate
between the mm marks of the main scale. Since there are 20 marks on the vernier dividing a single
mm division, we can now read measurement to 1/20 mm = 0.05 mm. This is why the lower vernier
is labelled 0.05 mm. You should now be able to convince yourself why the upper vernier is
labelled 1/128 in.
In practice the number of vernier marks to the right of 0 (in this case 20) usually spans a distance
which is one less than double that number of marks on the main scale (in this case 220-1 = 39)
though the principle of the vernier will work as long as the number of marks spanned on each scale
(in this case 20 and 39) are mutually prime, that is, their least common denominator is 1. The
advantage of fractionally shrinking the vernier by 1, though, is that the matching marks can then
be sensibly labelled in increasing order as you move to the right.1
4.0 Procedure
CAUTION
The digital caliper is a high-precision instrument.
Treat it with extreme care. It should also be kept
very clean and dry. Turn it off after use.
1
If the vernier scale were fractionally stretched the labels would have to increase as you read right to
left. For arbitrary mutually prime numbers the order of labels is seemingly random. The principle is not
quite as simple as it first seems.
13
Before you arrive at the laboratory you should be familiar with the statistical functions of your
calculator. It is expected that everyone will have these functions available. The quiz which the Lab
Instructors will give at the beginning of the laboratory period will probably test your ability to use
these statistical functions.
The end result of this experiment is a set of mass densities, , and the uncertainties in their
determinations. Density is defined as
mass
= ------------------volume
and is measured in gm/cm3 or related units. You will therefore need to measure the mass of an
object (and estimate the uncertainty in this measurement) and its volume.
First spend some time playing with the vernier calipers so that you are confident that you know
how to read them correctly.
In this experiment you will use vernier calipers to measure the dimensions of several different
objects.
For each object in your box repeat the following measurements.
4.1 Weigh the object on a triple beam balance

If your object can roll off of the balance you will need to add some helper to the balance to hold
the object (such as a crumpled piece of paper) and then subtract the mass of the helper. Make sure
the balance is zeroed before you put your object on it. Someone may have used the balance before
you and changed the zero in order to subtract the mass of their helper. You should not do this. This
is a bad practice, but you should check that the person who used the scale before you didn't do it
anyway.
Repeat the measurement of the mass six times in order to estimate the uncertainty in your
measurement. This does not mean to remove and replace the object from the balance pan, looking
to see that it again balances. Instead, leave the object on the balance and unbalance it by changing
the scale settings. Then without looking at the numbers on the scale, try to get the pan in balance
again. The caution not to look at the scale numbers is meant to avoid observer prejudice in setting
the values. Remember, if you always get the same number each time you repeat the measurement,
you haven't recorded the measurement to the level of accuracy you could have.
14
4.2 Measure each dimension that is necessary to calculate the volume.

Depending upon which object you are measuring,
the number of linear dimensions (lengths) that are
needed to specify the volume will be either 1, 3, or
4. Make at least four measurements of each
relevant dimension. Place these measurements in
a table such as table I-2, one table per object. The
number of columns in each table will again be
either 1, 3, or 4 depending upon which object you
are measuring.
Table I-2: Data Table for Ring
Height
h (cm)
Outer
Diameter
D1 (cm)
Inner
Diameter
D2 (cm)
Caution: Do not assume that each object you

have is perfectly regular (the sphere may not be
spherical, etc.). If you are measuring the sphere,
rotate it and measure the diameter once in each of several different directions. Similarly rotate a
cylinder between measurements. If you are measuring a box, don't assume that opposite faces are
parallel (measure their separation once at each of several different locations). Any imperfections
will be small, so you can still use the ideal formulae for the volumes of the perfect objects, as long
as you accurately reflect the uncertainty in the volume arising from errors in the dimensions.
Perform the analysis (next section) for each object immediately after you have completed the
needed measurements. Complete the entire procedure for one object before you begin the
measurements of the next. Find the density (and uncertainty) of as many of the assigned objects as
you can during the laboratory period. You should be able to complete at least two, and possibly as
many as four in the time allowed. Remember, no work may be taken home.
5.0 Analysis
For each dimension in your data table evaluate the mean and standard deviation of the data,
which you should interpret as the most probable value of that quantity and the uncertainty in
its determination.
Similarly calculate the most probable value of the mass and its associated uncertainty.
Using these results, find the density and the uncertainty in its determination. A convenient set
of formulae is included in the Addendum to this experiment.
For extra credit, derive the formulae for the uncertainties given in the Addendum.
15
Addendum
Volumes and Uncertainties
The volume of a right rectangular block with linear dimensions L1, L2, and L3 is
V = L1 L2 L3
(I-5)
The volume of a sphere with diameter D is

3
V = --- D
6
The uncertainty in the determination of its volume, V, is given by
VD
-----= 3 -------V
D
(I-6)
(I-7)
The volume of a ring of height h, outer diameter D1, and inner diameter D2 is
2
2
V = --- h ( D 1 D 2 )
4
(I-8)

V-
----- V
2
D 2 D 2 2
h- 2 2D
1 D 1
------------------------
= + 2
+ 2 -----------------h
D 1 D 22
D 21 D 22
(I-9)
which can also be written

2
2
2
2
2
2
2 2
( V ) = --- ( D 1 D 2 ) ( h ) + --- h { ( 2D1 D1 ) + ( 2D 2 D 2 ) }
4
4
(I-10)
Alternatively, a ring can be characterized by its height, h, outer diameter, D, and thickness of the
ring in the radial direction, t, so that the inner diameter is D - 2t. In this case the volume is
V = ht ( D t )
(I-11)
The uncertainty in the determination of the volume, V, in this formulation is given by

V-
----- V
h 2
D 2t 2 t 2
D 2
= ------- + --------------- ----- + ------------
h
Dt t
D t
(I-12)
Finally, the volume of a cylinder of height H and diameter D out of which has been removed a
cylindrical volume of height h and diameter d is
2
2
V = --- ( HD hd )
4
(I-13)

2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
( V ) = --- { ( D H ) + ( 2HD D ) + ( d h ) + ( 2hd d ) }
4
(I-14)
16
EXPERIMENT II
PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA BY MEANS OF GRAPHS
1.0 Objective
Use a video camera to study and make quantitative measurements of two dimensional motion. To
gain an intuitive feel for the relationship between data, graphs and the real world. To learn to utilize
non-linear graph paper (e.g. log and semi-log) to simplify analysis of non-linear functions.
2.0 Background
Humans are innately accomplished at the visual analysis of information, particularly in comparing
visual information against a benchmark. A graph is a visual presentation of information. Presenting
information in graphical form not only helps to illustrate the characteristics of the system under
study, but also is useful in the analysis of the data itself.
2.1 Graphing
To begin with, a basic understanding of types and usage of graph papers is required. While many
types of graph papers are available for use, three kinds are common in scientific circles; linear, log,
and semi-log. Each type of paper is useful for illustration and analysis of different systems. Table
II-1 shows the functional relationships that are well suited to each of these three types of graph
paper.
Table II-1: Common Graph Paper Types
Type of Graph Paper

Linear
Function
y = mx + b
Log (log-log)
y = mx
Semi-log
y = me
Relationship
Linear
Power Law
bx
Exponential
In order to utilize each of these types of graph paper, you must first know how to use them.
Regardless of the type of graph paper, actually plotting data on paper is similar for all types of
paper. However, to be effective as a qualitative description of the data as well as a quantitative tool,
a graph must conform to accepted rules. In order to display the information clearly, choices must
be made concerning the size of the graph, scale for each axis, appropriate use of symbols and words
and the type of graph (linear, semi-logarithmic, etc.). The rules presented below are followed by
most scientists and engineers.
1
II - PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA BY MEANS OF GRAPHS
2.1.1 Graphing Rules

Before constructing a graph, your data must be organized into a clear and easily readable form. It
is usually desirable to put your data into the form of a table, clearly indicating what was measured,
the units and comments about experimental uncertainties. If some data seems to clearly disagree
with the rest, put a question mark next to it, but do not eliminate it.
Use graph paper or an acceptable substitute.

Data taken in the introductory labs are
often accurate to three significant
figures. The graph should be made as
large as possible in order to retain this
accuracy. Scales for the coordinate axes
should be chosen so that the data extends
over the majority of a full-sized sheet of
paper. Do not make the graph so small
a: Wrong
c: Right
b: Wrong
that it is not useful (as in figure II-1a) or
Figure II-1: Size of Graph
so large that there is not enough room
for a title or labelling of axes (as in
figure II-1b).
It may be necessary to suppress the zero
(cm)
so that the data and the resulting curve
9
will cover most of the graph paper. If
8
the scales do not go to zero at the origin,
7
6
this fact is sometimes emphasized by a
5
break in the axis near the origin as
4
illustrated on the horizontal axis of
3
figure II-2. The decimal parts of units
2
should be easily located. This can be
1
0
done if each small division is made
(s)
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
equal to numbers such as 0.1, 0.2, and
Figure II-2: Graph with displaced origin
0.5.
The scale in general will not be the
same on both axes; however, each axis must be labelled by the quantity and units being plotted
and the division used. The units of the measured quantities are customarily enclosed in
parentheses. For example, if velocity is being measured in m/sec, label your axis v (m/sec).
To avoid misunderstanding when it is necessary to use a factor such as 103, it should be directly
associated with the units as v(103 m/sec) or directly associated with the scale numbers. The
use of a power of 10 in a scale caption for example, v in m/sec x 103 or v x 103 m/sec should
be avoided since it is not clear whether the scale numbers have been, or are to be, multiplied
by 103.
A brief caption is often inserted in a vacant area within the graph to make the graph reasonably
self-explanatory. All symbols used in the graph should be explained in this caption. Make sure
the graph is titled. The caption and this title can be combined together.
In plotting a curve, y as a function of x, the dependent variable y is plotted along the vertical
axis and independent variable x is plotted along the horizontal axis.
Experimental points should be represented by an
appropriate symbol, such as a small dot or circle.
Small here means large enough to be easily visible,
Too
but not so large as to obscure other (possibly nearby)
Too
About
Small
Big
data points. Do not make your points the size of a ball
Right
point pen tip. No one will see them (including you
Figure II-3: Size of data points
yourself in a few days). Experimental errors should
be included by adding appropriate error bars. The error bars show a measure of the accuracy of
each measurement.
The curve should be drawn with a French curve
or straight edge so that there is no visible
discontinuity in value, slope, or curvature. Do
not make bumps in the curve which are not
physically significant or are not justified by the
experimental data. Connecting the dots is
Right
Wrong
wrong. A smooth curve should be drawn in such
Figure II-4: Drawing a curve
a way as to fit the points as closely as possible
within the error bars and, in general, as many
points will be on one side of the curve as on the other. The extent to which the plotted points
coincide with the curve is a measure of the precision of the results.
If the experimental points lie along a straight line, the location of the best fit line can often
easily be found by sighting along the points when the eye is placed almost in the plane of the
paper (eye-ball-fit).
2.1.2 Setting up Log and Semi-log graph paper
Labeling the lines on a sheet of linear graph paper is pretty simple. Each line is labeled with some
proportional scale factor. For example, the x-axis could be marked with 1,2,3,4,5 or 2,4,6,8,10 or
0.05, 0.10, 0.15, 0.20, 0.25, etc. Each line is equidistant from neighboring lines and the label for
the first line can be any number. With logarithmic scaled papers, the lines are not equidistant and
the first line must always be labeled with a factor of 10. How does this work? Look at figure II-5
as an example. Several partial sheets of logarithmic paper are shown with various labeling
schemes. Can you determine the pattern?
1.00
0.90 0.80
0.70
0.60
0.50
1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
90
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
102
92
82
72
62
52
42
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
30
32
12
300
0.40
0.30
200
0.20
20
22
11
100
80
0.10
0.09
0.08
0.07
0.06
0.05
0.04
12
11 10
0.03
10
9 8
7
6
5
4
3
9
8
7
6
5
10
9 8
7
6
5
4
3
20
0.02
10
0.01
70
60
50
40
30
Correct
Correct
Correct
Wrong
Figure II-5: Sample Labeling of Logarithmic Axis
Wrong
Notice that in the three correctly labeled sheets, the first line of each
major division is always a power of 10 (i.e. 101, 10-2, 100
respectively) and halfway up, the second cycle is labeled the next
sequential power of 10 (i.e. 102, 10-1, 101 respectively). In fact, a
general rule for working with logarithmic graph paper is that each
cycle should begin with a factor of 10 and the factor of 10 should
increment for each successive cycle. This can be generalized by
labeling a logarithmic axis according to figure II-6.
Such a generalization can be applied to all logarithmic scales when
labeling the axes. This applies to both axes of log paper and to a single
axis of semi-log paper. Usually, the horizontal axis on semi-log paper
is linear in scale and the vertical axis is logarithmic. However, this is
not a rule for semi-log paper and either axis could be used as the linear
axis.
1 x 10n+2
9 x 10n+1
8 x 10n+1
7 x 10n+1
6 x 10n+1
5 x 10n+1
4 x 10n+1
3 x 10n+1
2 x 10n+1
1 x 10n+1
9 x 10n 8 x 10n
7 x 10n
6 x 10n
5 x 10n
4 x 10n
3 x 10n
2 x 10n
2.2 Examples of Analysis with Graph Paper

In addition to all of the above details regarding how to set up and plot
data, it will obviously be important to know what to do once data is
plotted on the graph paper.
1 x 10n
Figure II-6: Generalize

d Labeling of
Logarithmic Axis
2.2.1 Linear Graph Paper

The equation of a linear relationship is
(II-1)
y = mx + b
where m is the slope of the line and b is the point where this line intercepts the y-axis. Obviously,
if we use a scale in which the distances along the axes are linearly related to x and y, the graph of
this function will be a straight line.
While the y-intercept of the curve is often less
important than the slope, both quantities are
easy to extract from the graph. The y-intercept,
shown as b in Eqn. (II-1), can simply be read
directly off the graph as the value that the line
crosses the y-axis (x=0). It is also easy to extract
the slope from the graph. If we start from an
arbitrary point on the line, (x1, y1), then when
-b/m
x
x
Figure II-7: Straight-line fit to data.
moving to any other point on the line, (x2, y2), the motion is only in one direction in the x-y plane.
This direction can be equally well characterized as the slope
y y 2 y 1
m = ------ ---------------x x 2 x 1
or by the angle formed by the line with the x-axis. Drawing a right triangle whose hypotenuse is
the line, it is easy to see that this angle satisfies the relationship tan = y/x.
IMPORTANT NOTES:
Remember to include the scale factors and units for the quantities y and x in calculating the
slopes, otherwise the value of m determined will be incorrect.
When choosing the two positions on the line for calculating the slope, the experimental points
should not be used. After the line has been drawn, do not use individual data points, but rather
find the slope using two arbitrary, but well-separated, positions on the line. If two experimental
points are used, then the experimenter is biased by these two points and essentially disregards
all other experimental data which determined the line. The final analysis of the experimental
data can often be made directly from the graph. Remember that the curve that you draw
represents all your data and any calculations performed must use numbers obtained from the
curve and not the actual data points.
2.2.2 Log Graph Paper
Power law behaviors are ubiquitous in science and engineering. Examples range from earthquake
intensities and probabilities, to electronic amplifier transfer functions, to the strength of materials
as a function of size. The equation of a power law relationship is
y = x
(II-2)
We now demonstrate that by using log graph paper, this relationship will be converted into a
straight line. Since on log paper distances are proportional to the logarithm of the quantity being
plotted, we begin by taking the logarithm of both sides of Eqn. (II-2). This yields
log y = ( log x ) + log
If we make the identifications y= log y, x= log x, b = log , and m = , this equation has the form
of a straight line in the transformed coordinates,
y' = mx' + b
If we plot (log y) vs. (log x) on linear paper, a straight line results. The use of log paper is exactly
equivalent to this operation.
The slope of the straight line is equal to the power-law exponent , and this line intercepts the yaxis at b = log . We note from these equations that y = b when x = 0, or y = when x = 1. The
value of the coefficient is equal to the value of y at the point where x = 1. The slope of the straight
line is,
y' 2 y' 1
log y 2 log y 1
m = ------------------ = -------------------------------- =
x' 2 x' 1
log x 2 log x 1
The slope m may be obtained by substituting the values of the log of each quantity. However,
instead of looking up the logarithm of each y and each x, we can plot y and x directly on log-log
paper. Then m can be found by measuring the length difference of y on your graph paper and
dividing by the length difference of x. Any length unit can be used since it cancels in the ratio.
As a simple numerical example, we plot the data of table II-2 in figure II-8.
100
1.3
4.4
4.0
6.5
6.2
11.3
17.7
16.2
41.4
28.9
74.4
38.2
y (some other units)
Table II-2: Power Law Dependence
10
1
1
If this data is plotted on log paper with equal

scale for the axes a direct line measurement
of the slope using a mm scale of a ruler
yields
10
100
x (some units)
Figure II-8: Data from table II-2 plotted on
Logarithmic scale
37mm
m = --------------- = 0.544
68mm
Note that we use the endpoints of the straight line drawn by hand through the data. This allows us
to use any convenient points, and are not restricted to using the data points themselves. Naturally,
we need to draw as good a line through the data as we can.
We can alternatively compute the exponent by using the logs of the numbers themselves (again we
use the numbers which we pick off the line, not actual data values). This yields
log 44 log 3.7

m = ------------------------------------ = 0.537
log 100 log 1
Again we use convenient points taken from the straight line and not any individual data points.
After all, if you only used two data points, what would be the point of all of the others?
Since the coefficient a is equal to y when x = 1 (check this in Eqn. (II-2) if you are not sure why),
the plotted data are well described by the equation
y = 3.7x
0.537
We could also perform a least squares analysis (described in section 2.4) of the x', y' data points
(not x, y) that should yield a straight line. This analysis will be left for you to work out.
2.2.3 Semi-log Graph Paper
The equation of an exponential relationship is
y = e
(II-3)
We now demonstrate that by using semi-log graph paper, this relationship will be converted into a
straight line. Since on semi-log paper distances along the vertical are proportional to the logarithm
of the quantity being plotted, we begin by taking the logarithm of both sides of Eqn. (II-3). This
yields
x
log y = ( log e ) + log = ( x ) log e + log

If we make the identifications y= log y, x= x, m = log e, and b = log , this equation has the form
of a straight line in the transformed coordinates,
y' = mx' + b
If we plot (log y) vs. x on linear paper, a straight line results. The use of semi-log paper is exactly
equivalent to this operation.
Table II-3: Exponential Dependence
t (seconds)
y (counts/sec)
1500
10
1062
20
760
30
520
40
382
50
250
60
180
Figure II-9: Radioac

tive sample activity data plotted on semi-log
paper
As an example, the activity of a radioactive

sample as a function of time could be measured as in table II-3. Figure II-9 is a plot on semi-log
paper of this data. Here, the sample's radioactive activity is measured in counts per second. The
symbol g in the application of Eqn. (II-3) is called the decay constant and has a negative value. We
find its value as the slope in the semi-log plot:
ln 200 ln 1250
1
= -------------------------------------- = 0.0346 sec
58sec 5sec
The value of can be obtained from figure II-9, = y(t=0) = 1500 counts/second, so the data is
represented by the function
y = 1500e
0.0346t
counts/second
10
2.3 Video Camera Data Acquisition

When using a video camera to acquire data for later analysis, it is important to understand some
details of process. The two most important considerations are to account for parallax and camera
motion.
2.3.1 Parallax
The motion you see on a video screen is two dimensional. To get accurate measurements, you must
insure that all the motion you are going to record takes place in two dimensions [see Figure II-10].
Wrong
Right
Plane of Motion
Plane of Motion
Camera
Camera
Figure II-10: Position of Camera with respect to the Plane of Motion
One helpful technique to increase the two-dimensionality of your recording is to stand far away
from the object of motion and use the ZOOM button on the camera to close in on the object. This
increasing of the distance between the camera and the object will necessarily decrease the angle
between the camera and the Plane of Motion.
2.3.2 Scale
Once a segment of video has been recorded and digitized, each frame of video will be a series of
pixels with a color value attached to each. For the purposes of this lab, we will be interested in the
distance between objects in successive frames (i.e. at different times). Unless you provide
additional information to the software, the distance between objects will simply be measured in
pixels. However, since the size of objects (in pixels) will depend on the amount of Zoom used, we
must provide a scale factor for the distance. The time factor will be determined by how fast you
digitize your video. One common rate is 15 frames per second. In this case each frame of video is
separated by 1/15 seconds. Fortunately, if you tell the software you captured video at 15 frames per
second, it will do the time scale math for you.
11
The distance scale relies on you for accuracy. You must place something of a known length in each
frame of the video. This way, once the video has been digitized, you can indicate to the software
the relationship between meters and pixels. You must be careful, however of the following:
Plane A
1m
0.5 m
Plane B
Camera
Figure II-11: Effect of
Distance on Scale
The distance scale should be in the Plane of Motion which is

being recorded [see Figure II-10]. Otherwise, the scaling object
will not accurately describe the motion. As is seen in figure II-11
the field of view expands with distance from the camera. If a
meter stick is used as a distance scale at the Plane A, the scale
factor may result as 1 meter = 600 pixels. However, a half-meter
stick placed in Plane B, would result in 0.5 meter = 600 pixels. It
is easy to see the importance of placing the distance scale in the
Plane of Motion.
Another factor affecting scale is Zoom. The effect of Zoom on
digitized video is to effectively enlarge or shrink pixel size. Since
it is easiest to set distance scale once for an entire video segment,
Zoom should not be adjusted while recording.
2.3.3 Camera Motion

Again the simplest use of video software as an analysis tool will result in the software assuming
that the origin is in the same location in each frame. For the purposes of this lab, make sure that a
single stationary object remains in the picture at all times. An even better practice is to not allow
the camera to move during filming. However, this is very difficult, if not impossible, while holding
the camera in your hands.
2.4 Least Squares Analysis

The straight lines we have been drawing through graphed data are usually good estimates of the
best fit lines. There is a standard procedure which quantifies how good this fit is, and allows a
calculator to determine the coefficients in a function fit to the data. This procedure is perfectly
general, though we will illustrate here only its application to the problem of determining the best
fit by a straight line. The generalization to other functions should be obvious.
The fundamental philosophy of all fitting procedures is that the best fit should minimize the
deviation between the data and the computed function. The method of least squares measures this
deviation as the sum of the squares of the deviations of each dependent quantity as we now
illustrate. Of course, other measures of goodness of fit can be devised, each with its own
advantages, but the method of least squares is almost always sufficient, and has the further
advantage of relative computational simplicity.
12
Consider a set of N data points that represent measurements of the dependent variable y as a
function of x, that is y = f(x). We assume that the uncertainties in the values of x are negligible so
that all uncertainty is associated with y. Each data point is given by the pair, (xi , yi). The subscript
indicates that the ith measurement of y, yi, is made for a value of x equal to xi. The method of least
squares minimizes the sum
N
2
( yi )
(II-4)
i=1
where
y i = y i y ( x i )
2
Note that is the Greek letter chi, squared, and not x, squared. If we now specialize to a
linear function y = mx +b, the function to be minimized is
N
2
[ yi ( mxi + b ) ]
i=1
In order for this function to be minimized with respect to the two fit parameters, m and b, we must
have the extremum conditions
2
= 0 and
= 0
m
b
Computing the derivatives yields the following equations for the best straight-line slope and y-axis
intercept (where y ( x ) = mx + b )
N ( xi yi ) xi yi
m = ---------------------------------------------------2
2
N xi ( xi )
(II-5)
b =
xi yi xi ( xi yi )
------------------------------------------------------------2
2
N xi ( xi )
(II-6)
13
As an example of the application of these formulae, we utilize data from an experiment verifying
Hookes Law. Note that in general, y is defined as the dependent variable and x is defined as the
independent variable. For the data of Table II-4, x = Applied Force, F, and y = length, L, and N =
7. A table such as Table II-4 helps us organize the data and simplify our calculations.
Table II-4: Least squares fit data
xi (Newtons)
yi (meters)
xi yi
xi2
0.356
0.98
0.391
0.3832
0.9604
1.96
0.429
0.8408
3.8416
2.94
0.465
1.3671
8.6436
3.92
0.501
1.9639
15.3664
4.90
0.539
2.6411
24.0100
5.88
0.578
3.3986
34.5744
20.58
3.259
10.5947
87.3964
Eqn. (II-5) gives us the slope of the best fit line

7 10.5947 20.58 3.259m = ------------------------------------------------------------------= 0.03768
2
7 87.3964 ( 20.580 )
Since the spring constant k = 1/m, we see k is therefore equal to 26.5 Newtons/meter.
3.0 Apparatus
3.1 Bring From Home
A ruler (or straightedge) at least 9 inches long.

Calculator with logarithmic and exponential functions. It will be useful for the calculator
to also have statistical functions1 to enable the rapid checking of your results during the
lab. The statistical functions are very important in this and the following laboratories.
Your calculator's manual if you don't know how to use the statistical functions already.
A minimum of one copy of each of log and semi-log graph paper. You may want to bring
If you do not already own such a calculator, you should know that as of the time of the writing of this
Manual, the University Bookstore had ones with such functions for as little as $12.95.
14
some spare sheets of paper in case you make errors. You may either purchase these
papers, or photocopy the samples provided in the Appendix of this Manual. If you
purchase them, make sure that the logarithmic papers have at least two cycles.
IMPORTANT
Graph paper will not be provided in the
laboratory nor will there be an opportunity
to photocopy graph paper during the lab.
Computer
Meterstick
Video camera with attached battery, DC power adapter, and IEEE 1394a (also known as
DV, firewire, i.LINK, or Lynx) 6-to-4-pin cable. NOTE: You must provide a USC ID in
order to check out the video equipment.
Racquetball
4.0 Procedure
This lab will consist of two sections. First you will examine a simple two-dimensional system. The
examination will include shooting a video, capturing and editing the video on the computer,
analyzing the motion of the objects in the video, and studying the accompanying graphs of the
motion. At the end of this section, you should have a fairly clear understanding of what linear
graphs look like and how the graphs in different dimensions relate to each other. In the second
section, you will use computer-generated data to practice creating graphs on log and semilog graph
paper. As you will see, the generated data will not result in a straight line if graphed on linear paper,
and as a result, will be easier to analyze using the nonlinear paper.
15
4.1 Two-dimensional Kinematics

The first task is to create a space to shoot the video. You will be filming a bouncing ball. In
preparing your space, make sure that you recall the considerations raised in section 2.3. A diagram
of the setup is shown in figure II-12.
Racquetball
Meterstick
Figure II-12: Diagram of video shoot sequence
Recall that the meterstick (or some other object of known length) is needed in the video clip in
order to set the scale of the captured movie.
4.1.1 Shooting the Video
The video camera you will use is a standard MiniDV digital camcorder. The following procedures
outline the use of the camera:
1. The battery should be attached to the back of the camera at all times. Make sure that the P/
EASY switch is in the P position. The media switch should be in the tape position. Press the
little gray button and while it is pressed, turn the camera power dial to CAMERA. Open the
lens cover by sliding the switch near the front. Occasionally, if the camera is left unused for a
couple of minutes, the camera will shut itself off to save power. In this case, turn the camera
power switch to OFF and back to CAMERA.
2. Open the LCD viewfinder and press FUNC. The following settings should already be set and
remembered by the camera (it has a backup battery) but verify them just in case, pressing
FUNC first and then using the joystick to scroll down to the MENU and pressing it to enter the
menu: CAMERA SETUP SHUTTER: 500, A. SL SHUTTER: OFF, D. ZOOM:OFF, IMG
STAB: OFF, WIDESCREEN: OFF VCR SETUP REC MODE: SP, TV TYPE: 4:3 DISPLAY
SETUP TV SCREEN: ON, MARKERS: GRID (GRY). After done, while pressing the little
gray button, slide the control switch to PLAY and make sure TV SCREEN is set to ON under
DISPLAY SETUP in the MENU under FUNC. (Note: The shutter speed sets the time period for which
the shutter is opened per frame of a shot. High shutter speeds prevent motion in the video from appearing blurry.
However, high shutter speeds also require more light for illumination. Generally a shutter speed of 1/500 seconds
16
is adequate for indoor recording of motion. If you go outdoors, you may be able to use higher values to get crisper
motion.)
3. While pressing the little gray button, slide the control switch to CAMERA again. In order to
start recording, press the RECORD button (the big white button located by your thumb on the
back of the camera). To stop, press this button again.
4. A meter stick (or some other object of known length) should be placed in the area being filmed.
The full length of the object should be in view during the entire sequence filmed. The ball
should also be in view the entire time. The widest available (W) zoom usually works best.
NOTE: Try to record the motion in the center of the frame. This will be useful later when
digitizing the video.
5. A sequence of only a very few seconds of motion will be required for analysis. You may want
to record 2 or 3 separate sequences of motion, so that you can choose the best one when you
are ready to capture the video on the computer.
6. Notice that these cameras have tape counters showing the remaining amount of tape in whole
minutes. This will help you find your segment of recorded video when you are ready to capture.
Do not simply assume that your video segment is at the beginning of the tape. There is also a
precise counter for individual video segments recorded on tape.
7. Once you are done, turn off the camera by sliding the control switch to OFF while pressing the
little gray button. Then, close the lens cover by sliding the switch in the front.
[Technical note on cameras and video formats for the interested reader: All consumer analog and digital camcorders, including the highdefinition models marketed as progressive scan, eventually convert the video to an interlaced format; hence, its crucial for our real-time motionanalysis purposes that the capturing process can automatically deinterlace the video. This is because with interlaced frames, you can have double
images of the ball in each frame, corresponding to the upper and lower fields, separated by one vertical pixel shot at separate, equally spaced times
and interlaced together as a single frame. In addition this camera can also record with progressive scan (noninterlaced) on SDHC card (not installed)
but it does so at half the frame rate (15 fps) and at a 320x240 resolution, with degraded video quality as well. Another problem for real-time motion
analysis is MPEG and MPEG-based compression schemes such as H.264 and AVCHD, which compress multiple frames in time together. Separating
the frames precisely might not be possible and this may ruin real-time data for the motion. The only formats which dont have MPEG-like
compression are standard-definition MiniDV and Motion JPEG. The former is the format our cameras use and the latter is the format used to shoot
low-quality, slow-shutter-speed standard- or high-definition videos in still cameras.]
4.1.2 Capturing and editing the video

Some of you are probably already familiar with capturing videos on your computer. The process
involves transfering the video to a computer file.
Here is how:
1. Connect the camera to its DC power supply (adapter). This will save the battery for future use
by other students.
2. Use the supplied IEEE 1394a cable to connect your camera to one of the IEE1394a ports on the
back of your computer: Gently lift the large gray cover from its notch for the AV, USB, and
DV sockets and, after aligning it in the correct orientation, attach the smaller 4-pin connector
to the DV socket (rightmost socket) on the camera and the larger 6-pin connector to one of the
IEE1394a ports (labeled 1, 2, and 3) on the back of the computer.
17
3. After pressing the little gray button, turn the control dial on your camera to the PLAY mode.
Wait for a few seconds for the computer to recognize the camera. You can cancel any pop-up
window asking for an action if it appears.
4. The only software that you will need is VideoPoint Capture 2.2.0
(or higher). Start
VideoPoint Capture 2.2.0 (not VP Capture, which is the old Version 1, or not VideoPoint or
VideoPoint Physics Fundamentals, which are analysis software). When the program starts,
make sure that the following Preferences are checked under the Edit menu: De-Interlace
Video, 320 (Sony) (even though we are using Canon, still check 320), and Allow 640x480
Movie Capture. Also make sure that the selected Camera is Microsoft DV Camera and VCR.
(Note: In very rare cases, with multiple video devices attached to the computer, if Microsoft DV Camera and VCR doesnt stick after its set under
Preferences but another video device sticks, manifested by seeing the preview by another video device when you attempt to Capture, click on
Capture if not already clicked and set the video device to Microsoft DV Camera and VCR by clicking the Settings button under the Record button,
and then exit and restart the software.)
5. Click on Capture.
6. Play, rewind, pause, or stop your video using the small joystick on the LCD display of the
camera. Note that you can also rewind and forward in the play mode. When your video is
played, it should also show on the computer window.
7. When you find the correct video segment, click on Record just before the action starts. Click
on Stop when the desired action ends.
8. On the next screen, choose a frame count under Adjust Frame Count. We recommend that you
choose All. You can also choose Double (frames doubled by combining the two interlaced
fields together) but this could likely result in more noise when you analyze your data.
9. Now edit your video by using the left and
right perpendicular triangles under the
preview window
.
Slide the left triangle to the point just after a
single parabolic trajectory starts. Slide the
(a) Video recorded on tape.
(b) Edited video.
right triangle to the point just before the
same single parabolic trajectory ends. You Figure II-13: Editing the 2D video for the
should make sure that there are no bounces trajectory of interest.
(contacts with the floor) within your
trimmed video segment and the trajectory is a nice parabola such as in Figure II-13.
10. Click Confirm Edit after youre satisfied with your trimming of the video. Then go to the next
screen by clicking on the next-step button
. You can skip this screen by clicking on
again and go to the screen where there is the Save Movie button. (Note that the recommended compression is
Sorenson Video 3 with Best frames per second. Some compression codecs may not work with VideoPoint motion-analysis software or produce
Click this button and then save your video in the My

Videos folder under My Documents. You are done with capturing and editing your video.
incorrect data; so, these default settings should be used.)
18
4.1.3 Analyzing the Motion

Now that you have a segment of motion in digital form, you are ready for some analysis. Launch
the VideoPoint
software under startAll Programs. Click the close box in the top right
corner of the credits window to begin.
1. Choose the Open Movie option. Find your movie file and open it. You will be prompted for the
number of items whose motion you will be tracking. Since your video segment consists of a
single bouncing ball, enter 1 and select OK.
Three windows will appear: a movie window (with your video segment displayed), a
Coordinate Systems window and a Table window. Each of these windows is interrelated and
as you make changes in one window, those changes will be reflected in the others. Make sure
to maximize (make full-size) both the VideoPoint main window and the movie-preview
window inside it to obtain the best resolution, hence best accuracy.
2. Since the size of the objects displayed on your screen are obviously much smaller than the
corresponding sizes in the real world, the first order of business will be to set the scale for the
video. To do this, select Movie:Scale Movie.
In the pop up window, enter the length of the scale object which you placed in your movie.
If this object was a meter stick, then the length will be 1.00 m. The Origin should be <Origin
1> and the Scale type should be Fixed (i.e. the scale will not change during the movie).
Click Continue.
Use the cursor
other end of the object. The Coordinate Systems window should now display a scale factor
relating pixels to meters. If you missed the end of the object when clicking, you can adjust
the scale by clicking on one of the scale markers and dragging it to a new, corrected
location.
Double-check the time information for your video. The Table window will have 3 columns
of data (time, x-pos, y-pos). Each row of data corresponds to a single frame of video data.
The time data indicates the time elapsed between each frame. The data entered in this
column should agree with the capture rate which you set in the digitalization procedure. If
it does not agree, you must manually set the time data by selecting Movie:Select Frame
Rate and choosing the appropriate frame rate.
to select one end of the object in the movie frame. Then select the
3. To do any motion analysis, you must define a reference frame. This usually includes defining
an axis and a zero point (origin). In the case of the video point software, you will need to
determine whether you need a fixed origin or an origin that moves from frame to frame. The
way to decide which type of origin you will need is to play your movie segment frame by frame.
If an object exists which does not move in the movie, then you can use this object as a fixed
origin. If all objects move a little bit from frame to frame (e.g. you jiggled the camera while
shooting the video) then you will need to use a floating origin. NOTE: It is much easier to
use a Fixed Origin. Therefore, it is to your advantage to place the camera on a solid object
19
while recording.
Fixed Origin: Do nothing. The yellow axes displayed on the movie belong to Origin 1. If
you double click the origin, a window will pop-up which shows the parameters of the
origin. You can choose to rotate the origin if you like, or use polar coordinates. However,
simply leaving the defaults will most likely be the easiest.
Floating Origin: Select Create:Origin. Name the point Origin2, set the coordinate type to
cartesian, data type to Frame-by-Frame and make sure the Is An Origin box is checked.
Click OK.
Rewind your video to the beginning (slide the play bar to the far left) and use your cursor
to click on the object which you choose to be your origin. Once you have clicked, the movie
will automatically advance to the next frame. Click the origin object again and continue for
each frame until the movie is finished. To review your choices, play through the video one
frame at a time. If you need to adjust the location of a point, do so by dragging the marker
to the correct location.
4. IMPORTANT: Click on the object (ball) only during a single bounce (within a single
parabolic trajectory), after the ball hits the floor and before the ball hits the floor again.
You are now ready to tell the software the location of the object of interest in each frame. You
can use the default point (Point S1). Rewind your video to near the beginning (slide the play
bar to the far left) and use your cursor to click on the object which you are observing. Once you
have clicked, the movie will automatically advance to the next frame. Click the object again
and continue for each frame until the end of the single bounce. To review your choices, play
through the video one frame at a time. If you need to adjust the location of a point, do so by
dragging the marker to the correct location. You can also delete unwanted data points at the
beginning and end of the bounce (do so definitely if there are any points not inside a single
bounce) after you are done.
4.1.4 Viewing the motion in graphical form
Now for the big payoff. You have digitized data and have marked the location of an object in each
frame of a movie (did you notice that the table now has x-pos and y-pos data as well as time data.
Videopoint will now allow you to view a variety of graphs for this data. To begin, select
VIEW:NEW GRAPH. A Plot Series window will pop up in which you need to decide what data
elements you wish to plot. Since you did not measure the mass of the ball, none of the variables
that include mass will be useful. The remaining variables (time, position, velocity, acceleration)
are all valid choices. To begin, choose x-position for the horizontal axis and y-position for the
vertical axis and select OK. A single graph appears. Note that after the graph appears, make
sure to change the horizontal axis (usually the time but in this case x-position) and vertical
axis to get the maximum zoom (scaled to fit the graph) of the data points. The following steps
will help you to get familiar with the graphs. At the end you will have a measure of the acceleration
in the vertical direction (gravity) as well as the horizontal direction.
1. Notice the connection between the video segment and the graph. If you play your video (either
completely or frame by frame) you will see a blue highlight circle on the graph indicating
20
which point is currently on display for the video. Alternatively, you can use your cursor to click
on an individual data point on the graph and the video will advance to the corresponding frame.
Since this is a y vs. x position graph, you can do a quick check to make sure that you are set up
correctly. Advance the video one frame at a time until you are viewing the frame in which the
ball is at its highest point. Is the highlighted point also the highest? From this graph, can you
determine the actual maximum height that your ball bounced? What about maximum
horizontal distance traveled? (Be careful: Your origin may not be on the floor). Record these
values in your notebook and note any problems or potential difficulties which you may have
encountered.
2. Notice that if you click the cursor on the axis line, a window appears which allows you to
change the minimum and maximum values along the axis as well as the number of grid lines
(Ticks) which are displayed. This feature is available for both axes.
3. Notice that if you click on the axis label, a window appears which allows you to change the
variable being displayed. Change the horizontal variable to display time (the graph should now
be displaying y-position vs. time). Can you determine the time-of-flight of the ball? Is the ball
at its highest point at the halfway time? Does this make sense?
4. Now look at other types of graphs. With the horizontal axis set to display time, select the
vertical axis label. Since y-position is currently displayed, select y-velocity and click the ADD
button. A second graph appears in the same window. You can expand the window by dragging
it bigger with your cursor. Does this second graph make sense? Advance the video from the
beginning until the ball is at its highest point. What is the y-velocity at this point?
5. The Model feature of the software will allow you to visually calculate equations which
correspond to the data that has been plotted. Click the Blue M-Tab on the y-velocity vs. time
graph. A model window pops up. Since this graph looks like a straight line, you will want to fit
a linear equation. Click Apply and a blue line will appear on the graph. This line is a graph of
the equation Vy=At + B (remember, your graph is y-velocity vs. time). Adjust the parameters
in the A: and B: box so that the blue line is drawn through the data points for the graph.
Remember that the A parameter corresponds to the slope of the graph and the B parameter
corresponds to the y-intercept. Recalling this should help you guess which direction to change
the parameters. Once you have determined the parameters which best estimate the straight line,
make sure you record the equation in your notebook.
6. Taking the derivative of the equation Vy=At + B with respect to time results in
dV y
= A
dt
(II-7)
where dVy/dt is equal to the acceleration in the y-direction. Using the information from the
model of the previous step, you should be able to determine the value of acceleration in the ydirection, commonly known as g. Record this value in your notebook.
7. Another way to view g is to view the y-acceleration vs. time graph. Again click on the y-axis
label of the graph, select y-acceleration, and click ADD. You should now have 3 graphs
21
displayed. This time use the FIT feature of the software (click the pink F on the y-accel vs. time
graph) and choose Average as the Type of Fit. This type of fit will average all the y-values for
the graph and will present you also with a standard deviation for the calculation. Does this
result agree with the result from the y-velocity vs. time result?
8. Now that you have investigated three graphs for the y-direction, Select VIEW:NEW GRAPH
and set up a similar set of three graphs for the x-direction (x-position, x-velocity and xacceleration vs. time). Is there any important information that you can find from these graphs?
Remember to look at slopes, intercepts and the individual points as you play the movie through
frame by frame. Also look at the differences between the graphs in the x-direction and the ydirection. Record in your notebook any of your findings. NOTE: The number of observations
recorded should be greater than zero).
9. Copy the data from the table window into your notebook (you will need y-velocity vs. t so copy
only these two columns). You will need this later for your least squares calculation.
10. The final thing to investigate is the effect of scale on your results. Make the movie window
active by clicking on it. Use your cursor to click on one of the ends of your scale marker. Drag
this scale marker so the scale is either longer or shorter than it should be. Watch (and record in
your notebook) the effect of such a change on the graphs in each direction as well as the data
in the table. Take time to play with this feature such that you have at least a qualitative
understanding of the relationship between scale and the graphs. If you have time, you can also
try to determine the quantitative relationship.
4.2 Log and Semilog Data

In the previous section, you used the video camera to acquire data which, when graphed on linear
graph paper, resulted in a straight line. You then used software to determine the slope and intercept
of the straight line. Had the software not been available, you could have easily plotted the linear
data yourself and manually determined the slope and intercept.
In the following section, you will be given data which, when plotted on a linear chart, will not result
in a straight line. Your task will be to plot the data on log or semi-log paper, and then determine
the functional form of the data. This will be similar to what you did for the linear data above by
identifying the slope and intercept (A and B) in the form of Vy=At + B.
4.2.1 Generate the Data
You will utilize the program Data Machine in the 151Lab folder. This program will generate a
set of data based on either a power law relationship or an exponential relationship, and will display
a graph of the data on linear axes. Launch the Data Machine program by double clicking the icon.
Generate a data set and observe linear graph which is displayed. NOTE: The graph window can be
resized. You can see from the linear graph that the data does not lie in a straight line. As a result,
there is not a constant slope which is useful for determining the parameters of the original function.
22
Once you have a data set, copy the Data Set number (e.g. B-23) along with the data into your lab
notebook.
NOTE:
The remainder of this lab will take approximately 1 hour to complete. Make
sure that you leave sufficient time to complete this portion of the lab.
4.2.2 Plot the Data
Once you have two data sets recorded in your notebook (one each of power law and exponential),
plot the data. Recall that the power law data should be plotted on log paper and the exponential data
should be plotted on semi-log paper.
When you have the data plotted correctly on the proper graph paper, that data will lie along a
straight line. Use your ruler to draw the line that you think best fits the data. (This is the eye-ball
fit.) Do not use flexible objects (such as this Manual or the cover of your Physics textbook) to draw
the straight line.
5.0 Analysis
You should now have 3 sets of data recorded in your notebook (linear, power law and exponential)
along with graphs plotted for the power law and exponential data. For the linear data, you also have
the slope and intercept parameters recorded from the Vy vs. t graph. With this data, you will be able
to determine the functional relationship for the power law and exponential data and will be able to
utilize the least squares method to generate alternative parameters for the linear data and compare
with the data you have recorded.
5.1 Graphical Analysis

Determine the equation for the functional relation between the independent and dependent
variables by finding the value of all constants (two in each case) for each set of data. You should
use the methods described in section 2.2. Remember, when computing the slope, be sure to use two
well-separated points on your drawn line, and not just two of your data points. If you erroneously
do the latter, you've obviously ignored almost all of your data. This is generally a bad practice.
When you have finished, record the equation of each data set in your lab notebook (as well as on
the green cover sheet).
23
5.2 Least Squares Analysis

Calculate the least squares fit values for the slope and intercept of the data set which you acquired
with the video camera and software (the Vy vs. t data). In order to most easily keep the bookkeeping
straight you should construct a table analogous to table II-4 in your laboratory notebook. When you
are done, your calculated values from the least squares method and graphically determined values
from the software model feature should agree to within a few per cent. NOTE: This may be a good
time to learn how to use the statistical functions on your calculator. Since most calculators with
statistical functions can calculate linear regressions (linear least squares fits), learning to utilize
these functions will save you time in the future.
Complete a similiar least squares analysis for the semi-log and log-log graphed data. You must
remember to use the log of the data plotted on logarithmic axes when constructing the table
analogous to Table II-4. For example, in the table for the exponential relationship the first two data
columns would be xi and yi' where y' = log y, and the next column will be labelled xiyi' instead of xiyi.
24
EXPERIMENT III
FREE FALL
1.0 Objective
To study the linear motion of a body falling freely under the influence of gravity. To measure a
value for the acceleration due to gravity and compare it to the known measured value. Your
measurement should be accurate to about 5%.
2.0 Background
When an object is dropped, its initial velocity is zero but later it has speeded up. There has been a
change in velocity during this period of time, the object has accelerated. For relatively dense
objects and over short distances of fall, the effect produced by air resistance on a falling object's
acceleration can be neglected. Objects in motion solely under the influence of gravity are said to
be in free fall. The acceleration due to gravity is the constant downward acceleration for all free
falling objects, regardless of their size or weight.
The magnitude of this acceleration at a point near the earth's surface is represented by g, and the
average value at sea level is
g = 9.8062 m s
The description of motion in one dimension with constant acceleration a requires only three basic
equations
v ( t ) = v o + at
(III-1)
1 2
y ( t ) = y o + v 0 t + --- at
2
(III-2)
[ v ( t ) ] = v o + 2a [ y ( t ) y o ]
(III-3)
where y(t), and v(t) are the position and velocity as a function of time t, and yo and vo are their values
at time t = 0. These are the same standard equations with which you should be familiar from your
textbook.
III - FREE FALL
Using these equations, we will now derive an important experimental result - which is that if an
object travels with constant acceleration, and if its position is measured at equal time intervals, then
the average velocity of the object during the time interval between any two position measurements
is precisely equal to the instantaneous velocity of the object at a time exactly halfway between the
two measurements. Notice that this does not tell us the instantaneous velocity at a position midway
between the measurements, because the object is at that position at a different time.
The reason this result is important is that in this experiment you will be measuring a series of
intervals between regular (i.e. periodic in time) measurements of an object's position. This
derivation thus tells you that you are equivalently measuring the instantaneous velocity of the
object at regular times. From the inferred velocities, it is then trivial to deduce the acceleration of
the object, and hence measure g.
In this week's experiment the position of an object will be measured at exactly equal time intervals,
each of length t. In this derivation, therefore, we will concentrate on only one of these intervals,
an arbitrary one with an arbitrary initial position y0 and initial velocity v0. We will set our clock to
t = 0 at the beginning of this interval, and calculate the average velocity over the time interval [0,
t]. An object's average velocity vavg, over a time interval t is
yf yo
v avg =
-----y- = -------------t
t
where yf is the position at the end of the time interval t. Using the equation of motion for constant
acceleration, Eqn. (III-2), we see that
1
2
y f = y o + v o t + --- a ( t )
2
Thus,
v avg
1
2
y o + v o t + --- a ( t ) y o
1
2
= ---------------------------------------------------------- = v o + --- a t
2
t
Comparing this last equation to that for the instantaneous velocity at an arbitrary time t, Eqn. (III1), we see that the average velocity over the entire time interval t is equal to the instantaneous
velocity v(t) at t = t/2, or at the midpoint of this time interval:
t
vt =
-----t = v o + a ----- = v avg
2
2
(III-4)
III - FREE FALL
In this experiment, you will measure the position of an object during free fall, at regular time
intervals. Then you will find its average velocity during each one of those intervals. Applying the
last equation you will have found the instantaneous velocity as a function of time. Further analysis
will yield a value for the acceleration due to gravity. You can then compare your results with the
known measured value for g.
3.0 Apparatus
3.1 Bring From Home
Calculator
Ruler
rectangular (linear) graph paper
Free-fall apparatus (two stations) including power supply and wax-coated spark gap paper
2-meter measuring stick
Masking tape
Vernier calipers
III - FREE FALL
The free-fall apparatus is shown schematically in

figure III-1 and figure III-2. A metal plummet, P, is
allowed to fall freely from the electromagnet, M, at
the top of the apparatus. As it falls, its position is
recorded every 1/120th of a second on a wax coated
paper strip, T, by means of electric sparks. The
sparks are high voltage arcs between the two
vertical metallic surfaces and are generated by a
high-voltage spark timer.
M
T
spark
timer
spark
timer
Figure III-1: Free Fall

Apparatus
power supply
A
T
Figure III-2: Spark Gap Generation
4.0 Procedure
CAUTION
Since there are only two free-fall set-ups in the laboratory you will need to take turns with other
groups. The actual data collection takes about one-half second, so you don't need to worry about
having enough time if you're not first at the well. Further, this means that you will have the
opportunity to repeat a measurement if you discover soon enough that there is some problem.
III - FREE FALL
Start by insuring that the high voltage spark timer is off. Leave the heavy metal plummet in the can
on the floor and position the wax coated tape on the apparatus. The roll of tape is on the apparatus
at T in figure III-2.
Place the plummet P in contact with the electromagnet M and close the circuit switch A. The
current in the circuit activates the electromagnet which then attracts the plummet and holds it in
place. The plummet must be equidistant from both metallic surfaces and must be absolutely
motionless before you release it. Otherwise, your data will show oscillations that will obscure the
nice straight line motion that you should be getting.
Next, in quick succession turn on the spark timer and open the electromagnet circuit. Do not touch
the apparatus while the spark timer is on. When the electromagnet circuit is opened, the plummet
is released and so falls freely. Sparks will jump between the two metallic surfaces through the
plummet, making burning marks on the tape.
When the plummet has been caught by the cup at the bottom, stop the spark timer. Take the tape
out and examine it. Be careful not to scratch the tape, because you may not be able to distinguish
between the spark marks and inadvertent scratches. You should have a straight line of burned dots
that are successively farther from each other from top to bottom. You may need to make a new tape
if it looks like some dots are missing or if the plummet was oscillating. Show it to your Teaching
Assistant for evaluation if you are uncertain.
5.0 Analysis
Lay the tape flat on the table and secure it with adhesive so that you can easily measure the distance
between dots. You can neglect the ones near the start of the tape that are not clearly defined. You
should have such a large number of dots that it is not necessary to use all of them. Circle every
fourth dot and number them consecutively 0, 1, 2, 3..... The fact that we use every fourth point as
opposed to, say, every third point is important because the spark timer fires twice during each cycle
of the 60 Hz power supply. If the timer does not fire symmetrically with respect to the origin (and
it doesn't precisely) then adjacent points are alternatively shorter and longer than they should be,
which would complicate the analysis. Using an even number avoids this problem.
Observe the sequence of dots carefully and notice how the separation between dots increases. Look
carefully for any irregular pattern which would indicate a missing dot. Occasionally the spark timer
will misfire and not leave a mark where one should have been. If you do not pay attention to this
missing mark, the relative times of all marks before and after the missing point will be off, which
will affect the value of acceleration you will infer. If, on the basis of the pattern of marks above
and below a certain point you believe that there is a mark missing in the record, note this fact in
your laboratory notebook and label with an arrow on the paper tape where you think the point
should have been. Once these things have been noted, in all further analysis you should treat the
data as if the mark had actually been there. If the missing mark is not in the set of every fourth
dot you circled above, then you are done with this problem. If, however, the missing dot would
have been a data point, then you cannot use the missing mark as data. If you did, you would be
III - FREE FALL
making up data. Instead what you must do is explicitly not have a data point at the position of the
missing dot. Since in the analysis below you will make use of the lengths of intervals between dots,
this means that you will have two entries in a table for which there is no data. Nevertheless, it is
important to keep the missing point in place because it still signifies the passage of one time
interval.
The positions of the circled dots themselves are not going to be used. Instead, as described earlier
we will use the lengths of the intervals between the circled dots. Your dots should line up along the
length of the paper as a straight line. If, however, there is an oscillation to the left and right about
this line (as if the plummet were somehow oscillating on its way down) you should not measure
the separation between marks, but rather the component of the separation vector along the
downward direction. We will name the interval between point yi-1 and yi, interval i, whose length
is di yi - yi-1, that is, the first interval is called interval 1 and has length d1, etc.
Construct a table, as table III-1,
in your notebook with the
following columns:
The interval you are now

measuring, labelled by the
number of the point at the
end of the interval, i = 1, 2,
3....
The length of this interval,
di.
Interval
i
di
vi = di/t
d1
v1 =d1/t
d2
3
.
ai = vi/t
(ai - a)2
v2 =d2/t
a2 = (v2-v1)/t
(a2 - a)2
d3
v3 =d3/t
a3 = (v3-v2)/t
(a3 - a)2
:
:
:
Table III-1: Sample Data Analysis Table
The average velocity of the

plummet over the currently
measured interval which is
computed as vi = di/t. This is equal to the instantaneous velocity at a time t = (i-1/2)dt if we
adopt the convention that the time at which dot 0 is made is t = 0.
The average acceleration of the plummet over the currently measured interval which is
computed as ai = (vi - vi-1)/t. The first row of your table will not have an entry in this box.
Leave room in your notebook to add one more column to be described below.
Measure the length of the intervals between successive circled dots with the vernier calipers, and
record the data in appropriate SI (metric) units, in a table as discussed below. As carefully as
possible, try to locate the position of the center of the dot. If you instead measure from some other
piece of the dot you will find that the sum of the length of the intervals does not equal the length
of the interval from the first to the last dot. Clearly this is wrong. Estimate the experimental
uncertainty of your data.
The data is now going to be analyzed in three different (but equivalent) ways. The first makes use
of the velocity column of your table to plot a linearly increasing function whose slope is the
acceleration of gravity. The second uses the acceleration column of your table to find the mean and
III - FREE FALL
standard deviation of the computed average accelerations to yield the acceleration of gravity. The
last returns to the linear relation between instantaneous velocity and time, and computes the slope
by the method of least squares.
5.1 Technique #1: Mean of ai

This technique makes use of the observation that even though the data table has a column which is
merely the average acceleration, the numbers which are entered there are all about the same. If the
acceleration is a constant, its average value is equal to its instantaneous value, and we have thus
found a large number of measurements of g. The best estimate we can make for the correct value
of g is the mean, or average, value of all of these separate measurements. Enter this determination
of the value of g in your summary of results table.
Finally we estimate the uncertainty in this determination of g from the standard deviation in the set
of measurements of ai. In order to do this we add the final column to the data table:
The square of the difference of each calculated acceleration from the mean, (ai - <a>)2. Note
again that the first row of your table will be empty.
Using this column, calculate the standard deviation in ai, which should be interpreted as an estimate
of the probable uncertainty in your value of g. Again enter your value for the uncertainty in g in
your summary of results table.
5.2 Technique #2: Slope of Velocity vs. Time

Construct a plot of the instantaneous velocity on the vertical axis versus time on the horizontal axis.
Using a ruler or straight edge, draw a straight line through these points using an eye ball fit. From
this graph, estimate the value of the slope, dv/dt which corresponds to the acceleration g, and the
value of the intercept, vo. What is the meaning of vo?
Finally, estimate the uncertainty in the deduced value for the acceleration g. You can do this by
tilting a straight edge through the complete data set you have graphed and try to estimate how much
you can change the slope of the line before you can clearly see that the fit is worse than optimum.
If you are so fortunate as to have nearly perfect straight line data, and can therefore not tilt the line
at all, then you should plot the residuals of your data (the differences between your raw data points
and the estimated best line). This plot blows up the errors so that they are easily measurable, and
you can estimate the uncertainty in the slope. In fact, if you make this plot you will usually find
that you can make an even better estimate of the slope.
III - FREE FALL
Enter your values for g and its uncertainty in

your notebook in a summary of results table
which looks like table III-2.
Technique
5.3 Technique #3: Method of

Least Squares
Acceleration
of Gravity
(m/s2)
known
9.806
Use the method of least squares (cf. section

2.4 on page 11) to obtain the acceleration g
from the slope of the plot of instantaneous
velocity versus time. The function
describing this plot is
v ( i ) = gt i + v o
Experimental
Uncertainty
(m/s2)
slope of v(t)
mean of ai
least squares
from slope
Table III-2: Comparison of Experimental

Determinations of Acceleration g
where i is an index for time in units of (4/120) sec. The added constant v0 is needed because you
will not be able to record data for the first several marks on the paper, and hence there will be a
finite velocity at the instant of your first data point. From this function it should be clear that ti is
the independent variable (xi) and velocity vi is the dependent variable (yi) in the least squares
analysis, so that the slope m there is to be identified with the acceleration of gravity g here. If your
calculator does linear regression for you, it is not necessary to construct the table of products
described in the section on the least squares method. If your calculator does not do linear
regression, or if you don't know how to use that feature yet, you will have to do all the hard work
yourself. Record the calculated value of g in the summary of results table.
5.4 Summarize Results

Compare your three experimentally obtained values for the acceleration of gravity.
Do your results agree (to within experimental error) with the known value?
Do your results agree (to within experimental error) with each other? If not, then either one of
the analyses was wrong (and should be corrected), or the data is inconsistent with a constant
acceleration (which means all of the analyses are wrong), or your estimate of the probable
uncertainty in the determination of g was too small.
Discuss sources of experimental errors and the effects of each of these sources on your result. For
each source you should have an idea of the magnitude of the impact of each possible identified
source of error.
How do the two estimates of experimental error compare to each other?

Are the results likely to be more accurate near the beginning or near the end of the tape? Why?
EXPERIMENT IV
ATWOOD'S MACHINE
1.0 Objective
To learn how to account for the complicating effect of friction in a measurement. To measure the
acceleration of masses coupled through pulleys.
2.0 Background
Atwood's machine is a simple device that is used to
demonstrate Newton's Second Law of motion,
F = Ma. It was first used to study falling bodies:
the device reduces the value of the downward
acceleration, making it easier to measure the time of
fall. In its simplest form, it consists of two masses
connected by a light string suspended from a fixed
pulley.
In our case, it consists of two small plastic pulleys
whose masses and moments of inertia are
sufficiently small compared to the other masses,
that their effects can be ignored. The net force
acting on the system is the difference between the a
weight of the two masses. Since this net force is
constant, the system has a constant acceleration. If
the two masses are large but their difference is
small, the resulting acceleration is relatively small
and easy to measure. Small friction forces must also
be determined and accounted for in our calculations.
M
A
MAg
M
B
MB g
Figure IV-1: Atwood's Machine
Consider the Atwood's machine shown in figure IV-1. The two masses MA and MB are connected
by a very light (consider it massless) string. As mentioned before, we can neglect the moment of
inertia of the pulleys. Using the direction in the figure denoted by the acceleration arrows as
positive, the net force on the system is
F = ( M B M A )g F R
(IV-1)
IV - ATWOOD'S MACHINE
where FR is the friction force associated with the bearings of the pulleys. The tension on the string
is an internal force, acting between parts of the system, and does not enter into the calculation of
the net force on the system. Newton's second law states that the above force will cause there to be
an acceleration of the mass of the system so that
[ ( M B M A )g F R ]
F
a = --------------------------= ----------------------------------------------( MA + MB )
( MA + MB )
(IV-2)
A system initially at rest and subject to a constant acceleration a will fall a distance y in a time
interval t given by
1 2
y = --- at
2
(IV-3)
If we measure both y and t, the experimental acceleration is easily computed.

The fact that friction exists complicates this experiment slightly. Fortunately, the magnitude of the
friction is both not very large, and not a strong function of the weight on the pulleys, so that if we
measure it once, we know that to a good approximation it will be a constant retarding force for the
remainder of the experiment. In the Procedure section you are given a means by which you can
measure it, and will quantify it as a product of the acceleration of gravity, g, and a fictitious mass,
MF. Through this technique, the acceleration in Eqn. (IV-2) can be written as the acceleration of
gravity times a simple dimensionless ratio of masses.
In this experiment we will let MB be larger than MA by an amount which will be denoted (for
historical reasons) M3. If M3 were zero we want to have zero acceleration. Owing to the retarding
frictional force, we will also add another small mass equal to MF to this side of the Atwood's
Machine. In this way we expect to compensate for the retarding frictional force by applying an
equal and opposite accelerating force. We should also expect that static friction will hold the
machine still even for small masses (less than about 2 MF) added to the other side. Since
MB = MA + MF + M3, the acceleration of the masses will be a linear function of the (positive)
unbalancing mass M3
M3 g
a = ------------------------------------------( 2M A + M F + M 3 )
3.0 Apparatus
3.1 Bring From Home
Calculator
(IV-4)
Atwood's Machine consisting of mounted support with a double pulley, clamp, and meter
stick attached to frame
String
Set of hooked weights (9)

5 gm weight hanger
Stopwatch
Ruler
4.0 Procedure
Measure and record the masses of the two blocks
(each nominally 1 kg) that you will be using in this
experiment.
When your apparatus is set up completely it should
look like figure IV-2. Begin by tying a small loop
on each end of the string. Attach a 1 kg mass to
each loop and carefully place the string over the
double pulley. Carefully lower one of the masses so
that it just rests on the floor. Adjust the height of the
y
pulley on the stand so that the bottom of the other
mass is about 1.3 to 1.5 meters above the floor.
Measure and record this distance y as well as its
uncertainty which we will denote y. Make sure
you measure to the bottom of the mass, since the
downward force ends when the bottom hits the
floor.
a
MA
a
M
Figure IV-2: Atwood's Machine Set-up: lefthand side weight is slightly larger than the
one on the right-hand side providing a
small accelerating force.
Determine the frictional retarding force FR by the

following observation. If the masses on the two
sides of the pulley are equal there is no acceleration.
If we apply a small additional mass, MF, static
friction will hold everything fixed. If we were to give the masses a small push (in order to
overcome static friction) the net accelerating force will be the difference between the weight of the
additional mass, MF g, and the retarding force FR. If the frictional force is larger, the masses will
slow down and stop. If MF is larger, the masses will continue to speed up. The threshold between
these two types of behavior is clearly apparent.
Starting with equal masses on each side of the pulley, add a small mass MF to the loop that holds
the mass MB. Give the masses a little kick to get started and then observe whether they slow to a
stop or speed up. Adjust the magnitude of this mass until you have identified the crossover point
to about 1 gm. Record the value of this mass.
Now attach a third mass, M3, to the loop of MB. Initially use M3 = 10 grams. Hold the string while
MA is just resting on the floor. You must hold the string otherwise M3 will cause the system to
accelerate. Remember that now one side is heavier than the other. Reset the stopwatch to zero. At
the same instant that you release the string, start the timer. Stop it just as MB hits the floor. Practice
a few times before taking your data. MB will not fall fast but you should first observe and get an
idea of how fast or how slow it falls. The precision of your result will depend on how good your
data is.
CAUTION
Flying masses may be hazardous to your health.
When the heavier mass, MB, hits the floor you
should have your hands underneath MA and be
prepared to catch it because the hooks on the
bottom weights frequently come off the string
when they hit the floor.
This caution is particularly important if the hook of the 1 kg mass comes off, but the others stay on.
In that case, the imbalance is extreme between the two sides of the pulley so that the smaller
weights will be accelerated upwards at approximately g before being flung across the room. You
are responsible for protecting yourself and your fellow students from your own weights. As a
precaution, you can wrap a small piece of tape around each loop in order to prevent the masses from
falling off the loop during the experiment. You should still be prepared to catch the upper weight
in case this measure is ineffective.
You and your partner should make 10 measurements of the time for the masses to fall, 5 by each
of you. Laboratory partners should switch off duties after half of the measurements so as to reduce
systematic bias in the measurement of the times. One person at a time should record the results in
a Notebook and one should perform the experiment. Do not share the experiment by having one
person release the weights and the other start the stopwatch. The accuracy of that approach is
strongly degraded compared to a single person releasing with one hand while clicking with the
other. The person not doing the timing should prepare to catch MA so that the other can concentrate
on when MB hits the ground.
Repeat the experiment with values for M3 of 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, and 100 gm unless your Lab
Instructor instructs you to use a different set of values. For every mass M3 you use, make sure to
measure the height of the bottom of MB because that height will change as the string stretches under
ever increasing weights.
5.0 Analysis
For each value of M3 that you used calculate the average time t for the weights to fall, and the
standard deviation t in the time. Then calculate the experimental acceleration a from Eqn. (IV-3)
and the uncertainty in acceleration, again for each mass you used. You should probably derive the
formula for the uncertainty in terms of the uncertainties of the other quantities in this equation
before you come to the lab. (You are reading this ahead of time, right?)
Plot your acceleration values (complete with error bars to indicate the level of uncertainty) as a
function of M3. According to Eqn. (IV-4) this curve should have a zero intercept. Further, since
M3 MA, the curve should be (approximately) a straight line with an initial slope of g /
(2 MA + MF). Does your plot look like this, or is there a non-zero intercept? If so, what is the
meaning of this intercept?
Compare your experimental results with predictions based upon Eqn. (IV-4). Plot the predicted
values on the same graph. Within your limits of accuracy, does it hold? (Another way to put this
question is do the error bars on your plotted data include the points for predicted values?)
Finally, note that the prediction you just checked depends upon the acceleration of gravity. This
implies that we could turn the question around and use this experiment to measure g. What value
does your data today give for g?
Name:
Partners name:
Date and time:
Physics 151Lg/161L
Experiment 5
OBJECTIVE
To study the momentum and energy in one-dimensional collisions.
EQUIPMENT
Dynamics track (2.2 m, PASCO), bulls-eye level (CRAFTSMAN), collision carts (2), cart
mass (0.5 kg), motion sensors (2), 750 USB (or 700 SCSI) interface, and computer with
DataStudio software.
INTRODUCTION
The nearly elastic collisions between two carts of equal or different masses will be studied and
analyzed in real time. The motion sensors will detect the instantaneous positions of the two carts.
Using this information the momentum and kinetic energy of the carts will be plotted as a
function of time. The corresponding conservation laws will be inspected.
BACKGROUND
Collisions between two (or more) objects provide a good case to study both the conservation of
momentum and conservation of kinetic energy. The former is the conservation of a vector and
the latter a scalar quantity.
The change of the momentum of an object is given by the time integral of the force acting on the
object. From Newtons third law, i.e. actionreaction principle, the forces exerted by two objects
on each other during a collision are equal and opposite. Therefore the changes of momentum of
the two objects are equal and opposite. Then if there are no external forces acting on the objects,
the total momentum of the two objects remain the same.
The conservation of the kinetic energy requires that the force exerted by the two objects on each
other during the collision must be conservative. In mathematical terms this means that the force
is related to a potential energy. Before the collision, lets take the potential energy to be zero.
Then, if we assume that the force of the collision is repulsive, the potential energy will increase
when the two objects get close to each other (the start of the impact), will reach a maximum
when they are closest, and decrease and go back to zero when they are away from each other.
Therefore the total potential energy doesnt change during the collision. The change in the
kinetic energy is the opposite of the change in the potential energy. Therefore the kinetic energy
will do the exact opposite of the potential energy: it will decrease during the impact, and it will
return to its original value when the two objects are away from each other. Note that we assumed
that all the internal forces that are involved in the collision are elastic and there are no external
forces. Collisions satisfying these two conditions are known as elastic collisions, in which the
total kinetic energy is conserved (except during the impact).
Experiment 5
5-2
The notation that we will be using is as follows:
G
G
x1 and x 2 represent the individual positions of the two objects.
G G G
G
G G
G
p1 = m1 v1 , p2 = m1v 2 , and P = p1 + p 2 represent the individual momentums and total momentum.
1
1
m1v12 , K 2 = m2 v22 , and K = K1 + K 2 represent the individual kinetic energies and total
2
2
kinetic energy.
K1 =
Note which quantity is a vector and which a scalar. Since this experiment is in 1-D, we will
represent vector quantities as signed real numbers. Therefore from this point on, our notation
G
G
will show v and p as v and p . However one should be cautioned that v and p are not just the
magnitude (absolute value) but they also indicate direction, with the left direction corresponding
to a negative value and the right a positive value.
If we denote the initial and final states by the indices i and f , the conservation equations take
the following form in 1-D:
m1v1i + m2 v2i = m1v1f + m2 v2f and

1
1
1
1
m1v1i 2 + m2 v2i 2 = m1v1f 2 + m2 v2f 2 .
2
2
2
2
(1)
(2)
Given the masses and initial velocities, these two equations can be solved for the two final
velocities. But it involves painful algebra! Fortunately there is a much easier way, if we use the
beauty of physical insight. This will be described next.
Center-of-mass frame
The center-of-mass reference frame is a reference frame that moves with the center-of mass
velocity vCM with respect to the laboratory reference frame. In the center-of-mass reference
frame, the velocities are given by
v1CM = v1 vCM etc.
(3)
Here v1 is the velocity in the laboratory frame and v1CM is the velocity in the center-of-mass
frame. The center-of-mass frame is defined such that the total momentum in the center-of-mass
frame is zero. Then we have
P CM = p1CM + p2CM = m1v1CM + m2 v2CM = m1 ( v1 vCM ) + m2 ( v2 vCM ) 0 .
Solving this gives
(4)
Experiment 5
5-3
vCM =
m1v1 + m2 v2 P
,
=
m1 + m2
M
(5)
with M and P being the total mass and total momentum, respectively.
From the definition of the center-of-mass frame,
P CM = p1CM + p2CM 0 ,
(6)
comes the following consequence:

p2CM = p1CM .
(7)
This makes the solution of the conservation laws trivial. If you substitute it into the equation for
the conservation of kinetic energy, it results in
iCM
fCM
(for either object).
p1,2
= p1,2
(8)
And thats the entire final answer in the center-of-mass frame. The plus sign simply corresponds
to no collision at all. If there is a collision in the center-of-mass frame, all we have is that the
velocities of both objects reverse in direction, with the magnitude unchanged. How simpler than
this could it get?
Going back to the laboratory frame
We could now immediately use Equations 3 and 5 to go back to the laboratory frame.
Substituting these equations into v1fCM = v1iCM (Equation 8) easily results in
f
1
m1 m2 ) v1i + 2m2 v2i

(
.
=
m1 + m2
(9)
Similarly if we substitute Equations 3 and 5 into v2fCM = v2iCM , we instantly obtain

f
2
m2 m1 ) v2i + 2m1v1i
(
.
=
m1 + m2
(10)
Hence the center-of-mass frame enabled us to derive these complicated equations in the
laboratory frame with no hardship.
PROCEDURE
Although this experiment is fairly straightforward, it requires you to be meticulous in order for it
Experiment 5
5-4
to work well. First you need to prepare the apparatus as described below.
Leveling the track
The track needs to be perfectly level, which you should achieve as follows. There are four feet
attached to the track, with screw threads. Check to see if one pair of feet is set near the 75-cm
mark and the other at the 150-cm. Correct otherwise. Then turn the knob of each four feet so that
the screw thread is approximately at the vertically middle position.
Next put the bulls-eye level directly above the left feet and adjust the twist of the track, meaning
that the bubble should be centered up and down. Repeat it for the right feet.
Then put the bulls-eye level near the 115-cm mark and carefully adjust the feet on either side so
that the bubble is centered left and right. The track might be slightly bent; therefore, check the
leveling for various positions and find the best compromise.
Note that if you move the track on the laboratory bench, you need to level it again, since the
laboratory bench is not uniform.
Also make sure that the track is free of any dust.
Preparing the carts
The axes should be centered so that the wheels have the same clearance from the left and the
right. Check this by holding the cart in your hands and looking at the bottom of the cart. Correct
the alignment by pushing on the wheels with your thumbs from the outer side.
Place the left and right carts on the track, with their non-Velcro ends facing each other. Check if
each cart moves smoothly. Replace it if there is a problem.
Preparing the motion sensors
There should be a motion sensor attached to either end of the track. The motion sensors simply
slide in and clamp onto the track. The beam switch on the sensor should be at the narrow setting.
Align the angle of each sensor to 0 using the large knob on its side. The motion sensors are the
most critical part of this experiment. If they are not properly aligned or set, you will not obtain
meaningful results. The realignment of the angles of the motion sensors might be necessary if
they dont record the data properly.
DataStudio
With the 750 USB (or 700 SCSI) interface turned on, start DataStudio. If you are using
the 700 SCSI interface, it should be turned on before the computer is turned on;
otherwise, you will need to restart the computer.
In DataStudio choose Create Experiment. If this window doesnt appear, click Setup. The
Experiment 5
5-5
Experiment Setup window will show you the interface.
Click on Channel 1 on the interface and add a Motion Sensor.

Click on Channel 3 on the interface and add a second Motion Sensor.
In the left column under Data, you should see Position, Ch 1&2 and Position, Ch 3&4. If
you see the wrong channels, delete the sensors and repeat the process.
In the Experiment Setup window, change the Sample Rate to 20 Hz. This simply means
that the computer will collect 20 data points, equally spaced in time, every second.
Now make sure that the yellow and black plugs of the left motion sensor are connected to
Channels 1 and 2, respectively.
Then make sure that the yellow and black plugs of the right motion sensor are connected
to Channels 3 and 4, respectively.
The motion sensor sends out an ultrasonic (of frequency greater than what we can hear) sound
burst for each data point. This burst of sound will reach the cart and be reflected back to the
motion sensor. The round-trip time between the sensor and the cart for this sound burst is
measured by the sensor. Then the computer easily calculates the distance of the cart from the
motion sensor by using the known speed of sound in air at room temperature. The speed of sound
in air is 345 m / s at 73 F and 343 m / s at 68 F , changing proportional to the square root of
the absolute temperature in Kelvin ( = Celsius + 273.15 ).
The computer also calculates the velocity by dividing the change in the position for two adjacent
data points by the change in the time, i.e. v = x / t , with t = 1/ Sample rate , which is 0.05 s
for 20 Hz .
You can plot Data in DataStudio in various ways by dragging a Data measurement in the left
column onto some appropriate Display, such as Graph.
But the real power of DataStudio is its ability to Calculate formulas. In this experiment we are
interested in momenta and kinetic energy; therefore, lets set up these variables.
Setting up the constants
Mass
Click the Calculate icon in DataStudio.
Click the + sign next to Experiment Constants in the Calculator window.
Click New under Experiment Constants.

Change the name of the constant to m1.
Weigh your left cart on the electronic scale and enter the mass in kg in Value.
Enter kg in Units.
Experiment 5
5-6
Click Accept under Experiment Constants.
Click New under Experiment Constants.

Change the name of the constant to m2.
Weigh your right cart on the electronic scale and enter the mass in kg in Value.
Enter kg in Units.
Click Accept under Experiment Constants.
Setting up the variables

Position
In the Calculator window, enter x1=position12 in Definition.

Click Accept at the top.
Click on the triangle icon (pull-down menu) under Variables.
Choose Data Measurement.
Choose Position, Ch 1&2.
Click Properties.
Make sure Y is selected under Variable Name.
Change Y to x1.
Type m in Units.
Under Variable Name, using the triangle icon (pull-down menu), select Time.
Change Time to t.
Make sure Units is s.
Make sure Time is selected under Type.
Click OK.
Click Accept at the top of the Calculator window.
Click New at the top of the Calculator window.

Enter x2=-position34 in Definition. (Note the minus sign.)
Choose Position, Ch 3&4.
Click Properties.
Change Y to x2.
Type m in Units.
Change Time to t.
Click OK.
Experiment 5
5-7
Velocity

Enter v1=velocity12 in Definition.
Choose Velocity, Ch 1&2.
Click Properties.
Change Y to v1.
Type m/s in Units.
Change Time to t.
Click OK.

Enter v2=-velocity34 in Definition. (Note the minus sign.)
Choose Velocity, Ch 3&4.
Click Properties.
Change Y to v2.
Type m/s in Units.
Change Time to t.
Click OK.
Momentum

Enter p1=m1*v1 in Definition.
Click Properties.
Under Variable Name, using the triangle icon (pull-down menu), select Y.
Experiment 5
5-8
Change Y to p1.
Type kg m/s in Units.
Under Variable Name, using the triangle icon (pull-down menu), select X.
Change X to t.
Type s in Units.
Select Time under Type.
Click OK.

Enter p2=m2*v2 in Definition.
Click Properties.
Change Y to p2.
Change X to t.
Type s in Units.
Click OK.
Kinetic energy

Enter K1=m1*v1^2/2 in Definition.
Click Properties.
Change Y to K1.
Type J in Units.
Change X to t.
Type s in Units.
Click OK.

Enter K2=m2*v2^2/2 in Definition.
Click Properties.
Experiment 5
5-9
Change Y to K2.
Type J in Units.
Change X to t.
Type s in Units.
Click OK.
Total momentum and total kinetic energy

Enter P=p1+p2 in Definition.
Click Properties.
Change Y to P.
Change X to t.
Type s in Units.
Click OK.

Enter K=K1+K2 in Definition.
Click Properties.
Change Y to K.
Type J in Units.
Change X to t.
Type s in Units.
Click OK.
Setting up the graphs
We will produce a Graph display, which will display all the variables that we will be measuring.
Do this as follows.
Experiment 5
5-10
Generate an x1 vs. t graph by dragging x1 under Data in the left column onto Graph
under Displays in the left column.
Enlarge (maximize) the Graph 1 window, which has just been generated.
Then click on x2 under Data in the left column but dont release the mouse. Drag x2 into
the middle of the Graph 1 window and release the mouse only after the entire graph, not
one of the axes, is highlighted. If you release the mouse with one of the axes highlighted,
x2 will replace the variable on that axis, in which case you need to delete Graph 1 and
start the whole process over.
Repeat the above process of dragging the variables for v1, v2, p1, p2, K1, K2, P, and K. If
you release the mouse incorrectly in the process and replace one of the previous variables
with the new variable, delete Graph 1 and start over. When you are done, the graph
should look like this:
Figure 1. DataStudio setup.
Experiment 5
5-11
If there are missing variables or if there is another variable on the time axis, you released the
mouse at the wrong place. If X shows instead of t on the time axis, you forgot to change the time
argument for either p1, p2, K1, K2, P, or K under Properties in the Calculator window. If time
shows instead of t on the time axis, you forgot to change the time argument for either x1, x2, v1,
or v2. If Y shows on the y-axis, you forgot to change the y-argument for one of the variables. In
any case you need to resolve the problem before you can take data.
Taking data
CAUTION: Make sure that the carts never reach and hit the motion sensors. Stop the carts
with your hands before they reach the motion sensors.
Case 1: m1 = m2
Place the left and right carts on the track, with their non-Velcro ends facing each other.
Make sure that in the Calculator window, you entered m1 and m2 for the left and right
carts correctly and clicked Accept after entering each. If not, correct the problem and
click Accept at the top of the Calculator window to finish the calculation at the end.
Record the values for m1 and m2 on the laboratory-report-summary page.
First make a trial run. Click the Start button and move both carts by hand. Make sure that
your hands dont interfere with the ultrasonic beams of the motion sensors. See if the
motion sensors record the data correctly and smoothly. If there is a problem, check the
alignment of the motion sensors and check whether there is something in the view of the
motion sensors, such as cables, foreign objects on the laboratory bench, your hands, etc.
When you are satisfied, click the Stop button. Then make sure to select Delete ALL Data
Runs under the Experiment menu so that you will not display useless data on your graphs.
Now it is time to make a clean data run. You will be in charge of pushing the left cart and
also catching the carts before they hit the motion sensors. Your partner will be in charge
of controlling the Stop button and he/she will help you catch the carts before they hit the
motion sensors.
Put the right cart near the middle of the track and the left cart at about 20 cm from the left
motion sensor. Both carts should be stationary at this point. Now click the Start button.
Give the left cart a controlled push so that the carts neither go too fast to bounce off the
track or touch each other during the collision, or too slow for the friction to become very
significant. Your hand shouldnt get in the way of the motion sensors when you push or
stop the carts. Your partner should click the Stop button before one of the carts reach the
end of the track. You and your partner should make sure to catch the carts before they
can hit the motion sensors.
Now you should adjust the scales of your graphs. Click on each four graph and do an
Autoscale using the
icon. Then position the mouse over the time axis and adjust the
Experiment 5
5-12
time axis so that the timeframe near the collision event is displayed. When the mouse
pointer changes to a hand symbol, you can move the axis. When it changes to a spring
symbol, you can shrink or expand the axis. When you are done, your graphs should like
the example below. Otherwise Delete ALL Data Runs under the Experiment menu, make
Figure 2. Typical screen shot for the data and analysis in the equal-mass case.
Experiment 5
5-13
a new run, and scale your graphs again.

You will record all your quantitative answers on the laboratory-report-summary page, and for
each quantity, you should also include the error. You will determine the error through a linearregression fit by the software. How to do this will be described in Question 4.
Question 1. Is the total momentum conserved throughout the data run?
Question 2. Is the total kinetic energy conserved throughout the data run?
Question 3. What is happening to the kinetic energy at the collision instant?
Question 4. On the graph for the kinetic energy, click on Run #1 for the total kinetic energy K in
the legend of the graph. Make sure to select the correct curve (K, not K1 or K2); otherwise, this
will not work. Select the data points when the left cart is moving with constant velocity (the
initial state) using your mouse. The selected data points should show highlighted in yellow. Then
do a linear fit using the
icon. Your fit should look very similar to the picture above.
Now using the xy tool

, determine the midpoint of your collision and the extrapolated total
kinetic energy before the collision (the initial state). The extrapolated total kinetic energy is the
y-value of the linear fit at the midpoint of the collision, as read by the xy tool. Record the initial
K in the laboratory-report-summary page. Read the error from the linear-regression fit (rootmean-square [rms] error) and report this in the summary page as well. In the example above, the
values for the initial K are 0.106 0.001 J . Repeat the procedure for after the collision (the final
state). In the example above, the values for the final K are 0.104 0.003 J .
Note: In order to delete an unwanted fit, click on the variable, for which you want to delete the
fit, in the legend. Then unselect the fit or select No Curve Fits, using the Fit icon.
Question 5. Determine the initial and final values for v1 , v2 , p1 , p2 , P , K1 , and K 2 , as well as
the errors in these quantities using the same analysis as in Question 4:
First click on the variable in the legend of the graph in DataStudio.

Then do a linear fit for the initial state.
Use the xy tool to determine the quantity from the extrapolation of the linear fit at the
midpoint of the collision.
Record the error from the linear-regression fit.
Repeat this for the final state.
In the laboratory-report-summary page, fill out the table with the information you obtain from
your graphs. Also fill out the P and K information and comment on whether the momentum
and kinetic energy are conserved within the errors. Note that when you calculate P = P2 P1 ,
the absolute errors would combine as = 12 + 22 .
Experiment 5
5-14
Question 6. Using the measured value for the initial v1 , calculate the final v1 and final v2 using
the theoretical formulas. Report these in the laboratory-report-summary page along with the
percentage errors for the measured values with respect to these theoretical values.
Obtain a printout so that you can include it in your write-up.
Save the DataStudio file under the name equalmass.
Case 2: m1 > m2
Now save the DataStudio file under the name largermass.
Under the Experiment menu, choose Delete ALL Data Runs.
Put the 0.5 kg cart mass on the left cart and measure its mass with the cart mass, using the
electronic scale.
In DataStudio open the Calculator window (Calculate) and change m1 to the new value
in kg, including the cart mass. Click Accept next to the Experiment Constants. Then click
Accept at the top of the Calculator window to finish the calculation.

Question 9. Do the analysis as in Question 4.
Obtain a printout so that you can take include it in your write-up.
Save the DataStudio file under the name largermass.
Case 3: m1 < m2
Now save the DataStudio file under the name smallermass.
Under the Experiment menu, choose Delete ALL Data Runs.
Experiment 5
5-15
Switch the left cart (with the mass) with the right cart.
In DataStudio open the Calculator window (Calculate) and switch the values of m1 and
m2. Click Accept both for m1 and m2. Then also click Accept at the top of the Calculator
Window to finish the calculation.
Obtain a printout so that you can take include it in your write-up.
Save the DataStudio file under the name smallermass.
Experiment 5
5-16
Experiment 6
6-1
Experiment 6
OBJECTIVE
To study the kinematics and dynamics of collisions, to examine the momentum and energy
conservation, to learn about the center-of-mass reference frame, and to practice vector algebra
using graphical representation of vectors.
EQUIPMENT
Collisions-in-two-dimensions apparatus, including the curved track, base, target screw with
locking nut, and setscrew; C-clamp; steel ball and glass ball with tiny piece of duct tape affixed
to it; eye screw and 1-m-long thread; two small sections (1/16th of a sheet each) of carbon paper;
1 yd 1 yd section of white butcher paper; large drawing triangle; meterstick; four 2-in-long
pieces of blue masking tape; and drawing supplies, including set of erasable colored pencils,
pencil, eraser, and sharpener.
INTRODUCTION
In this experiment you will study collisions in two dimensions by dropping a steel ball from the
top of a curved track clamped on a table and letting it collide with a glass ball at the bottom of
the track. The ingenious design of the setup will allow you, through use of graphical methods, to
make precise measurements of the initial and final velocities involved in the collision.
BACKGROUND
Collision of two particles or bodies is what makes the wheels of nature turn. On the scale of
fundamental particles, particles interact with each other through various collisions. On larger
scales we experience interaction of bodies through collisions constantly. And, in the human
world, our society is formed by our two-body (two-person) interactions, which are the analogues
of the much simpler forms of collisions that we study in physics.
Newtons third law states that the forces exerted on two interacting bodies by each other are
always equal and opposite. Combining this with the Newtons second law, which states that the
force on a body is equal to the rate of change of its momentum, results in the famous law of
conservation of momentum, which means that the total momentum of the two interacting (or,
colliding) bodies is always a constant. Note that this law is valid if and only if there are no
external forces on the two interacting bodies, which would obviously change the momentum of
both otherwise. The law of conservation of momentum is easily generalized to a bigger system of
more than two interacting bodies.
If the forces involved in a collision are nondissipative, such as the elastic force exerted by a
spring, electromagnetic forces, forces between two hard colliding bodies, etc., there is an
additional conservation law, which is the conservation of kinetic energy. (If there are external
Experiment 6
6-2
forces, the law doesnt apply for similar reasons as above.) On the other hand, dissipative forces,
such as frictional forces, convert kinetic energy to other forms such as heat. Nondissipative
forces, also called conservative forces, store the kinetic energy as potential energy and then
release it back. For example when two hard bodies collide, part of the total kinetic energy is
temporarily converted to potential energy and stored on the two bodies at the small time interval
in which the collision takes place, and then it is quickly released back to its original value.
Therefore the law of conservation of kinetic energy only applies to before and after the collision,
but not to the instant of collision, at which the total kinetic energy first decreases briefly and then
goes back to its before-the-collision value. Such collisions that conserve the total kinetic energy
are also known as elastic collisions. In contrast, in an inelastic collision, the total kinetic energy
decreases at the instant of the collision but it doesnt go back to its before-the-collision value
afterwards. (Note that, unlike the total kinetic energy, the total momentum of the system never
changes, even at the instant of the collision, as long as there are no external forces.)
We summarize these conservation laws in the following table. Nonprimes and primes indicate
two different time instants, such as before and after the collision. Note that the momentum is
G
G
G
p i = mi v i , with mi and v i being the mass and velocity of particle i . And the kinetic energy
G
is K i = (1 / 2)mi vi2 , with v i = v i being the speed (magnitude of the velocity) of particle i .
TABLE 1. Momentum and energy conservation laws.
Name of law
Momentum
conservation
Kinetic-energy
conservation
Expression
G
G
mi v i = mi v i
i
2mv
i
2
i i
1
= mi vi 2
i 2
Restrictions
No external forces, applies at every moment in
time.
No external forces and only elastic internal
forces, does not apply at the time interval when
the collision takes place.
In Table 1 you should notice that the momentum is a vector whereas the kinetic energy is a scalar
(number). A vector has a direction and a magnitude, whereas a scalar only has a magnitude. A
vector can alternately be expressed in term of its components. For example a two-dimensional
vector has two components. In this experiment we will represent vectors graphically, where they
are best represented as arrows with a direction and length (magnitude). You will also need to
perform the basic vector operations of multiplying a vector with a scalar, addition of two vectors,
and subtraction of two vectors.
Figure 1 shows how to multiply a vector with a scalar. The resulting vector is in the same (or, if
the scalar is negative, in exactly the opposite) direction as the original but has a magnitude equal
to the magnitude of the original vector multiplied (or, scaled) by the scalar. Therefore this
operation just stretches or shrinks the vector without changing its direction if the scalar is
positive. If the scalar is negative, in addition to the same operation, the direction is inverted.
Experiment 6
6-3
G
G A
B
G
C
FIG. 1. Multiplying a vector with a scalar. Here
G
G
B = s1 A and
G
G
C = s 2 A , with the scalars s1 and s 2 in this particular case chosen
such that 0 < s1 < 1 and s 2 < 1 .
Figure 2 shows the addition and subtraction of vectors using graphical methods. In order to keep
these rules in your mind, you can imagine these vectors as showing actual displacements in
G
G
space. For example if a person first moves along A and then along B , the result is equivalent to
G
G
G
G
moving along C , which is the sum of A and B . Likewise if a person wants to get to A from
G
G
G
G
B , he/she needs to move along D , which is the difference of A from B .
G
B
G
G
A
A
G G G
G G G
D = AB
C= A+B
G
B
G
G
G
G
G
G
meets the tip of A . The sum C is then constructed by drawing it from the tail of A to the tip of B . In order to
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
subtract B from A , parallel-translate B so that its tail matches the tail of A . The difference D of A from B is
G
G
then constructed by drawing it from the tip of B to the tip of A . Note that in graphical manipulation of vectors, you
FIG. 2. Graphical addition and subtraction of vectors. In order to add B to A , parallel-translate B such that its tail
are always free to parallel-translate them.
PROCEDURE
The experiment involves an incident ball coming down a curved track colliding with a target ball
sitting on a post at the bottom of the track. (See Figure 3.) Since the curved track is horizontal at
the bottom, the incident balls initial velocity is completely horizontal, which also means that its
velocity has no vertical component. Since the target ball is stationary, its initial velocity is zero.
We will only analyze the horizontal components of the velocities involved in the collision. But
how do we actually measure the horizontal components of the velocities of the two balls? In fact
we will do this in a rather ingenious way, as described below.
Recalling kinematics two objects falling from the same height reach the ground at exactly the
same time, as long as the z- (vertical) components of their initial velocities are identical. Since
both the incident and target ball have the z-components of their initial velocities being zero, we
then know that the time t that they spend in the air is the same for both. Also from kinematics we
know that the gravity does not influence the motion in the x, y- (horizontal) direction. Therefore
G G
G G
the horizontal distances r1 = v1t and r2 = v 2t that they travel are proportional to their horizontal
G
G
velocities v1 and v 2 , the proportionality constant being t. In this experiment we choose our
Experiment 6
6-4
time unit such that the time t that it takes the balls to fall is set to 1. Then the horizontal
G G
G G
distances are actually equal to the horizontal velocities r1 = v1 and r2 = v 2 in our system of
units. Hence we will measure the magnitudes of the velocities in this experiment in
centimeters. Note that these horizontal velocities are two-dimensional vectors.
Now that we know how to measure the velocities in this experiment, we are set to go. We will
first take the data for the two cases, the elastic and inelastic collisions in two dimensions, and
then analyze the data.
ELASTIC AND INELASTIC COLLISIONS
The track assembly should already be mounted on the desk with a C-lamp. In two- or threedimensional collisions, there is a degree of freedom technically known as the impact parameter,
which measures how off-centered a collision is. As familiar in the game of pool, a head-on
collision between two balls effectively results in a one-dimensional collision. The impact
parameter in this case is zero. If the collision is not completely head on, there is a nonzero impact
parameter and the balls move in different angles on the surface of the pool table. We are not
interested in determining the precise value of the impact parameter, but we are interested in
producing a collision with a reasonably large but not too large impact parameter. Therefore set
the track at an approximately 30 angle from the centerline. If the impact parameter is too
small, there will be interference between the incident ball and target screw post, and this will
corrupt the results. If the impact parameter is too large, there might be other undesired effects.
Now get an approximately square (1 yd 1 yd) piece of butcher paper. Put the paper on the floor
under the apparatus such that it is centered sideways and positioned with its back edge about 2 in
behind directly under the target screw post. Using 2-in-long pieces of blue masking tape, secure
its four corners on the floor. (See Figure 3.)
Collision point (origin)

Origin
Side view
Top view
FIG. 3. The complete setup.
Experiment 6
6-5
The next step is to mark the collision point on the paper. We will use a homemade plumb line to
do this task. Attach one end of the 1-m-long thread to the center of the eye of the eye screw and
the other end to the bottom of the target-post screw by wrapping it around. The eye screw, which
is the plumb, should be just hanging over the paper with its tip a few millimeters above. Note
that the tip should be aligned with the threadre-center the end of the thread on the eye as
necessary. After you are successful, stabilize your plumb. Chances are that the thread is not
exactly centered with the post screw; therefore decide how much offset there is. By looking from
directly above to eliminate parallax and also accounting for the offset of the thread, mark the tip
of the plumb on the paper with a sign using one of the colored pencils.
Now go ahead and weigh the steel and glass balls ( m1 and m2 , respectively). The glass ball
should have a small piece of duct tape attached to one side, and it should be weighed with this
duct tape attached. If the duct tape is not attached, take the glass ball to the stock room for a
replacement. Make sure that the triple-beam balance is calibrated (shows zero with no mass), and
put the balls in the middle of the tray. Record the masses in grams with 0.1-g accuracy in the
table below. It is extremely important that you perform this measurement as accurately as
possible. If you think that there is a problem with the triple-beam balance, use a different one.
We are going to use a system of units in which the mass of the steel ball is 1. Therefore record
in this table the masses in our system of units with three-decimal-point accuracy. Make sure to
use our system of units (with the mass of the steel ball defined as 1) throughout the experiment.
TABLE 2. The masses.
Mass (g)
Steel ball
m1 = _._ g
Mass (our units)

m1 = 1.000
Glass ball
m2 = _._ g
m2 = _._ _ _
We will now start the measurement process. You will release the steel ball from the top of the
track while holding it against the setscrew. Do not put pressure on the track, which may bend,
twist, or rotate it and result in erroneous measurements. Also do not change the angle of the
track by accidentally hitting it or in any other way. If the angle of the track is changed during
the experiment, you will need to start the measurement process from the beginning.
Lets first determine the initial velocity of the steel ball. You will do this by letting the steel ball
fall off the track freely without colliding with the glass ball. Therefore the target post should be
empty at this stage. Drop the steel ball down the track as explained above. Have your partner
locate where it hits the paper and place a small piece of carbon paper on that position. Do the
measurement eight times, resulting in eight dots under the carbon paper. Also have your partner
re-center the carbon paper after your first measurement so that it is surely
in the proper position. Draw a small ellipse just enclosing the dots with a
G
chosen color. Label the ellipse v1 in the same color as the ellipse. Also
label it Initial. The center of this ellipse will represent the average value
and the circumference the confidence limit of your measurement. Note that FIG. 4. The data
points and error
boundary.
Experiment 6
6-6
when you draw the ellipse, if some of the dots seem erroneous, you may want to ignore them or
consider them with less weight. (See Figure 4.)
G
Now that we have measured and marked the initial velocity of the steel ball, v1 , lets mark the
G
G
G
initial velocity of the glass ball, v 2 . Since we know that this is just zero, just put a label v 2 = 0
G
at the origin in the same color as v1 . Also label it Initial.
Before we perform the collisions, we need to make sure that the impact parameter in the z(vertical) direction is exactly zero. In other words the balls should be perfectly aligned vertically
so that the collision is restricted to the two horizontal dimensions. If not, the glass and steel balls
will acquire nonzero (and different) vertical velocity components after the collision and will
reach the ground at different times. We will ensure this in two ways: (1) Put the glass ball on the
target post and the steel ball on the bottom end of the track. Look from the same height as the
balls are at and adjust the height of the glass ball by turning the target screw post. Note that the
two balls have different diameters; therefore make sure that you align the centers (see Figure 5).
To reduce the human error, make sure that both you and your partner get involved in the
alignment. It is extremely important that this alignment is as precise as possible. (2) Produce a
collision between the balls and listen if you hear a single click on the floor, indicating that the
balls hit the floor simultaneously, or a double click, which shows that the alignment is incorrect.
If the alignment is OK, tighten the locknut on the target screw post, and then recheck the
alignment to make sure that it did not change.
FIG. 5. The positioning and alignment of the steel and glass balls.
Now it is time to make the elastic collisions and get the final velocities. Put the glass ball on the
target post with the duct tape facing completely away from the collision point with the steel
ball. You will mark the position of the two balls on the paper; therefore use two small pieces of
carbon paper. Just as you did above, do eight measurements for the steel ball colliding elastically
with the glass ball. Draw the two ellipses, in a different color than the above, for the steel- and
G
G
glass-ball dot marks. Label them as v1 (steel ball) and v 2 (glass ball), in the same color as
the ellipses. Also label them Elastic.
The final set of measurements is going to be for the inelastic collisions. Put the glass ball on the
target post with the duct tape facing completely toward the collision point with the steel ball.
Do eight measurements for the steel ball colliding inelastically with the glass ball. Note that the
Experiment 6
6-7
duct tape on the glass ball might be nonuniform. Therefore if you could make sure that the
collision point on the duct tape is the same for each measurement (i.e., the orientation of the
glass ball is exactly the same), your results will be more accurate. Draw the two ellipses, in yet a
G
different color than the above, for the steel- and glass-ball dot marks. Label them as v1 (steel
G
ball) and v 2 (glass ball), in the same color as the ellipses. Also label them Inelastic.
If you are satisfied with your data, proceed with the analysis section.
ANALYSIS
Remove the paper from the floor and trim it into a smaller rectangle by cutting out the unused
sections with scissors. Note that the origin mark as well as your data points should be kept on the
trimmed paper. Then place it on the desk for analysis.
Lets first draw the velocity vectors. Draw the vectors using the meterstick starting from the
origin and ending up at the centers of the ellipses. For each vector use the same color that you
used for the associated ellipse. Remember to put an arrowhead at the tip of each vector, showing
G
its direction (the direction of the velocity). After you are done, measure the magnitude ( v v )
of each vector and record it in centimeters with 0.1-cm accuracy in the table below.
TABLE 3. Initial and final velocity and momentum magnitudes and kinetic energies of the steel and glass balls in
the lab frame.
v1
v2
p1 = m1v1
p2 = m2v2
K1 =
1
m1v12
2
K2 =
1
m2 v22
2
Initial
Finalelastic
Finalinelastic
Now using the mass values (in our units) from Table 2, fill out the remaining columns in Table 3.
Lets now draw the momentum vectors. Remember that the momentum vector is in the same
direction as the velocity vector but its magnitude is scaled by the mass. Using the momentum
magnitudes from Table 3, draw the six momentum vectors (initial, finalelastic, and final
inelastic momenta for the two balls). Use the same color as the velocities. In fact, since the
velocity and momentum are on the same line, you do not have to draw the entire vector; just put
G
G
an arrowhead at where the tip is. Then label them p1 or p 2 in the same color with their
associated vectors.
We will now graphically analyze the conservation of momentum for both the elastic and inelastic
collisions. This will involve the graphical calculation of the initial and final total momentum.
You already know the initial total-momentum vector. (Why?) You dont have to draw a new
G G
vector for this. Just put a label p1 + p 2 (Initial) at the appropriate place, using the same color as
the initial velocity of the steel ball.
Experiment 6
6-8
To add the final momenta for the elastic and inelastic collisions, we will use the graphical
G
G
method of Figure 2. We will move p 2 in parallel such that its tail coincides with the tip of p1 .
G G
G
G
G
Then p1 + p 2 is simply drawn from the tail of p1 to the tip of p 2 . In order to move p 2 in parallel,
G
we will use the meterstick and large triangle. Simply put one edge of the triangle on p 2 and then
put the meterstick on the other edge of the triangle. Hold the meterstick firmly on the paper and
G
move the triangles edge along the meterstick. The triangles other edge will stay parallel to p 2 .
(See Figure 6.)
G G
G p1 + p 2
p2
G
p2
G
p1
G
G
G
FIG. 6. Parallel translation of the momentum vector p 2 . The subsequent addition of p1 and p 2 is also
shown.
Now graphically calculate and draw the final total momenta for the elastic and inelastic
collisions. Draw them in the same color as the individual momenta for the two cases. Put the
G G
labels p1 + p 2 with the respective colors.
Question 1. Is the momentum conserved in the elastic case? Is it conserved in the inelastic case?
Explain your answers.
Now, using the values in Table 3, calculate the initial total kinetic energy and the final total
kinetic energy for both collisions. Enter them in the table below.
TABLE 4. Total kinetic energy.
K1 + K 2
( K1 + K 2 )final / ( K1 + K 2 )initial
Initial
Finalelastic
Finalinelastic
Question 2. Is the kinetic energy conserved in the elastic collision? Is it conserved in the
inelastic collision? What is the ratio of the final to the initial kinetic energy in each collision?
Calculate and enter it in Table 4. Where does the lost kinetic energy go? Explain your answers.
CENTER-OF-MASS FRAME
Experiment 6
6-9
So far we were looking at the two balls from the lab reference frame. According to Newton (and
Galileo), it does not matter if we analyze the motion from another reference frame that moves
with a constant velocity. Why do we care about this? First it helps to know that the laws of
physics do not care about the reference frame. Therefore, when we study the motion, we can
make use of this fact. Second there are some reference frames that make the analysis of motion
much simpler. The center-of-mass frame is one such frame that is very valuable in the analysis of
motion, especially in collisions.
The center-of-mass frame can be defined in several equivalent ways. We will use the following
G
approach. Let the center-of-mass reference frame move with a velocity v CM in the lab frame.
G G G
Then if there are velocities vi = v1 , v 2 , in the lab frame, these velocities should be observed as
G
G G
viCM = vi v CM
(1)
in the center-of-mass frame. Then the total momentum with respect to the center-of-mass
reference frame is
G
G
G G
G
G
p total CM = mi v iCM = mi ( v i v CM ) = mi v i mi v CM .
i
(2)
Simplifying Equation 2 slightly results in

G
G
G
p total CM = p total lab mtotal v CM .
(3)
We define the center-of-mass frame as the reference frame in which the total momentum is zero.
Hence, using Equation 3, we have
G
p total lab
G
v CM =
.
mtotal
(4)
Therefore the velocity of the center-of-mass frame in the lab frame can be found by dividing the
total momentum in the lab frame by the total mass. Note that if we integrate Equation 4, we get
G
G
rCM =
mr
i i lab
mtotal
which is the classic textbook definition of the center of mass.
(5)
Experiment 6
6-10
We now immediately see one simplification that results from the use of the center-of-mass
frame. The total momentum in the center-of-mass frame is zero, and, since it is conserved, it will
stay zero after the collision event. Hence we dont have to worry about the actual value of the
total momentumbecause it is zero. And we can also make use of the fact that the momenta of
the individual objects add up to zero.
ANALYSIS IN THE CENTER-OF-MASS FRAME
We will now analyze our elastic and inelastic collisions in the center-of-mass frame. In order to
G
do that, we first need to determine the center-of-mass velocity v CM . Note that using Equation 4
G
and the fact that the total momentum is conserved, v CM is the same before and after the collision.
G
G G
Now using p total lab = p1 + p 2 before the collision (In theory it wouldnt matter before or after) and
G
G
Equation 4, determine v CM . Using a new color, draw it on the paper. Also put a label v CM in the
same color near the tip of the vector that you drew.
G
G
G
Now that we know v CM , using Equation 1, we can calculate v1CM and v 2CM graphically. Using
G
G
the vector-subtraction rule of Figure 2, draw v1CM and v 2CM for the final velocities for both the
G
G
elastic and inelastic collisions. Use new colors. Use the same color for v1CM and v 2CM but use
different colors for the elastic and inelastic cases. Note that, to make the analysis simpler, you
G
G
G
should draw v1CM and v 2CM such that their tails are at the tip of v CM rather than at the origin.
G
G
Now draw v1CM and v 2CM for the initial velocities using a new color. Note that the initial
G
G
G
velocity v 2 = 0 (but not the initial velocity v 2CM ).
Now measure the speeds (magnitudes of the velocities) in the center-of-mass frame and fill out
the appropriate columns in the following table. Then, using the masses (in our units), calculate
all the momentum magnitudes and fill out the remaining columns. After you are finished, draw
all the momentum vectors in the same color as their corresponding velocity vectors. (You just
G
need to draw the arrowhead tips.) Then label them p1CM and such in the corresponding colors.
the center-of-mass frame.
v1CM
v2CM
p1CM = m1v1CM
p2CM = m2v2CM
Initial
Finalelastic
Finalinelastic
Question 3. Are the initial and final total momenta both zero in the center-of-mass frame for the
elastic collision? Is the momentum conserved in the center-of-mass frame for the elastic
collision? Explain your answers.
Experiment 6
6-11
Question 4. Are the initial and final total momenta both zero in the center-of-mass frame for the
inelastic collision? Is the momentum conserved in the center-of-mass frame for the inelastic
collision? Explain your answers.
Question 5. Now, without doing any calculation, just by looking at your vectors drawn in the
center-of-mass frame, what can you say about the kinetic-energy conservation for the elastic and
inelastic collisions? Explain your answer.
When you are done, make sure to write down your name and your partners name on the butcher
paper and turn it in with your write-up.
Experiment 6
6-12
EXPERIMENT VII
MOMENT OF INERTIA OF A RIGID BODY
1.0 Objective
To learn to compensate for extraneous factors such as friction by measuring them in order to
remove their impact on final values. To determine experimentally the moment of inertia of a ring
about its axis of symmetry. You should be able to reach agreement between the theoretical and
experimental moment of inertia to better than 6%.
2.0 Background
2.1 Moment of Inertia
The moment of inertia, I, of a body about its axis is defined to be the sum:
I =
mi ri
(VII-1)
where ri is the perpendicular distance from the axis to the ith small mass mi (note that this implies
I 0 always). The sum includes one term mi ri2 for each mass that makes up the body. If the body
is a simple solid shape, the sum can be done by the methods of integral calculus.
For a thin ring of radius R and total
mass M, the answer is clearly Ithin =
M R2 since all ri are equal to R. For
a solid cylinder of the same total
R
mass, the sum must be smaller than
r
this, since most of the mass is closer
to the axis than it was for the thin
R
ring. The result of the calculation is
m
i
Icyl= MR2 / 2. For a thick ring, the
sum comes out Ithick = M (R12 + R22) /
2, where R1 is the outer radius of the Figure VII-1: A ring and a cylinder of radius R
and equal mass.
ring, while R2 is its inner radius.1

1
r
i
This result is not obvious unless you consider the relationship between the uniform density of the ring
and its total mass M.
VII - MOMENT OF INERTIA OF A RIGID BODY
R
R
Figure VII-2: A cylinder and a thick ring of same mass M: the cylinder's moment of inertia about
the axis shown is smaller than that of the thick ring since its mass is closer to this axis.
In this experiment, you are going to take advantage of the fact that the total moment of inertia of
an object composed of several shapes is just the sum of the individual moments of inertia, about
the same axis. For example, if a measurement is made of the moment of inertia of an empty
symmetrical turntable, IE, and then we load the turntable with a ring whose moment of inertia IR
we are trying to determine, the total moment of inertia is just IT = IE + IR.
For the shapes shown in figure VII-3, the moment
of inertia of the platform is I2 = M2 R22 / 2, where
M2 is its mass, and R2 is its radius. Similarly, I3 =
M3 R32 / 2. The moment of inertia of the empty
platform is then IE = I2 + I3. The ring's moment of
inertia IR was given above. You should confirm that
you know where the plus sign in that formula came
from.
IR
I2
2.2 Analysis of the Experimental

System
Figure VII-3: The
moment of inertia of the empty turntable
about the axis shown is: IE = I2 + I3.
A known torque will be applied to the system whose

moment of inertia is to be found, and a
measurement will be made that will allow the
angular acceleration, , of the system about its axis to be determined. Since the torque is = I, I
can be found from I = / . The apparatus looks like the one shown in figure VII-4.
The turntable and its load are free to turn about a vertical axis. A string wrapped around a hub of
radius Ro on the bottom of the turntable supplies a torque o = To Ro about the axis. To is the tension
in the string segment between the hub and the first pulley, as shown. The tension in the string is
produced by the weight mg of the mass m. The linear acceleration a of the string is the same
everywhere along the string.
If a is measured, the angular acceleration of the turntable, o , can be found, since Roo = a. Then,
o = ToRo = I o, where I = IR + IE. Thus
T
1
Rp
a
To
R
o
m
mg
Figure VII-4: Experimental set-up.

2
To Ro
To Ro
I = ------------- = ------------o
a
(VII-2)
The acceleration a can be measured easily, but To is still unknown. It is necessary to look at the
equations of motion of the two pulleys and the mass to find To and eliminate it from the results.
2.2.1 First pulley
Mass = Mp
Moment of inertia = Ip
Radius of pulley (at the string) = Rp
Angular acceleration = p1
Tension in string between the two pulleys = T1
pos
Rp
The equation of motion of this pulley is thus

( T 1 T o )R p = I p p1
(VII-3)
where its angular acceleration is related to the string's linear

acceleration by
a p1 = ----Rp
To
Figure VII-5: First pulley.
(VII-4)
The angular acceleration p1 is positive given the choice of angular axis indicated in the figure.
2.2.2 Second (identical) pulley
Rp
For the same reasons as before the equation of motion of this pulley
is
pos
Figure VII-6:
( T 2 T 1 )R p = I p p2
(VII-5)
and its angular acceleration is related to the string's linear

acceleration by
a p2 = ----Rp
(VII-6)
Again the choice of positive angular direction given in the figure makes p2 positive (and equal to
p1), even though we immediately eliminate it in favor of a in this derivation.
2.2.3 Mass m
The falling mass has only two forces acting upon it so that
Newton's second law applied to it yields
T2
( mg T 2 ) = ma
(VII-7)
mg
Figure VII-7: The mass m
Solving these equations for the linear acceleration a yields:

mg
a = -----------------------------2I p
I
m + ------ + ------2
2
Ro Rp
(VII-8)
We have ignored friction. Since kinetic (moving) friction is approximately a constant independent
of velocity (but perhaps different for different loads on the bearings of the turntable and the
pulleys), it produces a constant force pulling back on the string and opposing the force mg that is
working to accelerate the string. The effect of friction may thus be allowed for (approximately) by
including an effective frictional force, call it F, opposing the force mg. Including this term:
mg F a = -----------------------------I- + 2I
m + -----------p
2
2
Ro Rp
(VII-9)
Since everything on the right-hand side of this equation is a constant, a must also be constant. Then
the distance s that m falls in time t (starting from rest) must be given by
1 2
s = --- at
2
(VII-10)
which allows a to be measured by recording the time, t, it takes m to fall a distance s. F must also
be measured. Solving for I,
2
mg F )- m 2I
I = (-----------------------------p R o
2
a
Rp
(VII-11)
One final simplification will take into account the fact that the pulley is a disk, in which case Mp =
2Ip/Rp2. Making this substitution, we find finally that,
mg F )- m M R 2
I = (----------------------p
o
a
(VII-12)
2.3 Estimation of Experimental Result

In experimental work it is always useful to estimate the magnitude of the quantity you will be
measuring, so that if you make a mistake, you can catch it early before it causes you to waste much
effort. In this experiment, the magnitude of the moment of inertia I which you will measure is easy
to approximate from this last expression. You need to notice that F should be small compared to
mg, and the mass of one pulley, Mp, should be much less than m in most cases. Therefore, neither
the term F nor Mp should affect the final answer significantly. The estimated value of I is then
approximately mRo2 [(g/a)-1]. You know a priori that g/a is greater than one, since m accelerates
more slowly with the string holding it back than it would if it fell freely with acceleration g. What
you do not know until you measure it is how much larger than one it is. If a<<g then the last
expression simplifies further as
2 g
I mR 0 ---
a
3.0 Apparatus
3.1 Bring From Home
Calculator
(VII-13)
Rotating table
Stand, rod, clamps, 2 pulleys, string
2 meter stick
1500 gm scale
Ring whose moment of inertia is to be measured
5 gm weight hanger
50 gm weight hanger
Set of slotted weights (9 sizes)
Stopwatch
Vernier calipers
Ruler
4.0 Procedure
CAUTION
The general strategy of this laboratory is to first measure the moment of inertia of the empty
platform, and then that of the platform plus unknown (the ring). The difference between the two
values is the desired moment of inertia of the ring.
4.1 Preliminary Measurements

First check to see that the turntable platform and pulley rotate freely. Then record the weight of
the weight holder, wrap the string around the hub of the turntable, thread it through the two pulleys,
and hang the weight holder in place on the end of the string. Use enough string so that the weight
is free to fall at least 150 cm and still leave several turns of string around the hub.
The kinetic friction can be obtained by measuring the (small) weight that will give the system a
constant speed. Simply adjust the mass m until it falls at a (nearly) constant rate. (How do you
know when the speed of the system is constant?) You may have to start things moving first with a
slight impulse because static friction is larger than kinetic friction. When it moves at a constant
rate, a = 0, so F = mg, for this particular value of m. Measure the frictional force FE for the
platform only, and then measure FT for the platform plus the load. Record the data in your
notebook. These are two different measurements the values should both be small, but they will
usually be different. (Which one do you expect to be larger? Why?) Don't forget units: force is
measured in Newtons, not grams or kilograms.
Get from your lab instructor a sample pulley, which is already taken apart. Do not take your own
group's pulley apart! For present purposes, you may assume that all of the pulleys are identical.
Measure the diameter2 of the pulley at the groove in which the string normally lies. This is the
correct number for calculating torque, and is a better approximation to an effective diameter in the
moment of inertia calculation than the outermost dimension. Find the mass of the pulley.
Calculate Ip, the moment of inertia of a typical pulley.
Finally, record the diameter of the hub on the turntable platform.
4.2 Empty Platform

The moment of inertia of the empty platform, IE, is now determined experimentally. For the first
set of measurements add weights to the weight holder until the total mass (including the weight
holder) hanging from the string is in the range 3050 gm. Adjust your total mass so that the fall
time over a distance of at least 1.5 meters is kept in the range 20 2 sec. You should take a few
practice drops to make sure that the time is in the appropriate range before you record the first data.
Record the total hanging mass m and the distance s the hanging mass can fall in your Notebook.
One partner should then simultaneously drop the hanging mass and start the stopwatch. The other
should record the time of fall. Repeat this measurement a total of four times (using the same mass
m) and enter the results in your table. Partners should trade responsibilities halfway through.
Watch out that the string does not come off of the hub and get tangled in the center of the platform.
Next repeat this measurement of the moment of inertia of the empty platform, IE, but this time add
enough additional weight to the weight holder so that fall times are in the range 10 2 sec. Don't
forget to measure the distance of fall again, because the string will stretch slightly under the heavier
load making the distance smaller. Time the fall four times as before.
Don't forget that you measure a diameter but the formulae in this Laboratory Manual and your textbook
always refer to the object's radius. Since the linear dimension usually appears raised to the second
power, this could lead to a factor of four error.
4.3 Loaded Platform

The moment of inertia of the ring plus turntable, IT, is obtained in a similar way. Carefully center
the ring on the platform so that the axis of symmetry coincides with the axis of rotation of the
platform. If it is not centered, the inferred moment of inertia will be too large (remember the
Parallel Axis Theorem?) and it may even slide on the platform during the measurement, giving
meaningless results.
Use a total weight (again, including that of the weight holder) that will give a fall time in the range
20 2 sec for a fall of about 1.5 meters. You should take a few test runs before you record any
data. Record the total mass and distance of fall (the string is elastic). Measure the time of fall a
total of six times as before.
Last, add mass until the fall time is in the range 10 2 sec. Record the total mass and distance of
fall. Make six measurements of fall time.
5.0 Analysis
In the following calculations you will find that you can save a lot of time if you know how to use
the standard deviation feature of your calculator. If you have chosen not to learn how to use it you
will still be able to complete the calculations, but you'll just be making life harder.
5.1 Moment of Inertia Empty Platform

You made two different measurements of the empty platform using two different hanging weights.
Each of these will provide one independent value of the moment of inertia of the empty platform.
Returning to the appropriate data tables, one at a time, fill in the column labelled ai with the
acceleration calculated from Eqn. (VII-10) assuming that the system started from rest. Then
calculate the average and standard deviation of acceleration for each table separately. If you know
how to use the N-1 key on your calculator (not the N key) you can directly calculate these two
quantities. If not, you will need to fill in the final column labelled di calculated as di = ai - <a>.
For your convenience, the relevant formulae are provided here:
N
1
<a> = ---- a i
N
(VII-14)
i=1
N
1
2
a = ------------- ( a i <a> )
N 1
i=1
1
2
= ------------- d i
N 1
i=1
(VII-15)
Armed with these values, calculate the most likely value for the moment of inertia of the empty
turntable <IE> for each of your two measurements using Eqn. (VII-12). Don't forget to use the
correct value of the retarding frictional force. (You recorded two different values earlier. Only
one is appropriate here.)
In order to correctly estimate the uncertainty in each measurement we should take Eqn. (VII-12)
and propagate all of the errors that enter it through to the end. Here, however, we will make the
(reasonable?) assumption that all of the errors are dominated by the uncertainty in the acceleration
a. Referring back to section 2.7.2 on page 8, we find that the probable relative error for one input
quantity is simply given by
-----I
I
a 2
= ------
a
(VII-16)
Average your two measurements to get the best estimate of the true value of the empty platform's
moment of inertia and its uncertainty in your determination:3
N
2
= i
i = 1
1
<I> = ---- I i
N
i=1
(VII-17)
Finally, compare (without including uncertainties) your value of <IE> to that obtained from the
approximate formula in Eqn. (VII-13).
5.2 Loaded Platform

This section is simply a repeat of the previous one, but using the measurements taken of the loaded
platform. When you use Eqn. (VII-12) don't forget to use the appropriate retarding frictional force.
Again compare to the approximate formula in Eqn. (VII-13).
5.3 Unknown Moment of Inertia from Dynamic Measurements

Calculate the moment of inertia of the ring as IR = < IT > - < IE > and the standard deviation R
from the measurement
2
R = T + E
(VII-18)
As a technical point, these formulae assume that the uncertainties of the measurements which are
being averaged are comparable in magnitude. However, if one measurement is significantly worse
than the other, then that one should have less weight in the average. In the interest of simplicity, this
point is assumed to be irrelevant here.
10
5.4 Unknown Moment of Inertia from Static Measurements

Use your measurements of the mass and diameters of the ring to determine the theoretical value of
its moment of inertia:
1
2
2
I R = --- M ( R 1 + R 2 )
2
(VII-19)
Calculate the uncertainty in this derived value from the uncertainty in the mass and radius
(diameter) measurements. Again, you may wish to refer back to the rules given in section 2.7 on
page 7.
5.5 Comparison of Values

Finally, compare your values of the moment of inertia of the ring as inferred from the static and
dynamic measurements. They ought to be slightly different. How large is this difference
compared to the calculated uncertainties? Should it be larger or smaller? Or is it reasonable to be
either? Explain your answer.
Name:
Partners name:
Date and time:
PHYS 151Lg/161L
Experiment 8
OBJECTIVE
To understand the distribution of forces and torques in an extended body maintained in static
equilibrium. To learn how to use graphs to analyze experimental data.
EQUIPMENT
Meterstick; sliding hangers (3); U hangers (2); motion sensor; force sensors (2); clay-bumper
assembly, including the clay-cup attachment, 1-in-long clay, and penny with the clay dot; hook
attachment; distance-measure sleeve; weight attachment (500 g); two vertical rods clamped on
the table; horizontal rod clamped between the vertical rods; small rod to attach the motion sensor
to one of the vertical rods; ruler (50-cm); and computer, interface, and DataStudio software.
INTRODUCTION
In this experiment you will use the DataStudio software to measure and analyze the forces and
torques on a meterstick cantilever system. Force sensors will measure the forces at the
attachment points. A motion sensor will be used to measure all the distances involved. You will
use the DataStudio software to plot one of the forces against the distance of the hanging weight,
of which you will then analyze to calculate the hanging weight, weight of the meterstick, and the
center-of-mass of the meterstick.
THEORY
An extended body said to be in static equilibrium should have no linear or rotational motion.
(Strictly speaking no linear or rotational acceleration is sufficient.) These conditions can be
satisfied by two equations:
F = 0
Equation 1
i =0
Equation 2
In fact these equations are very simple and just state that the sum of all forces and sum of all
torques should equal to zero. Forces are vector quantities, and you need to separate them into
their horizontal and vertical components before you can do arithmetic with them.
Our cantilever system is shown in Figure 1. A meterstick hangs horizontally from two force
sensors positioned vertically on a horizontal support bar. A weight is attached to the other side of
the meterstick. In addition the meterstick with sliding hangers has its own weight, which can be
thought as a single weight acting on the center of mass of the metersticksliding hangers system.
Experiment 8
8-2
support bar
Force sensor a
Force sensor b
Fa
clay cup
clay
penny
Fb
U hanger
hook
meterstick
CM
sliding hangers
sliding hanger
Ws
U hanger
distance-measure sleeve
motion sensor
weight attachment
db
ds
Figure 1. Meterstick cantilever system. The meterstick hangs from two force sensors via two sliding hangers. A
weight is attached on the other side with another sliding hanger.
The forces in this experiment act only along the vertical direction. Therefore the vectors will be
just signed numbers.
Then Equation 1 becomes
Fa + Fb + Ws + W = 0 .
Equation 3
In order to write down the torque equation, we need to define an origin. You can in fact choose
any point that is convenient to you. Lets choose Force sensor a as the origin. Remembering that
torque is perpendicular distance between the line of force and origin times force, we have
0 Fa + db Fb + d s Ws + d W = 0 .
Equation 4
For the purposes of this experiment, we rearrange Equations 4 and 5 so that we end up with
Ws = Fa Fb W and
W
Fb =
db
d s Ws
d +
db
Equation 5
Equation 6
Experiment 8
8-3
The quantities in these equations are as follows.
db : the distance of Force sensor b,
d s : the distance of the center of mass, where the center of mass is that of the meterstick
and two sliding hangers the force sensors attach to,
d : the distance of the weight attachment,
Fa and Fb : the forces applied on the meterstick by the force sensors,
Ws : the weight of the meterstick, including the two stationary sliding hangers (one of
them with a U hanger) but excluding the moving sliding hanger,
W : the weight of the weight attachment, including the sliding hanger, U hanger, and
distance-measure sleeve.
In this experiment we will move the weight attachment along the meterstick; therefore, d is a
variable quantity. Since the sliding hanger, U hanger, and distance-measure sleeve will also
move along the meterstick, we include their weight in W as well. Then the two stationary
sliding hangers must be included in the weight of the meterstick. Therefore d s represents the
center of mass of the meterstick and two stationary sliding hangers as a whole.
The equation for a straight line plotted in the xy-plane is given by
y = mx + b ,
Equation 7
where m is the slope and b is the y-intercept. Then Equation 6 represents a line with the slope
and y-intercept given by
W
and
db
d W
b= s s .
db
m=
Equation 8
Equation 9
If we make a plot of Fb versus d , we can calculate W and d s from the slope and y-intercept.
Experiment 8
8-4
Equipment setup
Refer to Figure 1 and see if everything is set up properly.
CAUTION: To install the distance-measure sleeve, push it gently straight up from below.
And pull it gently straight down from below to remove it. The small holes on the clamps
inside the distance-measure sleeve snap in and out automatically on the protrusions of the
sliding hanger. Do not put your fingers inside the distance-measure sleeve to position the
clamps, which may be damaged by doing so.
1. Adjust the horizontal support rod so that the two force sensors are exactly at the same
height. (Use the 50-cm ruler.)
2. Force sensor a should be about 20 cm from the motion sensor.
3. Force sensor b should be about 20 cm from Force sensor a.
4. The motion sensor should be about 15 cm below the meterstick. The large knob on the
back of the motion sensor should be adjusted to 0 . Also check if the beam-width switch
on the sensor is at narrow. And make sure that the motion sensor points straight ahead
along the meterstick.
5. The hook on the force sensor should be slightly loose so that it can align with the U
hanger.
6. The clay-bumper assembly has a penny at the bottom. At the bottom of the penny, there
is a small dot of additional clay. The clay acts as a bumper and positions Force sensor a,
also reducing vibrations. The penny prevents the screw from sinking in the clay. The
small dot of additional clay under the penny prevents the screw from sliding. Tighten the
screw on the sliding hanger. Then position the screw under the center of the penny.
7. Loosen the screw on the sliding hanger attached to the hook of Force sensor b. Check to
see if the meterstick is horizontal, not tilted around its axis, and pointing straight ahead
from the motion sensor. (Look from the front and side.) Check to see if Force sensors a
and b are vertically straight. Make the necessary corrections. Then tighten the screws of
Force sensors a and b. Finally tighten the screw of the sliding hanger attached to the hook
of Force sensor b. Note that the sliding hangers should be centered with the force sensors.
DataStudio setup
DataStudio is a powerful software that allows you to collect and analyze data. Data collection is
achieved by various sensors connected to a computer interface. Set up DataStudio as follows.
1. Start DataStudio and choose Create Experiment. If this option doesnt come up, click on
Setup.
2. In the Experiment Setup window, under Add Sensor, double-click on the motion sensor
and double-click twice on the force sensor (regular force sensor, not the student force
sensor). (Note that the motion and force sensors are under Digital and Analog submenus,
respectively.) Now the window should show one motion sensor connected to digital
channels 1 and 2 and two force sensors connected to analog channels A and B on the
interface. Check to see if the actual sensors are connected exactly in the same way.
Experiment 8
8-5
3. Click Calculate. Click Experiment Constants. Click New under Experiment Constants.
Type d0 as the name of the experiment constant. Click Accept next to the name.
4. Click New under Experiments Constants again. Type db and click Accept. Then click
New, type W, and click Accept. We have just defined the experiment constants that we
will be using in this experiment.
5. In Definition type d=distance*100-d0. Click Accept at the top. In Variables define
distance as Data MeasurementPosition. (Use the small-triangle menu icon.) d0 should
have automatically been defined as the experiment constant d0. Click Properties and
change Variable Name to d, Units to cm. Click OK. d will be the distance of the weight
in centimeters. (100 is just the conversion factor from meters to centimeters.) d0 will be a
calibration parameter that will enable us to set the distance of Force sensor a to 0, i.e.,
define our origin.
6. Click New at the top. In Definition type Ws=-Fa-Fb-W (i.e., Equation 5). Click Accept at
the top. In Variables define Fa and Fb as Data MeasurementForce Ch. A and Force
Ch. B, respectively. (Use, again, the small-triangle menu icon.) In Properties change
Variable Name to Ws and Units to N (or, newton). Click OK.
7. Drag d under Data to Graph under Displays. This should generate a d versus time graph.
Click the icon in the graph. This should display the mean value of d along with the
minimum and maximum.
8. Drag Force Ch. B under Data to Graph under Displays. Then drag d under Data to the
time axis in the graph just generated, but do not release the mouse before time axis is
highlighted. This should generate a Force Ch. B versus d graph. If not, the time axis
wasnt highlighted. Then just remove the graph and repeat the process.
9. As the final graph, Drag Ws under Data to Graph under Displays. This should generate a
Ws versus time graph. Then click the icon in the graph to display the mean.
10. In the Experiment menu, under Set Sampling Options, check Keep data values only
when commanded and uncheck all the other boxes. Click OK. This will enable manual
sampling of data.
Now we are set to go. Proceed with the procedure.
PROCEDURE
CAUTION: Make sure that the motion sensor doesnt directly see any objects other than
the distance-measure sleeve, such as the force-sensor wires, items on the table, your hands,
etc. Otherwise they will be detected instead. In addition make sure to properly tare the
force sensors whenever needed to do so as explained in this procedure.
1. Remove the weight attachment. Then remove the U hanger on the middle sliding hanger
from the hook on Force sensor b. Then slowly detach the meterstick from Force sensor a.
Set the meterstick on the table. By pushing the tare button on the back, tare Force
sensor a with only the clay-bumper assembly on. Tare (or, zero) sets the zero reading of
the force sensor. Likewise tare (zero) Force sensor b by pushing the tare button on the
back, with only the hook on. When you are done, replace the meterstick.
2. Slide the distance-measure sleeve over the sliding hanger under Force sensor a by
pushing it straight up from below. See if the protrusions snapped in the holes. Wait for a
Experiment 8
8-6
few seconds until the system equilibrates and Click Start on DataStudio. Look at the d
versus time graph. Click Calculate, choose the experiment constant d0, and see if it is set
to zero. If not, set it to zero and click Accept. See if the data reading is stable. If it is,
click Keep rapidly about 20 times. Each time you click Keep, data is recorded (hence,
manual data sampling). Then click Stop. Enter the mean value of d you obtain from the
graph as the value of d0 in Calculator. Click Accept. After you do that, the mean value in
the graph should change to zero, within random error. Then make a new data run by
clicking Start, keeping about 20 data points again, then stopping. This will generate a
new curve in the d versus time graph. Look at the mean value of d in this curve and see if
it is almost zero. If so, your distance calibration is done! You have defined your origin as
the position of Force sensor a. If not, simply repeat this step until you obtain satisfactory
results.
3. Remove the distance-measure sleeve from Force sensor a by pulling it gently straight
down and replace it on Force sensor b by pushing it gently straight up. Check to see if the
holes on the clamps are snapped onto the protrusions. Click Calculate and choose db
under Experiment Constant. Make a new data run and collect about 20 data points. In
Calculator enter the mean value from the position graph as the value of db. Click Accept.
This is the distance of Force sensor b from the origin (i.e., Force sensor a). Repeat the
measurements and see if you get the same result. If so, move on with the next step.
4. Now all the calibrations and initial measurements are finished and we are ready to
generate the Fb versus d graph. Slide the distance-measure sleeve over the weight
attachment and see if the holes on the clamps are snapped onto the protrusions. Move the
weight attachment (loosen the screw if necessary) close to Force sensor b, but not
touching or interfering the sliding hanger for Force sensor b. Wait until the system
equilibrates. Click Start and look at the Force Ch. B versus d graph. If the data reading is
fairly stable, rapidly take about 20 data points by clicking Keep. But do not click the Stop
button yet. Then move the weight attachment about five centimeters further away. Wait
until the system equilibrates and then rapidly Keep about 20 data points. Repeat the
process until you come close to the end of the meterstick. Then click Stop. You have just
finished performing the experiment. Remove the weight attachment and set it aside.
ANALYSIS
Go to the Fb versus d graph and make a linear fit using the Fit icon.
Question 1. What are the slope and y-intercept?

slope m =
y-intercept b =
Question 2. Now, using the slope, solve for the weight of the weight attachment, W .
W=
Experiment 8
8-7
Enter your value for W in Calculator (click Calculate) as the value of the experiment
constant W . Then go to the Ws (weight of the meterstick) versus time graph.
Question 3. From the Ws versus time graph, what is the mean value of Ws ? Is Ws almost a
constant over time? If not, why?
Ws =
indicates mean value.)
Question 4. Now, using the y-intercept, solve for the distance of the center of mass of the
metersticksliding hangers system, d s .
ds =
Question 5.
Now remove the meterstick but keep the two stationary hangers (one with a U hanger) on
the meterstick. Generate a Force Ch. B versus time graph. Click the icon to display the
mean. Start a new data run. Tare Force sensor b by pushing the tare button and see if the
reading on the graph goes to zero. Then hang the weight attachment along with the
sliding hanger, U hanger, and distance-measure sleeve onto the hook of Force sensor b.
Record about 20 data points by clicking Keep. Stop the data run. Record the mean value
for the weight of the weight attachment below. This should be the true value of the
weight. Compare this value to the value you obtained using the laws of static equilibrium
(your answer to Question 2). Then find the experimental error.
W actual =
Percent error =
W static-equilibrium laws W actual

100 =
W actual
Question 6.
Remove the weight attachment from Force sensor b. Start a new data run. Attach a U
hanger to Force sensor b and tare the sensor by pushing the tare button. Then get the
weight of the meterstick and two stationary hangers (one with a U hanger) after balancing
it on the hanger. Find the experimental error by comparing this value to the value you
obtained earlier (in Question 3).
Wsactual =
Percent error =
Ws static-equilibrium laws Ws actual

100 =
Ws actual
Experiment 8
8-8
Question 7.
Hold a U hanger with your fingers, and balance the meterstick (with the two sliding
hangers still on it at the original positions) on the U hanger. The point at which the
meterstick is balanced is the center of mass. Read off this value on the meterstick and
read off the value for the Force sensor a sliding hanger as well (both with millimeter
accuracy). Calculate the difference and record the results below. This is the actual value
for the distance of the center of mass from the origin (Force sensor a). Then calculate the
percent error for your experimental value (in Question 4).
d smeterstick reading =
d ameterstick reading =
d sactual = d smeterstick reading d ameterstick reading =
d sstatic-equilibrium laws d sactual
100 =
Percent error =
d sactual
Question 8. During the experiment you have observed that Fb was negative. The force sensor
shows a negative force when the meterstick pulls on it, i.e., when the force sensor pulls on the
meterstick (remember actionreaction forces). Therefore this means that the force Fb applied on
the meterstick by Force sensor b was pointing up. Is this consistent with your expectations? What
do you expect the direction of the force Fa applied on the meterstick by Force sensor a to be? Is
this consistent with the fact that we were using a bumper instead of a hanger for Force sensor a?
Now generate an Fa versus time graph and see if your expectations were right.
Question 9. In this experiment why did we record many data points at each distance of the
weight attachment instead of just recording one data point and moving on to another distance?
Question 10. Discuss the difficulties and possible sources of error you encountered in this
experiment.
EXPERIMENT IX
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
1.0 Objective
To investigate simple harmonic motion in two different systems: (a) a spring, and (b) a pendulum.
2.0 Background
Harmonic motion is a general phenomenon which is one of the most important in physics.
Vibrations and oscillations in most physical systems can be modeled as harmonic motion when the
amplitudes are sufficiently small. More importantly, the equations governing harmonic motion are
found throughout physics, not only in classical mechanics and electromagnetism, but also in
quantum mechanics. So, a good understanding of harmonic motion is an important tool if you are
studying earthquakes, airplane wings, or electric circuits, as a few examples.
2.1 Hooke's Law

Hooke's Law is the empirical observation that if a non-rigid body is subjected to an external stress,
the strain (deformation) produced in the body is directly proportional to the stress applied. This
Law is valid provided the stress applied is not too large. If the body is strained beyond a certain
point, called its elastic limit, it will not return to its original shape when the applied force is
removed, so the linear relationship is destroyed. Hooke's Law holds almost up to the elastic limit
for many common materials. Beyond the elastic limit, the strain depends on many other factors.
We will only consider a one-dimensional situation in which the stress is a force acting along the
length of the body, and the strain is manifested as a change in the body's length. In the ideal case
of a perfect linear spring, Hooke's Law has the form
F = ky
(IX-1)
where y is the (signed) change in the spring's length, and F is the force exerted by the spring on
whatever is causing the deformation. The constant of proportionality k is called the spring
constant. The greater the value of k, the stiffer or stronger is the spring. The units of k are Newtons
per meter (N/m).
IX - SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
Consider a mass hanging from a spring. When

the net force on the mass, due to the combined
actions of gravity and the spring is zero, the mass
is at its equilibrium position, and the spring
constant can be computed. The important
quantity is the displacement difference, or the
net change in the length of the spring. Figure
IX-1 shows an unstretched vertical spring and a
spring with a mass m hanging from it. The mass
displaces the system's equilibrium point by a
distance yo.
At the equilibrium point, the spring force F must

match the weight W = mg. Increasing the mass
will increase the displacement of the spring.
W
This suggests a means of measuring the spring
Figure IX-1: Determination of
constant. Since in equilibrium the forces are
the spring constant.
equal, and since the force by the hanging mass is
known, we can just measure the displacement of
the spring, y, as a function of the hanging mass, m, and compute the slope of the resulting curve
which yields
dy
dy
dy
g
dy
slope = ------- = ---------------------- = g ---------------- = g -------------------- = --- .
dF spring k
dm
d ( mg ) g
dF grav
(IX-2)
2.2 Simple Harmonic Motion - The Spring

Consider again a spring suspended with a mass
m attached to the bottom end. If you pull the
mass down slightly and then release it, the mass
will oscillate.
By convention, the positive direction is
downward with the origin at the unstretched
position of the spring's bottom end. In
equilibrium, there is a force mg downward that
is equal to the upward force -kyo where yo is the
amount the spring is stretched from its natural
length. If we pull the mass down to a distance y,
the forces acting on the mass will be F = -ky,
due to the spring tending to return the mass to its
y
y
W
m
Figure IX-2: A mass on a

vertical spring oscillates about its equilibrium
position yo with a displacement y = y - yo.
original position (acting in the negative direction) and the weight mg of the mass. The equation of
motion that describes this oscillating mass, according to Newton's second law, is given by
2
d y
m -------2- = ky + mg
dt
(IX-3)
Using the dot convention in which a dot above the function denotes time differentiation, such as
y = dy dt and =d2y/dt2, this equation of motion has the simpler form
k
y = ---- y + g
m
(IX-4)
It is convenient to express this equation in terms of a new variable y which represents the
displacement from the new equilibrium position. So, y = y - yo, as shown in figure IX-2. When the
mass is in equilibrium, the spring is stretched just enough so that the spring force matches the force
of gravity, that is, ky = mg. Hence at equilibrium the spring is stretched an amount y = mg/k.
If y represents the displacement measured from this equilibrium position, then y = y - mg/k.
Using this expression for y in the last equation, we obtain
2
d -
mg
k
mg
-----y + ------- = ---- y + ------- + g
2
k
m
k
dt
which simplifies to
k
y + ---- y = 0
m
(IX-5)
This is then the differential equation of motion of the mass m in this system. Systems described by
equations of motion of the general form,
2
y+ y = 0
(IX-6)
where 2 is a constant, are classified under the general name of simple harmonic oscillators. The
solution for the coordinate y is
y = A cos ( t + )
k 12
= ----
m
(IX-7)
If we pull the mass m down a distance A and release it from the rest position, the conditions on the
motion at the time of release (called initial conditions) are:
y = A
y = 0
at
t=0
(IX-8)
Applying these conditions to the final equation we obtain the following solution
y ( t ) = A cos ( t )
(IX-9)
mg
mg
y ( t ) = y ( t ) + ------- = A cos ( t ) + ------k
k
(IX-10)
mg
k
y ( t ) = A cos ---- t + ------ m
k
(IX-11)
The solution for the coordinate y is,
or
This relation gives the position of the mass m at any time t (after release): the mass m oscillates
with amplitude A about the equilibrium position yo= mg / k.
The frequency of oscillation is
1
1
f = ------ = -----2
2
k-
-- m
12
(IX-12)
+A
and the period of oscillation is

m 12
1
T = --- = 2 ----
k
f
(IX-13)
time
-A
Notice that if we square both sides of this equation,

we get
2
4
T = --------- m
k
2
(IX-14)
T
1 period
Figure IX-3: The oscillating mass
displacement y as a function of time t
obeys a sinusoidal curve of amplitude A.
which is the equation of a straight line with slope 42/k if we consider T2 as the dependent variable
and m as the independent variable.
Finally, we can incorporate the effect on the oscillation frequency by the non-zero mass of the
spring if, as shown in the Addendum to this experiment, we replace the hanging mass everywhere
it appears in final result equations above with an effective mass
1
m = m + --- m s
3
where ms is the total mass of the spring.
2.3 Simple Harmonic Motion - The Pendulum

A simple pendulum will also exhibit simple
harmonic motion in certain instances. If a simple
pendulum (a point mass hanging on a massless
string) swings through a small angle , then the
relationship sin is a good approximation. In this
case, we can make the approximation from the
restoring force F = -mgsin that
mg
s
F mg = mg --- = ------- s
L
L
m
mgsin
Figure IX-4: Simple Pendulum
This relationship is exactly Hookes Law of Eqn.

(IX-1). If we use our results from the Hookes Law
analysis and substitute mg/L for k in Eqn. (IX-14),
we find
T = 2 L
--g
(IX-15)
While the period does not depend on the mass of the bob, it is important to remember that this result
does depend on a small angle of deflection as well as the fact that the bob is not a distributed mass,
but a point mass. For the purposes of the measurements you will make today, a small hard rubber
ball will sufficiently simulate a point mass.
2.4 Damped Simple Harmonic Motion

So far we have assumed that there are no dissipative forces, i.e., damping. If there is friction, the
total energy of the system will decrease in time and the amplitude of the oscillations will become
smaller and eventually become zero. This is known as an underdamped system. On the contrary,
in an overdamped system, the friction is too large for the system to experience any oscillation at
all and the amplitude becomes zero before it can switch sign. One can tune the friction so that the
system is at the border of these two scenarios, such a system being called critically damped. Here
we will only study an underdamped system.
To make the theoretical study easier, one usually assumes a viscous frictional force, in which the
force of the friction is proportional to the velocity. Then the equation of motion becomes
mx + x + kx = 0 .
(IX-16)
Here x is the viscous frictional force and kx is the spring force. Note that x refers to the
displacement along the direction of the motion and x = 0 is taken as the equilibrium position of
x are the velocity and acceleration, respectively.
the spring under gravity. x and
2
Lets denote 0 = k m and = ( 2m ) . Then for 0 > , we have an underdamped system,

and the solution is
x ( t ) = Ae
2
sin ( t + ) ,
(IX-17)
where = 0 . Here A determines the amplitude and is a phase angle that determines the
zero of the time axis.
3.0 Apparatus
3.1 Bring From Home
Calculator
Hooke's Law Setup including rod, clamp, and meter stick

Setup for the damped harmonic oscillator, including the rod, clamp, inclined track with
the magnetic bumper at the upper end, spring, cart, motion sensor at the lower end,
interface, and computer with the DataStudio software
Digital scale
Spring
Weight hanger (m 50 gm)
Set of slotted weights consisting of:

200 gm (1)
100 gm (5)
50 gm (3)
20 gm (5)
10 gm (3)
5 gm (2)
1 gm (5)
Pendulum bob
Video Camera (note, you must have a USC ID in order to check out a video camera).
4.0 Procedure
4.1 Hooke's Law
Hang the spring on the apparatus, allowing it to hang
parallel to the metric scale. Attach a 50 gm weight hanger
to the bottom of the spring and load it with a 200 gm slotted
weight. Record the position y of the bottom of the hanger
as read from the metric scale. Since this initial 250 gm
serves only to extend the coils of the spring (why?), we may
ignore this initial mass in our calculation of the spring
constant. Consider this first equilibrium position to be the
zero position.
Add 500 grams to the hanger (total additional mass).
Record in a table, such as table IX-1, the corresponding
equilibrium position of the weight hanger. Determine the
displacement of the spring caused by the addition of mass.
zero
200
Table IX-1: Hookes Law Data
Mass
(kilograms)
Equilibrium
Position
(meters)
Error
(meters)
Force
(Newtons)
Figure IX-5: Hooke's Law Set-up.
0.250
0.750
Change

In this part of the laboratory you will use simple harmonic motion to make another determination
of the spring constant and compare it to the value determined above. Since in this experiment a
spring will be moving as well as a mass, we will need to take the mass of the spring into account.
Measure and record the mass of the spring (and dont forget to use this value as described in the
Addendum).
Using the slotted weights, place a total mass of 550 gm on the holder (dont forget to include the
mass of the holder). Set the spring in motion by pulling the weight hanger down a small distance
(no more than 3 centimeters) and releasing it. Use your video camera to record the motion of
several oscillations. Remember from EXPERIMENT II, the methods used to record data with the
video camera. Once you have several seconds of video recorded, go on to the next section.

Disconnect the spring from the rod and set up the pendulum. the pendulum should swing on
approximately 1 meter of string. Once the pendulum is attached, measure and record in your
notebook the length of the string.
Pull the pendulum away from equilibrium by a small amount (about 20-30o is sufficient). Record
a segment of video which captures several full periods of the pendulum. Remember to shoot video
perpendicular to the plane of motion of the swinging bob.
4.4 Digitize the Video Segments

Digitize your video segments and edit them for length. both segments (the spring and the
pendulum) should include at least one full period. Refer to section 4.1.2 on page 16 of
EXPERIMENT II to review the instructions on capturing and editing videos.
4.5 Damped Harmonic Motion

The setup is shown in Figure IX-6. The cart should be set on the inclined track with the attached
spring. The motion sensor should be attached to the lower end of the track. The lower end of the
track should rest on the adjustable feet, not on the motion sensor. Therefore, slide and appropriately
position the feet at the lower end. Set the motion sensor beam switch to narrow and the angle knob
to 0 . Set the height of the inclined track to approximately 50 cm.
Start the DataStudio software and choose Create Experiment.

Add a Motion Sensor by clicking on Channel 1.
Change the Sample Rate to 20 Hz.
Create a Position vs. Time Graph.
Set the cart in a smooth oscillating motion and Start the data acquisition. When the cart stops, Stop
the data acquisition. You should see at least ten peaks or more on the graph. If not, increase the
height of the track slightly, and/or reposition the cart, and/or realign the cart wheel axes and do a
new run. You can delete the unwanted data runs from the Experiment menu.
Figure IX-6: Setup for the damped harmonic oscillator.
5.0 Analysis
5.1 Hooke's Law
Using Hookes Law of Eqn. (IX-1), calculate a value for the spring constant. Also calculate the
error in this value using your estimated experimental errors.

Open your digitized and edited movie in the VideoPoint software. After setting the scale and
origin, mark the location of the oscillating mass in each frame. For a reminder on these procedures,
reference section 4.1.3 on page 18. Once each frame has been marked, review your choices for each
frame. Once you are satisfied that you have marked the object accurately, proceed to viewing the
graphs.
Since this is one dimensional motion (i.e. y-direction only), view the single y vs. t graph. This graph
should look like a sine wave. Eqn. (IX-14) relates the variables of Period (T), spring constant (k)
and mass (m). recalling that your goal is to determine the spring constant for comparison with your
earlier Hookes Law calculation (and since you know the effective mass from measurements), you
are left with finding the period from your video analysis.
There are two ways to accomplish the period determination. First, the period is simply the time for
a complete oscillation to occur. therefore, on your displayed y vs. t graph, the period is simply the
time between two successive peaks (or troughs or other similar points). Determine the period using
this method and record it in your notebook. Also do the calculation (using Eqn. (IX-14) and the
effective mass) to determine k.
10
The second method is to use the Model function of the software (click the blue M tab) and
determine the equation of the cosine curve. Notice that this function y = Acos(Bt+C) +D looks
remarkably similar to Eqn. (IX-11). In fact, once you have a good fit, record the parameter B in
your notebook and use this (again with the effective mass) to calculate a value for k.
Consider the differences between the three values of k which you have calculated. You will be
asked to discuss these differences on your green cover sheet.

Now open your pendulum video, set the scale, origin and mark the pendulum in each frame. This
video segment includes 2-dimensional data. Generate a y vs. t and x vs. t graph. These two graphs
also appear as sine waves. In this case, the period of each appears to different. Since you will be
using the period, along with Eqn. (IX-15), to determine the length of the pendulum string, take a
moment to figure out why the periods are different and which you will use in your calculations.
Record your decisions on this matter in your notebook (along with appropriate reasons).
Now determine the period of oscillation for the pendulum directly from the graph and by utilizing
the Model function. In this case, the parameter B of the model is equal to angular frequency and
you can use the relationships between f, T, and L which are shown in Eqn. (IX-12), Eqn. (IX13) and Eqn. (IX-15). Record both values of L (from each method) calculated here and compare to
your ruler measurement earlier in the lab. Again, be prepared to discuss these difference on your
green summary sheet.
5.4 Damped harmonic motion

In DataStudio create a New Empty Data Table from the Experiment menu. Using the xy tool,
measure the time and amplitude at each positive peak on your Graph and enter them in the Table.
After you finish the Table for the amplitude values, generate a Graph out of it. Then on the Graph
you just generated, right-click and choose Settings and then unselect Connect Data Points.
On the Graph for the amplitude values, create a User-Defined Fit. In the Curve Fit window that
pops up (it might pop up behind the active window), enter A*exp(-gamma*x) as the expression for
the fit function. Click Accept.
How good is this exponential fit for your data? Do you think that you could fit the data better with
a different functional form?
If the fit is not satisfactory, then what is going on?
Lets assume that we are approximating the system using Eqn. (IX-17). Then determine all the
parameters in Eqn. (IX-17) from your graph and fit.
11
Addendum
Effect of a Non-Zero Spring Mass on the Oscillation Frequency
We have already seen that if a spring has zero mass,
then when a mass is attached to it, the equation of
motion of the spring-mass system is
x
my + ky = 0
dx
where we again use the overhead dot convention to

denote time differentiation. The square of the
oscillation period is then
2
2 m
T = 4 ---k
B
We now derive the effect on the equation of motion,
y
and hence the period, of the spring having a nonzero mass. Let the spring have a uniform mass per
Figure IX-7: - Vertical spring of mass ms =
unit length = ms/L and total mass ms and length L.
L, where is its mass per unit length.
If the coordinate of the mass (the spring's end-point)
is y, then its velocity is y . The velocity of a point at a distance x below the top of the spring is then,
by proportionality,
x-y
= --x
L
y
x = --- x
L
Hence an infinitesimal piece of the spring of length dx located at a distance x below the top of the
spring contributes a kinetic energy,
1
dK s = --- ( dx )
2
2
2
y 2
--y- x = 1--- ----x dx
L
2 L2
and the complete spring contributes a kinetic energy, Ks,
12
Ks =
dKs =
0
1
= --- ( L )
2
0
2
y
----3
L
2
1--- y 2
----- x dx
2 L2
L
x
0
dx
2
3
y
1
L
= --- m s -----3 ----3
2
L
1
2
= --- m s y
6
Including the other mass and the spring's potential energy the total energy ET of the system is
ET = K + Ks + U
1
2 1
2 1
2
E T = --- m y + --- m s y + --- ky
2
6
2
.
1
1
2 1
2
E T = --- m + --- m s y + --- ky
2
3
2
The gravitational potential energy has not been included because we already know that its only
effect is to change the equilibrium location, not the oscillation frequency.
Since the total energy of the system is conserved,
dE T
1
0 = --------- = m + --- m s y
y + k y y
dt
3
If we factor out the (non-zero) value of dy/dt, then we get the simple equation of motion
m
y + k y = 0.
(IX-18)
if we let m* be an effective mass given by

1
m = m + --- m s
3
(IX-19)
Everywhere that the quantity m appeared before, such as in the formula for the period of oscillation,
all we need to do is replace it with m* and we will have included the effect of the spring's mass.
EXPERIMENT X
FLUID FLOW
1.0 Objective
In this experiment we will be examining a property of liquids called viscosity. A series of
experiments will be performed to verify the validity of mathematical relationships regarding fluid
flow and to determine the viscosity of water.
Please note this material will not be covered in lecture. You are responsible for it on lab exams
only.
2.0 Background
2.1 Viscosity
All liquids display a property called viscosity - a measure of a fluids thickness (tendency to
resist flow.) In essence, a fluids viscosity is determined by the internal frictional force between
different layers of the fluid as they move past one another. In liquids, this friction is due to cohesive
forces between molecules.
All fluids possess different levels of viscosity. Often viscosity is not specifically appreciated as a
characteristic property of a liquid (ex: water in daily usage), yet on occasion viscosity becomes
very apparent (maple syrup). The viscosity of liquids is temperature-dependent, typically
decreasing as a fluid is heated (although this is not strictly true).
2.2 Coefficient of Viscosity

The viscosity of fluids can be expressed quantitatively by the coefficient of viscosity, . To better
define , consider the following:
A thin layer of fluid is placed between two flat plates. One plate is stationary, the other is in motion
[see Figure X-1]. The fluid directly in contact with either plate is held in place by cohesive forces
between the molecules of the liquid and those of the plate. Thus the upper surface of the fluid
moves with the same speed, v, as the upper plate and the liquid in contact with the stationary plate
remains stationary.
X - FLUID FLOW
Between each thin layer of fluid, friction retards the flow of the layer just above it and so on
through the entire liquid. The result is that the velocity of the fluid varies linearly from 0 to v as
shown in figure X-1.
Figure X-1: Motion of fluid between two plates
Moving Plate
F
v
L
Stationary Plate
To move the upper plate in this example requires a force. For a given fluid, this force, F, is
proportional to the area of either plate, A, and to the speed, v, and is inversely proportional to the
separation, L, of the plates: F v A/L. The proportionality constant is defined as the coefficient
of viscosity,
Av
F = ---------L
(X-1)
The units of are Ns / m2, which is equivalent to Pas (a Pa - Pascal - is a standard unit of pressure
and is defined as a N/m2).
2.3 Categorizing Flow

In general, we can distinguish two types of fluid flow: laminar flow and turbulent flow. Laminar
flow (or flow in layers) describes a regular flow pattern as depicted in figure X-1 and was used
to derive Eqn. (X-1). All aspects of laminar flow can be fully characterized both physically and
mathematically.
Turbulent flow describes all remaining forms of fluid flow, characterized by irregular flow patterns
such as vortices, intersecting stream patterns, etc. For this type of flow, simple physical
description, prediction, or mathematical characterization is no longer possible. In fact, advanced
chaos theory is often used to obtain some form of description and understanding of turbulent flow.
The onset of turbulent flow is often abrupt. For a cylindrical tube, turbulent flow can be
characterized approximately by the Reynolds number, Re:
X - FLUID FLOW
2 v R
Re = ------------------
(X-2)
where <v> denotes the average speed of the fluid, the density of the fluid, R the internal radius
of the tube, and the coefficient of viscosity of the liquid. Flow in a cylindrical tube is laminar if
Re < 2000, but is turbulent if Re 2000
2.4 Laminar Flow

If a fluid had no viscosity, it could flow through a level pipe without any applied force. Because of
viscosity, a pressure difference between the ends of a tube is necessary for steady flow of any fluid,
be it water, maple syrup or blood in the circulatory system of a human being.
The volume rate of fluid flow in a cylindrical tube, Q, is defined as the volume of fluid flowing
past a given point per unit time. Q depends on the viscosity, the pressure difference, and the
dimensions of the tube according to the Poiseuille equation Eqn. (X-3).
4
PR
Q = ----------------8L
(X-3)
In Eqn. (X-3), R denotes the inside radius of the tube, P the pressure difference (also called drop)
between the ends of the tube, the viscosity, L the length of the tube.
The derivation of Eqn. (X-3) is long and we will therefore not go into specifics. However, one
intermediary result is noteworthy: the velocity profile of the fluid in a cylindrical tube [see Figure
X-2] is:
2
P ( R r )
v ( r ) = ----------------------------4L
(X-4)
where v(r) denotes the fluid velocity at a distance r from the central axis of the tube, R the
maximum internal radius of the tube (a constant), P, , and L as defined earlier.
Figure X-2: Laminar flow in a cylindrical tube
Eqn. (X-4) states that for laminar flow in a cylindrical tube, the velocity profile of the liquid is a
parabolic function of r.
X - FLUID FLOW
3.0 Apparatus
We will now progress into a set of experiments allowing the opportunity to determine the viscosity
of water at room temperature.
3.1 Bring From Home
calculator and graph paper
3.2 Permanent lab apparatus
5 gallon water reservoir

valve liquid-distributor box
selection of tubing of various lengths and diameter
set of containers to catch water flowing from the tubing
3.3 Check Out From Physics Stockroom
stop watch
X - FLUID FLOW
Figure X-3: Experimental Setup

A
Pipe
Rise tube
Outflow
opening
B
Liquid distributor
box
Tubing connectors
When performing the flow experiments, the water level in the supply reservoir will gradually drop.
Since the elevation of this water level strictly defines the pressure of the flow system, we should
find that during a measurement sequence the pressure will gradually drop with the decrease in the
reservoir. Our system actually overcomes this problem as follows:
Consider our supply reservoir in figure X-3, which has no other openings than an outflow opening
B and a hollow pipe A. When water is drained from the reservoir through B, air is pulled in through
A to restore the pressure balance between the inside of the reservoir and outside atmospheric
pressure. As a result, when the reservoir is drained, the pipe at A will remain free of water and air
bubbles as air enters the reservoir. Consequently, the pressure inside the reservoir at the lower end
of the intake pipe is always identical to atmospheric pressure.
The pressure in the liquid-distributor box is measured by a rise tube. The static pressure in the box
will cause the water column to move up inside the tube. The height of the column is proportional
to the pressure inside the box and can be read on a ruler. Pressure obtained in this manner will be
expressed in meters of H2O. Absolute pressure is then calculated using the formula:
P = gh
(X-5)
X - FLUID FLOW
where P denotes the pressure (N/m2), is the density of H2O, g (acceleration of gravity), and h
(height of the H2O column).
Flow and pressure are controlled by opening and closing the reservoir spigot by means of a hose
clamp. Measurements on the flow system will generally use Eqn. (X-3): Q, the flow rate, will be
measured as function of R, the radius of the tubing, P, the pressure difference over the tubing, and
L, the length of the tubing. As stated earlier, the coefficient of viscosity is temperature-dependent.
Q (m3/s) will be obtained by measuring the outflow of water in grams for a fixed period of time.
4.0 Procedure
First establish equilibrium pressure in the setup: The rubber stopper on the cap of the water tank
should be tight. Open the tap of the water tank. Drain water from the setup until the water level in
the rise tube stabilizes. The height of the water in the rise tube, measured from the level of the
cocks, corresponds to the pressure difference P across the small vinyl tubings, since one end
of the rise tube as well as one end of each tubing are open to the air. Leave the tap of the water
tank open for the entire experiment. Note the room temperature in your data sheet.
4.1 Determining Q and the Viscosity of Water at Room Temperature

In this section, you will determine Q for tubing with internal diameters of 1/16 and 1/32 and
varying lengths (0.5m, 0.33m, 0.25m) and then calculate for water at room temperature.
Useful data:
1 atm (atmosphere pressure) = 1.013 105 N / m2 = 1.03 104 mm H2O; 1= 25.4 mm
h20 (room temperature) = 1.11 10-3 N s / m2
Set up a pressure difference across the tubing of approx. 0.5 m H2O.

For a diameter of 1/16 and all 3 lengths, measure the outflow of water for approximately 1-2
minutes. Calculate the volume of water outflow from the mass of water outflow for each length.
NOTE: The outflow end of the tubing should be at the same height as the
inflow end when measuring flow.
From the outflow measured, calculate the output, Q, in m3/s
Using your data, determine Qi for the remaining lengths of tubing, Li. Repeat the procedure for the
second diameter, 1/32, measuring the outflow for approximately 3 - 5 minutes.
X - FLUID FLOW
Note: taking turns with your partner, outflow measurements on the different lengths of tubing can
be performed virtually simultaneously, substantially reducing experimentation times.
4.2 Dependence of Laminar Flow on the Shape of the Flow Path

This section investigates the characteristics and consequences of Eqn. (X-3).
Using a 0.5m length of 1/16 tubing, construct four different pathways as described below for the
flow to travel.
***Be careful not to kink, crush, knot or tightly coil the tubing***
Sketch your particular version of the path in your data sheet and measure Qi for two of the
following paths:
curving upward, then down (mountain)

down, then up (valley)
sideways, then back (moderate curvature)
moderately coiled
Determine Qi for all paths for an outflow time of approximately 60 seconds each.
5.0 Analysis
5.1 Q and the Viscosity of Water
Warning - in the following analysis and calculations, be very careful to check that you have the
correct units.
Graph Qi vs. R4P / Li for both tubing diameters on two different graph, being careful to
distinguish the different data sets.
Determine the best-fit slope for both data sets individually. Calculate the theoretical value for the
ratio of the slopes. Determine the experimental value for the ratio of the slopes. Compare and
contrast the experimental and theoretical values, discussing any differences and their causes.
Now treating the data from both diameters as a single data set, use your calculator to perform a
linear regression fit on all the data, and from the slope calculate .
If the best fit lines are extrapolated backward, do they pass through the origin? Is this what you
expect? Develop a qualitative description of what the y-intercept is telling you.
X - FLUID FLOW
Compare and contrast 1-3.
5.2 Dependence of Laminar Flow on Flow Path

Examine Eqn. (X-3) -- how does Q depend upon of the path taken by the fluid according to the
equation?
For your four fluid paths, determine Q Q . What should it be? Discuss the differences in your
values for Q and the sources of error.
From Q and the cross-sectional area of this tube, determine the average velocity, <v>, of the fluid
flow. Using <v>, from section 5.1, and the density of water, w = 1 gm/cm3, determine the
Reynolds number, Re, for water at room temperature flowing through this particular cylindrical
tube. Was the fluid flow laminar or turbulent?
Name:
Partners name:
Date and time:
Physics 151Lg/161L
Experiment 11
OBJECTIVE
To quantitatively investigate the heat flow through the walls of a model structure. To investigate
thermal radiation using a Leslies cube.
EQUIPMENT
One in the room: model structure with four different walls and roof, two infrared heat lamps (GE
37771, 250 W) inside the model structure, and glass thermometer inside the model structure; one
for each group: digital thermometer and infrared thermometer; two in the room or one in each
room: Leslies cube, radiation sensor, ohmmeter, millivoltmeter, and window glass.
INTRODUCTION
In the first activity, the temperatures on the outer surfaces of the model structure will be
measured using an infrared thermometer. By also using the inside and outside ambient
temperatures and the known power of the heat source, the R-values for the different walls and
the roof will be calculated.
In the second activity, the thermal radiation from the different surfaces of a Leslies cube, which
have the same temperature, will be measured and compared using a radiation sensor.
BACKGROUND
In the last experiment, we learned about the concepts of heat flow and thermal resistance. In this
experiment we will apply this knowledge to a realistic case. We will then study thermal radiation
in the second part of this experiment.
Remember that the thermal power P (heat flow per unit time) through a layer of material
depends on the temperature difference T across the layer and the thermal resistance R of the
layer. The more the temperature difference is the more the thermal power, and the more the
thermal resistance is the less the thermal power. Therefore we have
P=
T
.
R
(1)
When you buy layers of materials used in building structures, they usually specify the R-value
Rv . The more the surface area A of the layer of material is the less the thermal resistance R .
Therefore we have
R=
Rv
.
A
(2)
Experiment 11
11-2
When several layers of materials are stacked on top of each other, the thermal power P flows
equally through each material after the steady state is reached. In this case the different surfaces
will be at different temperatures and Equation 1 will still apply. If one knows the R-value Rv for
each layer, the effective R-value could be found by adding the R-values. Note that the air also
acts as a layer, on both inside and outside surfaces. The R-value of the layer of air, like any other
material, depends on the thickness of the layerthe more the thickness, the more the R-value.
PROCEDURE
Activity 1: case study
The heat lamps should have been left on overnight, with the model structure now being in steady
state, with the temperatures being constant and the heat flow being uniform.
We will calculate the R-values as follows. We will neglect the inside layer of air but only
consider the outside layer. The reason is technicalwe cant measure the temperatures at the
inside surfaces without opening the structure. Then we will first determine the thermal resistance
Rair of the outside layer of air. Next the thermal power Pwall through each wall and the roof will
be found. Finally the thermal resistance Rwall for each wall will be calculated. Note that this will
include the thermal resistances of the layer of the material and inside layer of air.
Read the inside ambient temperature Tambient inside from the glass thermometer inside the structure.
Then measure the outside ambient temperature Tambient outside (the temperature of the laboratory
room) using the digital thermometer. Record them below.
Tambient inside = _ _._ C
Tambient outside = _ _._ C
The next step is to measure the temperatures on the four lateral

S
D : S = 9 :1
surfaces and top surface. According to the very fundamental
physical phenomenon known as blackbody radiation, the
D
thermal radiation from the surface of an object is almost entirely
determined from its surface temperature. (The emissivity e ,
Figure 1. Distance-to-spot
ratio D : S . D is the distance
which is a material-dependent factor, is usually fixed at 0.95.)
to the surface from the
The infrared thermometer works by measuring the amount of the
infrared thermometer and S is
infrared radiation from the surface of the object within a solid
the diameter of the spot on the
angle given by the distant-to-spot ratio 9:1 (see Figure 1). The
surface, of which the average
device is calibrated in the factory to display the corresponding
temperature is detected.
temperature at the intensity of radiation detected. Note that the
frequency spectrum of the radiation emitted from the object depends on its temperature. For most
hot object, this is in the infrared range. For hotter objects, such as the filament of a light bulb,
sun, etc., the radiation spectrum will also include visible light and beyond.
CAUTION: Do not look into the infrared thermometer with the trigger
Experiment 11
11-3
pressed. This turns on the guide laser beam, which may permanently damage your eyes.
Also do not point the device toward anyones eyes.
Since the temperature on the surfaces is not uniform, you will take four
measurements for each surface and calculate the average. Point the infrared
thermometer from a few inches to the surface and press and hold the trigger.
Record the four readings in Table 1, taken at each four quadrants of the
rectangular surface (see Figure 2).
After you measure the temperatures, find the average temperature Touter surface
on the outer surface for each wall and record it in Table 1.
Figure 2. Take
four temperature
readings on each
surface.
Finally we need to calculate the temperature differences between the outer surfaces and the
outside as well as the inside. Calculate Touter surface ambient outside = Touter surface Tambient outside and
Tambient inside outer surface = Tambient inside Touter surface for all surfaces and enter them in Table 1.
Table 1. Outer-surface temperatures and inside and outside temperature differences.
Touter surface 1 Touter surface 2 Touter surface 3 Touter surface 4 Touter surface Touter surface ambient outside Tambient inside outer surface
Front
(glass)
Left
(SHEETROCKairDUROCK)
Right
(SHEETROCKfiberDUROCK)
Back
( DUROCK)
Top
(SHEETROCKfiberMasonite)
_ _._
_ _._
_ _._
_ _._
_ _._
_ _._
_ _._
_ _._
_ _._
_ _._
_ _._
_ _._
_ _._
_ _._
_ _._
_ _._
_ _._
_ _._
_ _._
_ _._
_ _._
_ _._
_ _._
_ _._
_ _._
_ _._
_ _._
_ _._
_ _._
_ _._
_ _._
_ _._
_ _._
_ _._
_ _._
ANALYSIS
Since our structure is in the thermal steady state, the heat flow is uniform from the inside to the
outside, meaning that the thermal power entering the walls is the same as the thermal power
leaving the walls. Hence the temperatures of the walls dont change over time. Our first task is to
find out how much thermal power flows through each wall and the roof (we will neglect the
floor).
We will assume that the thermal resistance Rair of the outside layer of air is the same for each
wall and the roof. This is a fair assumption since they all have nearly the same surface area.
Using Equation 1 for each wall and summing up, we have
Experiment 11
11-4
front
left
right
back
top
Ptotal = Pwall
+ Pwall
+ Pwall
+ Pwall
+ Pwall
front
Touter
T left
T right
surface ambient outside
+ outer surface ambient outside + outer surfaceambient outside
Rair
Rair
Rair
(3)
back
T top
Touter
surface ambient outside
+ outer surfaceambient outside .
Rair
Rair
Question 1.1. We know that the total thermal power Ptotal = 500. W (the total electrical power of
our heat lamps). By substituting into Equation 3 this and the temperature differences from
Table 1, solve for Rair .
Rair = _._ _ _ _ C / W
Question 1.2. Now find the thermal power Pwall through each wall and record it in Table 2. (See
Equation 3.)
Table 2. Analysis.
Front
(glass)
Left
Right
Back
( DUROCK)
Top
Pwall
Rwall
C / W
Rv wall
Rv wall
m C / W
US
_ _ _._
_._ _ _ _ _._ _ _ _
_._ _ _
_ _ _._
_._ _ _ _ _._ _ _ _
_._ _ _
_ _ _._
_._ _ _ _ _._ _ _ _
_._ _ _
_ _ _._
_._ _ _ _ _._ _ _ _
_._ _ _
_ _ _._
_._ _ _ _ _._ _ _ _
_._ _ _
Question 1.3. Applying Equation 1 to the thermal power flowing from the inside to the outer
surface, we have Pwall = Tambient insideouter surface / Rwall for each wall. Using this separately for each
wall, calculate its thermal resistance Rwall and record it in Table 2. Note that the thermal
resistance Rwall is the sum of the thermal resistances of the wall and inside layer of air.
Question 1.4. From Equation 2 the R-value Rv = RA , where A is the surface area. Using
Awall 0.75 m 2 , calculate the R-value Rv wall for each wall.

Question 1.5. Finally in the last column, convert the R-value Rv wall for each wall to British units
used in US for commercial materials. For the conversion use
Experiment 11
11-5
1 m2 C / W = 5.6746 ft 2 F /(Btu / h) .
Question 1.6. Which wall materials result in the best thermal insulation? Does the air gap used
in the left wall make a good insulator? Would you rely on DUROCK as a thermal insulator?
Write down here any other comments along with what useful knowledge you gained in this
experiment.
Activity 2: emission and absorption of thermal radiation
In the first activity of this experiment, you used the infrared thermometer to measure the
temperature of a surface. What the infrared thermometer actually measures is the intensity of the
thermal radiation. Since the infrared thermometer doesnt know the actual physical properties of
the surface, it assumes that it has an emissivity of e = 0.95 , which is true for most materials but
not all. The total radiation emitted or absorbed by a surface is given by
P = eAT 4 ,
(4)
where = 5.6703 108 W / m2 / K 4 , e is the emissivity, A is the surface area, T is the

temperature, and Equation 4 is known as the StefanBoltzmann law. For an ideal emitter, also
known as a blackbody, the emissivity e = 1 . Most black materials have good emissivities, which
emit or absorb the thermal radiation efficiently. White materials have smaller emissivities and
shiny metal materials have the poorest emissivities. Such materials dont efficiently emit or
absorb thermal radiation and can be used to insulate radiant heat, such as for thermos-bottle or
window coatings.
In this activity you will be measuring the thermal radiation from different surfaces of a Leslies
cube. All surfaces of the Leslies cube are made of aluminum metal, therefore having good
thermal conductivities. This means that all surfaces are approximately at the same temperature.
The temperature will be measured by a thermally varying resistor, called a thermistor. The
thermistor is embedded inside one of the surfaces of the cube and you will read/calculate the
temperature from the chart attached to the cube.
The thermal radiation from each surface will be measured using a radiation sensor, which
measures the intensity of the infrared radiation.
Important notes:
1. It's helpful to preheat the Leslies cube at a setting of 5.0 for 20 minutes at the
beginning of the laboratory period.
2. Parts 1 and 2 of this activity can be performed simultaneously. Make the
measurements in Part 2 while waiting for the Leslies cube to reach thermal
equilibrium at each of the settings in Part 1.
3. When using the radiation sensor, always shield it from the hot object except for the
few seconds it takes to actually make the measurement. This prevents heating of the
Experiment 11
11-6
thermopile in the sensor, which will change the reference temperature and alter the
reading. The shutter-lock ring on the sensor should be slid all the way back so that
the sensor shutter will remain closed unless it is pressed open.
Part 1: radiation rates from different surfaces
1. Connect the ohmmeter and millivoltmeter as shown in Figure 3.

2. If the Leslies cube is
preheated, just set the switch
to 5.0. If not, turn on the
cube and set the power
switch to HIGH. Keep an
eye on the ohmmeter
reading. When it gets down
to about 40 k, reset the
power switch to 5.0.
3. When the cube reaches
thermal equilibriumthe
ohmmeter reading will
fluctuate around a relatively
fixed valueuse the
radiation sensor to measure
the radiation emitted from
each of the four surfaces of
Figure 3. Leslies cube setup.
the cube. Place the sensor so
that the posts on its end are in contact with the cube surface. (This ensures that the
distance of the measurement is the same for all surfaces.) Record your measurements in
Table 3. Also measure and record the resistance of the thermistor. Use the chart on the
base of the cube to determine the corresponding temperature. If the measured resistance
value is near the middle between two values on the chart, take the average of the two
temperatures corresponding to these values.
4. Increase the power-switch setting, first to 6.5, then to 8.0, then to HIGH. At each
setting wait for the cube to reach thermal equilibrium, then repeat the measurements of
Step 3 and record your results in Table 3.
Experiment 11
11-7
Table 3. Experimental data for the Leslies cube.
Thermal-radiation-sensor reading off the surface
(mV)
Temperature setting
Powerswitch
setting
Thermistor
resistance
(k)
Temperature
( C )
Black
White
Polished
aluminum
Dull
aluminum
5.0
6.5
8.0
HIGH
Question 2.1.1. List the surfaces of the Leslies cube in order of the amount of thermal radiation
emitted. Is the order independent of temperature?
Question 2.1.2. It is a general rule that good absorbers of radiation are also good emitters. Are
your measurements consistent with this rule? Explain.
Part 2: thermal radiation by common objects
Use the radiation sensor to examine the relative magnitudes of the radiation emitted from various
objects around the room. (Also record the sign of the reading since the radiation sensor might
show negative values.) In the space below, make a table summarizing your observations. Make
measurements that will help you to answer the questions listed below.
Experiment 11
11-8
Question 2.2.1. Do different objects, at approximately the same temperature, emit different
amounts of radiation?
Question 2.2.2. Can you find materials in your room that block thermal radiation? Can you find
materials that don't block thermal radiation? (For example do your clothes effectively block the
thermal radiation emitted from your body?)
Part 3: absorption and transmission of thermal radiation
Place the sensor approximately 5 cm from the black surface of the Leslies cube and record the
reading. Place a piece of window glass between the sensor and the bulb. Does window glass
effectively block the thermal radiation? Repeat with other materials.
Question 2.3.1. What do your results suggest about the phenomenon of heat loss through
windows?
Question 2.3.2. What do your results suggest about the greenhouse effect?
EXPERIMENT XII
IDEAL GAS LAW AND THE ABSOLUTE ZERO OF TEMPERATURE
1.0 Objective
To deduce an approximate value for the absolute zero of temperature, by measuring the pressure
of a fixed volume of gas at several fixed temperatures.
2.0 Background
In 1662 Boyle found that for a fixed amount of a gas maintained at constant temperature that the
product of absolute pressure, P, and volume, V, was constant
PV = constant
(at fixed T)
(XII-1)
This result is known as Boyle's Law.

About 100 years later Charles and Gay-Lussac published the results of their experiments on gases.
Charles found that for a fixed amount of gas at constant pressure that the ratio of volume to
temperature, T, is constant, if temperature was measured with respect to a particular origin
V
--- = constant
T
(at fixed P)
(XII-2)
Gay-Lussac showed that if the volume is held constant for a fixed amount of gas that the pressure
is proportional to temperature, as long as temperature is measured with respect to the same origin
as in Charles' Law
P
--- = constant
T
(at fixed V)
(XII-3)
The results of these experiments can be summarized in the ideal gas law
PV
------- = nR
T
(XII-4)
where n is the number of moles of gas being measured and R is the universal gas constant whose
value is 8.314 Joule/(mole-K).
XII - IDEAL GAS LAW AND THE ABSOLUTE ZERO OF TEMPERATURE
In this experiment we will be measuring a fixed quantity of gas in a container so that the volume
of the gas is fixed. According to the law of Gay-Lussac, the absolute pressure is proportional to
the absolute temperature of the gas. In order to perform the measurement, then, we need to be able
to measure the absolute pressure and temperature on some scale.
Under ordinary conditions, you measure temperature by a thermometer based upon the thermal
expansion of some material such as mercury. It is known that two liquid thermometers which use
different liquids will not always give the same temperature reading even if both have been carefully
calibrated at the ice water and boiling water temperatures. This occurs because the volume
expansion coefficients of liquids are not independent of temperature and differ from each other.
On the other hand, all dilute or low density gases give the same result to the accuracy of our
experimental apparatus, so we can use dilute gases to give us a universal definition of temperature.
We can construct a constant-volume gas thermometer by confining a fixed amount of a dilute gas
in a chamber and measuring the absolute pressure as a function of temperature. By the law of GayLussac, a plot of P vs. T will yield a straight line. We define the absolute zero of temperature, T =
0, as the temperature where the pressure would become zero. Eventually all real gases will
condense, liquefy, or freeze at sufficiently low temperature. When the gases get this cold, they start
to deviate from an ideal gas. How cold you need to go in order to see these deviations depends on
the molecular interactions for the type of gas you are studying. In this laboratory we will study two
different gaseshelium and airthe former being nearly ideal down to very low temperatures. We
will extrapolate our P vs. T line for helium to zero pressure to locate absolute zero.
In order to define a linear scale, two points are needed. The zero of temperature is obvious. The
second is a matter of convention. By international convention (SI) the second defined temperature
is the triple point of water at which water vapor, liquid water, and ice coexist. This point was
selected because of its high reproducibility and its convenience (pure water is readily available, and
the triple point is near temperatures which will ordinarily need to be measured). This triple point
temperature is defined to be 273.16 Kelvins (not degrees Kelvin). The unit Kelvin is abbreviated
K. If the pressure of our gas at the triple point of water is represented by PTP, then we define the
absolute temperature T in the Kelvin scale for a constant volume ideal gas thermometer by
P
T = --------- 273.16 K
P TP
(XII-5)
Again by international convention (SI) temperature in the Celsius scale is defined as T(oC) = T(K) 273.15. The reason for the difference in the last digit is that historically the Celsius scale was
defined first, with the origin of its scale being the melting temperature of ice at a pressure of one
atmosphere. Relative to the triple point, at a pressure of one atmosphere the temperature at which
ice melts is depressed by approximately 0.01 oC so that even in the modern convention, the original
definition of the Celsius scale is preserved. The slope of P vs. T on the Celsius scale is the same
as the Kelvin, but now temperatures less than 273.15 K are negative on the Celsius scale.
3.0 Apparatus
3.1 Bring From Home
Calculator
Find in your text the thermal expansion coefficient of stainless steel (or steel) and record
it in your Notebook. You will need this value.
Gas canister with pressure gauge.

Hot plate
Potholders to move hot plate
Water - Ice Bath
Liquid nitrogen Bath
Pressure Gauge
Pressure
Vessel
Clamp Stand
3.3 Check-out From Physics

Stockroom
Hot Water
Bath
None
In this lab you will be given two containers with

different gasses inside, one of them marked with a
green label. The following procedure is the same for
each of the gases.
The pressure vessel is attached to a handle and
pressure gauge via a vertical rod. You can clamp the
vessel at the appropriate height using the clamp
stand. Always make sure that there is sufficient
clearance below the bottom of the pressure vessel
such that it does not contact the walls of the bath.
Liquid Nitrogen
Bath
Water-Ice
Bath
Figure XII-1: Pressure Vessel and

temperature baths
The spherical stainless steel pressure vessel contains gas at a gauge pressure of about 90 PSI
(pounds per square inch) at room temperature. Gas pressure is measured by a pressure gauge
mounted on the top of the pressure vessel. It measures gauge pressure in PSI units. Note that
absolute pressure equals gauge pressure plus atmospheric pressure,
P(absolute) = P(gauge) + P(atmosphere)
4.0 Procedure
When you first come to the laboratory you will need to begin boiling water to create the hot water
bath. Before the quiz and lecture, fill the metal container with hot water so that the water will
completely cover the spherical part of the pressure vessel. Turn on the hot plate to maximum heat.
Remember, do not let the spherical vessel have contact with the metal bath container.
Prepare a table similar to table XII-1 in
which you will record your raw data.
Record the time on one clock (either a
clock on the wall or one partner's watch,
but always use the same clock) and take
readings every two minutes (after the lab
instructor is finished) until the data
collection phase of this experiment is
entirely completed. Read the gauge
pressure to as great a precision as you can.
When you read the pressure gauge, gently
tap the face of the gauge to insure the
needle is truly reading the current
pressure. All mechanical devices have
some hysteresis, and pressure gauges of
the type used in this lab are no exception.
Tapping the gauge's face will dislodge the
gauge from a position stuck slightly off of
a true reading.
Table XII-1: Sample data table
time
2:00
2:26
2:28
2:30
Gauge
Pressure
(psi)
90.0
101.2
101.3
101.6
Environment
started heat
water boiling
2:40
109.4
2:42
2:44
105.2
101.5
pressure constant
removed hot water
and substituted ice
water
It takes about 30 minutes for the water to reach the boiling temperature. When the water starts to
boil, reduce the heat to maintain a gentle boiling. Be sure that the water level is at least one inch
above the top of the vessel.
Continue taking pressure readings until three successive measurements are identical. You may then
assume that the gas is then at the equilibrium temperature of boiling water, 100.00 C. Turn off the
hot plate and remove the spherical vessel from the hot water. Be careful; hot water can cause severe
burns. You can leave the hot water for the next lab section.
Now move the pressure vessel to the water-ice bath. This bath should be a mixture (about 50%
each) of ice and water. Again, make sure the pressure vessel is not in contact with the sides of the
bath container and that the entire spherical portion of the vessel is covered with the bath. Continue
to record the pressure in both your table and its graph. You will see an initial rapid fall and an
approach to a new equilibrium value over about 20 minutes. When the pressure has remained
constant for several minutes you may assume that the gas is then at the water-ice equilibrium
temperature of 0.00 C.
Remove the vessel from the water-ice bath. Again, you can leave this bath in place for the next lab
section. IMPORTANT: Wipe all water from the pressure vessel using paper towels before
proceeding to the next step.
Now fill the blue insulated bath to about half full with liquid nitrogen. Your lab instructor will
assist you with finding and pouring the nitrogen. Slowly insert the pressure vessel into the insulated
nitrogen bath and fix it in place. Again, remember to keep the pressure vessel from contacting the
sides of the bath.
CAUTION
Liquid nitrogen is very cold and if spilled
can cause severe burns and skin damage.
Be especially careful to prevent liquid
nitrogen splashing onto your face or into
your clothes where it can get trapped
against your skin.
CAUTION
Liquid nitrogen expands in volume by three
orders of magnitude when warming to room
temperature. Do not seal any liquid in an
enclosure because it may explode.
CAUTION
Never put the digital thermometer in
liquid nitrogen, which will destroy it.
As the liquid nitrogen boils away, add more to maintain the liquid level one inch above the top of
the vessel. As the pressure vessel approaches the temperature of the liquid nitrogen, the rapid
boiling will cease and the liquid nitrogen will exhibit a gentle churning motion.
When your pressure readings again do not change for several minutes, you may assume that the
gas is now at the temperature of boiling liquid nitrogen, -195.80 C. Remove the pressure vessel
from the nitrogen bath and set it aside to warm to room temperature. Do not touch it because it
remains dangerously cold to the touch for a long time.
Finally find a barometer and record the atmospheric pressure. (This can be done at any point during
the laboratory because atmospheric pressure will not change significantly over the duration of the
measurements.) Check that it does not have a large zero offset.
5.0 Analysis
Do the following analysis for both gases but the extrapolation should only be done for helium since
the curve for air wont be linear.
Convert all pressure measurements to absolute pressure in psi (1 atm = 14.70 psi = 760 mm Hg =
29.92 inch Hg) and construct a table of your experimental results. Estimate uncertainty for each
measurement.
On graph paper, plot absolute pressure vs. temperature measured in degrees Celsius. The
horizontal axis of your graph should extend from -300 to +100C. Include your error estimates as
error bars on the graph. Now with a straight edge draw the best eye-ball straight line fit to your
data. Extend the straight line to zero pressure and record the corresponding temperature. This is
your measurement of absolute zero on the Celsius scale. By the usual procedure of changing the
slope of your eye-ball fit to the data, estimate the uncertainty in the temperature of absolute zero.1
As an alternative, calculate the least squares fit of a straight line to your data.
P = mT ( C ) + b
(XII-6)
From your calculated values of m and b determine the best fit value of the absolute zero as
measured on the Celsius scale. Compare this value with your eye-ball fit. Plot the least squares
fit straight line on your graph of P vs. T in a different style (such as a dashed line). You may need
to instead plot residuals in order to distinguish the two curves in their fit to the data.
Finally, consider the effect of the thermal expansion of the stainless steel pressure canister. Since
the canister is larger at high temperatures than at low, the volume of the gas is not a constant.
Calculate the fractional change of volume of the vessel for a temperature change of 300 degrees.
By what amount has ignoring the change of volume of the vessel above changed your estimate of
absolute zero? Compare this amount to the uncertainty in your measurement of it.
Note that this is different from the question you answered with this technique in most previous
experiments. Then you were more interested in the slope of the line. In this case the slope is unimportant
because it depends on the volume of the container and the amount of gas it contains, neither of which
you need to know.
Experiment 13
Heat engine
Table of contents
1
Objective
Background
2.1
Thermodynamic cycle of the model heat engine
2.2
Relationship between the states of the model heat engine
2.3
Processes of the model heat engine
Apparatus
3.1
Bring from home
3.2
Permanent laboratory apparatus
3.3
Check out from the laboratory stockroom
Procedure
4.1
Equipment setup
4.2
Setting up DataStudio
10
4.3
Running the heat engine
12
Analysis
14
5.1
Systematic irregularities in the pV-cycle
14
5.2
Verifying the states
15
5.3
Analyzing the thermal efficiency
16
5.4
Pumping loss
18
1 Objective
To operate a device converting thermal energy into mechanical energya model heat engine. To
calculate the heat Q added to, change U in the internal energy of, and work W done by the
system during each process in the heat-engine cycle. To calculate the thermal efficiency e of the
model heat engine.
Page 2 of 20

13Heat engine
2 Background
Heat engines convert thermal energy into mechanical energy. Many electric generators as well as
all the internal-combustion engines use heat engines to produce mechanical energy. All heat
engines use a material that undergoes a heating and cooling cycle. This material can be steam
and water or a gasolineair mixture and such. Heat is transferred from a hot bath to a cold bath
and useful mechanical work is extracted during this process. Efficiency of this cycle, that is the
ratio of the work done to the heat extracted from the hot bath, is limited by thermodynamic
considerations.
CAUTION
BE EXTREMELY CAREFUL WHEN HANDLING HOT WATER. PAY ATTENTION TO
PEOPLE AROUND YOU BEFORE HANDLING HOT WATER AND USE EXTREME
CAUTION NOT TO ACCIDENTALLY SPILL IT.
KEEP THE CONTAINERS AWAY FROM

YOURSELF AND OTHERS WHEN TRANSFERRING HOT WATER SO THAT YOU DON T
ACCIDENTALLY SPILL IT ON SOMEONE.
Before you start working on the theory, fill one of the plastic containers with cold water and put
ice in it. If you need to fill the stainless-steel pot, use hot tap water, and heat the water in the
stainless-steel pot on the hot plate and turn it off when it starts to boil. Pay extreme attention
when handling hot water.
2.1 Thermodynamic cycle of the model heat engine

Note: Our notation is such that Tc denotes the temperature at state c and TC and QC
represent the temperature of the cold bath and the heat absorbed from the cold bath,
respectively. The former subscript is italic lowercase and the latter subscript is plain
uppercase. Therefore, pay attention not to confuse between the two subscripts.
We will run our heat engine in the following cycle through states a, b, c, and d:
State a: Thermal equilibrium in the cold bath ( Ta = TC ), with no mass on the piston platform
State b: In the cold bath, with mass on the piston platform
State c: Thermal equilibrium in the hot bat ( Tc = TH ), with mass on the platform
State d: In the hot bath, with no mass on the platform
1 Process ab: The can filled with air is initially in thermal equilibrium in the cold bath with
no mass on the piston platform (state a). A mass is quickly but gently placed on the piston
platform. In a very fast process that takes a fraction of a second, the piston moves down and the
13Heat engine

Page 3 of 20
volume of the cylinder decreases (state b). Note that this process is approximately adiabatic (no
heat added or removed), as its very fast and therefore there is not enough time for heat transfer.
2 Process bc: The can is initially in the cold bath and there is a mass on the piston platform
(state b). The can is moved and inserted into the hot bath. After about thirty seconds or so,
thermal equilibrium in the hot bath is reached with a mass on the piston platform (state c). Note
that this process is isobaric, as the pressure of the system determined by the mass on the
platform and the atmospheric pressure is constant throughout the process.
3 Process cd: The can is initially in thermal equilibrium in the hot bath with a mass on the
piston platform (state c). The mass is quickly but gently removed from the piston platform. In a
very fast process that takes a fraction of a second, the piston moves up and the volume of the
cylinder increases (state d). Note that this process is approximately adiabatic, as its very fast
and therefore there is not enough time for heat transfer.
2 Isobaric heating and expansion
3 Removal of the mass and adiabatic expansion
4 Isobaric cooling and compression
1 Placement of the mass and adiabatic compression
Figure 2-1. pV-diagram for the model heat engine.
4 Process da: The can is initially in the hot bath and there is no mass on the piston platform
(state d). The can is moved and inserted into the cold bath. After about thirty seconds or so,
thermal equilibrium in the cold bath is reached with no mass on the piston platform (state a).
Note that this process is isobaric, as the pressure of the system determined by the mass on the
platform and the atmospheric pressure is constant throughout the process.
Page 4 of 20

13Heat engine
Question 2.1-1. Express pd in terms of pa and pc in terms of and pb.

Question 2.1-2. Our heat engine consists of a freely moving piston with its weight balanced with
a counterweight. Assume that with no mass on the piston, the rubber stopper on the can was
removed to let the air in and out before it was put back on. What is the pressure pa at point a on
the diagram, where there is no mass on the piston? Express pa in terms of the atmospheric
pressure p0. (For your future reference, the value of the atmospheric pressure or
standard atmosphere p0 = 101.325 kPa.)
Question 2.1-3. What is the pressure pb at point b on the diagram, where there is a mass m on the
piston? Express pb in terms of the standard atmosphere p0, m, g, and the surface area A of the
piston.
Question 2.1-4. Express the volume V of the air in the heat engine, including the cylinder, can
and connecting tubes, in terms of the height h of the piston measured from the initial height h0,
initial height h0 of the piston measured from the bottom of the cylinder, surface area of the piston
expressed in terms of the radius R of the piston, and the volume V0 of the can and connecting
tubes.
2.2 Relationship between the states of the model heat engine

Before we can proceed any further, it will help us greatly to understand the relationship between
the four states in our thermodynamic cycle.
The ideal-gas law states that
pV = nRT ,
where p, V, n, R, and T are the pressure, volume, number of moles, gas constant, and absolute
temperature (in kelvins), respectively.
The internal energy of an ideal gas is only dependent on its temperature:
U = nCV T ,
where CV is the molar specific heat at constant volume.

Note that the specific heat at constant pressure is related to the specific heat in constant volume
by
C p = CV + R .
Its useful to define the adiabatic constant as
Cp
CV
For an adiabatic process, it could be shown after some basic calculus that
13Heat engine

Page 5 of 20
pV = constant .
Combining Equations 14 easily results in
U=
1
pV .
1
For a diatomic gas like air (composed of N2 and O2), CV =
5
7
R and C p = CV + R = R .
2
2
Therefore, for a diatomic gas like air,

7
R
7
2
=
=
= = 1.40 .
CV 5 R 5
2
Cp
We will define the following ratios of volume:

r=
Va
Vb
Vc
Vb
Question 2.2-1. Using the adiabatic relationship (Equation 5) between the pressures and volumes,
p
show that b = r .
pa
Question 2.2-2. Using the isobaric relationship (Question 2.1-1) and the adiabatic relationship
V V
V V
(Equation 5) between the pressures and volumes, show that d = a r and d = c . We
Vc Vb
Va Vb
will call the volume ratio r the compression ratio and the volume ratio the cutoff ratio.
From the zeroth of law of thermodynamics, since state a is in thermal equilibrium with the cold
bath, the temperature of state a is equal to the temperature of the cold bath: Ta = TC . Likewise
since state c is in thermal equilibrium with the hot bath, the temperature of state c is equal to the
temperature of the hot bath: Tc = TH .
Note that since process ab and process cd are not isothermal but adiabatic, state b and
state d are not in thermal equilibrium with the cold bath and the hot bath, respectively; therefore,
Tb and Td are not readily equal to TC and TH , respectively.
Page 6 of 20

13Heat engine
Question 2.2-3. Using the ideal-gas law (Equation 1) and the adiabatic relationship (Equation 5)
T T
T T
T
between the pressures and volumes, show that b = c = r 1 , c = d = , and H = r 1 .
TC
Ta Td
Tb Ta
2.3 Processes of the model heat engine

In order to carry out the analysis of the heat engine, the only other law we need to know is the
first law of thermodynamics, which is basically the conservation of energy. The first law of
thermodynamics states that
Q = U + W ,
where Q is the heat added to the system, U is the change in the internal energy of the system,
and W is the work done by the system.
The work done by a thermodynamic system during an isobaric process going from state 1 to
state 2 is given by
W = p (V2 V1 ) pV .
10
Using Equations 6, 9, and 10, we can readily write down the heat Q added to the system, change
U in the internal energy of the system, and work W done by the system for adiabatic and
isobaric processes. These are given in Table 1.
Table 1. Thermodynamic variables for adiabatic and isobaric processes.
State 1 State 2
Q = U + W
U = U 2 U 1
Adiabatic
1
( p V pV )
1 2 2 1 1
Isobaric
p (V2 V1 )
1
p (V2 V1 )
1
1
( p V pV )
1 2 2 1 1
p (V2 V1 )
Question 2.3-1. Using Table 1, for each process ab, bc, cd, and da, calculate Q, U,
and W in terms of only the pressures pa and pb, volumes Va, Vb, Vc, and Vd, and
ratio of heat capacities .
In a cyclic process, where you end with the same state you started with, the change U in the
internal energy of the system is zero. Therefore for the cyclic process abcda, U = 0 ,
which results in Q = W according to the first law of thermodynamics (Equation 9). The heat
added to the system in a cyclic process can be separated into the heat absorbed from the hot bath
13Heat engine

Page 7 of 20
and the heat absorbed from the cold bath as Q = QH + QC . Note that QC is a negative quantity, as
heat is actually removed from the system by the cold bath.
The thermal efficiency of a heat engine is defined by the ratio of the work done to the heat
absorbed from the hot bath during the cycle:
e
W
QH
11
Using the relations given above, this equation can be written in various ways as
e
Q
Q
W QH + QC
=
= 1+ C = 1 C .
QH
QH
QH
QH
12
Question 2.3-2. Using the QH and QC expressions you wrote for the model heat engine in the
previous question, calculate the theoretical thermal efficiency e of the model heat engine and
V
show that it simplifies to e = 1 r1 , where r a as previously defined.
Vb
Question 2.3-3. Show that e = 1 r1
p
can also be written as e = 1 b
pa
using the formula
derived in Question 2.2-1.

Question 2.3-4. Show that e = 1 r1 can also be written as e = 1
Ta
T
T
= 1 d and e = 1 C
Tb
Tc
TH
using the formulas derived in Question 2.2-3.

Question 2.3-5. Using the results from the previous question, show that e < eCarnot = 1
TC
,
TH
where eCarnot is the thermal efficiency of a Carnot engine, which is the most thermally efficient
heat engine thermodynamically possible.
CHECKPOINT: DO NOT PROCEED TO THE NEXT STEP BEFORE YOU HAVE YOUR WORK UP TO THIS
POINT CHECKED BY YOUR TA.
3 Apparatus
3.1 Bring from home
Calculator.
Page 8 of 20

13Heat engine
3.2 Permanent laboratory apparatus

PASCO TD-8572 heat-engine apparatus, CI-6538 rotary motion sensor, CI-6534A lowpressure sensor, two CI-6605A temperature sensors, 90 cm rod, ME-8735 large rod stand, 5 g
plastic mass hanger, 10 g and 20 g drilled masses, thread, two 1 gallon plastic containers,
stainless-steel pot, potholder, hot plate, ice, meterstick, and computer with DataStudio software.
3.3 Check out from the laboratory stockroom

100 g and 200 g slotted masses, digital caliper, and digital thermometer.
4 Procedure
4.1 Equipment setup
Refer to Figure 4-1 for the description of the setup.
The heat engine must be attached through the heat engines rod clamp to a vertical rod clamped
on a large rod stand. It should be oriented with the piston end up and located at the bottom near
the large rod stand.
The rotary motion sensor should be attached to near the top of the rod.
The pulley of the rotary motion sensor should be aligned with the hole on the piston platform and
a thread should be connected to the platform (see the inset in Figure 4-1) and it should loop over
the medium groove of the pulley and connect to the 5 g mass hanger.
The thread coming from the piston platform should loop over the pulley in the direction of the
positive arrow on the rotary motion sensor. In this way the rotary motion sensor will register a
positive displacement when the piston is rising and the volume in the cylinder is increasing.
There should be a 20 g and a 10 g drilled mass on the 5 g mass hanger, totaling 35 g in order to
act as a counterweight for the 35 g piston.
The piston should be initially positioned 2 to 3 cm from the bottom.
The gauge-pressure sensor should be attached to one port of the heat engine and the can to the
other port. All clamps should be loose (open). The rubber plug on the can must be sufficiently
tight so that air doesnt leak (but dont overtighten it).
The gauge-pressure sensor should be connected to Channel A and the cold-bath and hot-bath
temperature sensors should be connected to Channels B and C, respectively, on the interface.
The yellow and black plugs of the rotary motion sensor should be connected to Channels 1 and 2,
respectively.
13Hea
at engine

Figure 4-1
1. Complete settup. (Inset: Thrread attachmen
nt to the pistonn platform.)
Page 9 o
of 20
Page 10 of 20

13
3Heat en
ngine
If you haavent done so

s yet, fill on
ne of the plaastic containeers with coldd water and pput ice in it. If
you need
d to fill the sttainless-steel pot, use ho
ot tap water, and heat thee water in thee stainless-steel
pot on th
he hot plate and
a turn it offf when it staarts to boil. P
Pay extremee attention w
when handlingg hot
water.
See, agaiin, Figure 4-1 for the com
mplete equip
pment setup..
Question
n 4.1-1. Calcculate the vo
olume V0 of the
t air contaained in the ccan and connnecting tubees in
3
cm . In order
o
to do th
his, using thee digital caliper, measuree the outer ddiameter andd outer lengthh
excluding
g the rubber-stopper-plu
ugged portion
n of the alum
minum can aand, using thhe meterstickk,
measure the total length of the co
onnecting tub
bes. Since yyou need the inner dimennsions of the can,
account for
f the appro
oximate 0.32
2 mm thickness of the aluuminum (tw
wice for the ddiameter, oncce
for the leength). Also,, since you cannot
c
accesss the inside oof the tubes,, use 3.175 m
mm for the innner
diameter of the tubess.
4.2 Setting up DataStudio

D
o
From thee previous ex
xperiments, you
y should already
a
be hiighly familiaar with the D
DataStudio
software..
Make
M
sure thaat the rotary motion senssor yellow aand black connnectors are connected tto
Channels
C
1 an
nd 2 of the in
nterface, resspectively.
Make
M
sure thaat the low-prressure senso
or is conneccted to Channnel A.
The
T cold-bath
h and hot-baath temperatu
ure sensors sshould be coonnected to C
Channels B aand
C,
C respectivelly.
After
A
the senssors are physsically conneected, assignn them in thee software:
In
n the DataStu
udio interfacce-setup win
ndow (click
), set the senssors to rotaryy
motion
m
sensor, low-pressu
ure sensor, and
a stainlesss-steel tempeerature sensoors (two of thhem)
on
n the corresp
ponding chaannels. Note that the senssors should bbe assigned to the correcct
ch
hannels and especially make
m
sure thaat the rotaryy motion sensor is assignned to Channnels 1
an
nd 2 (not Ch
hannels 2 and
d 3 etc.), wh
hich will otheerwise produuce meaninggless data.
Click on the rotary motion

m
sensor icon in thee interface-seetup window
w and make ssure that
nly the posittion (m) meaasurement is selected undder either M

Measurementt tab and all oother
on
measurement
m
ts are deseleccted under both
b
Measureement tabs,
th
he resolution
n is set to Hig
gh (1440 div
visions per rrotation) (this gives betteer precision ffor
th
he rotary mo
otion sensor readings),
r
th
he linear scale is set to th
he Medium groove
g
of thee pulley (whhere the threaad is passingg
ov
ver in our seetup),
an
nd the sampling rate is set
s to 100 Hzz.
13Hea
at engine

Page 11 o
of 20
Likewisee, for the low

w-pressure seensor,
seet the resoluttion to Low (1x) (this giives the maxximum pressuure range at the sacrificee of
th
he resolution
n, digitizing the
t entire prressure rangee),
on
nly select the pressure measurement
m
t in kilopascaals (kPa),
an
nd check thaat the sampliing rate is 10
00 Hz.
And likew
wise, for thee two stainless-steel temp
perature sennsors,
seet the resoluttion to Low (1x) (this giives the maxximum tempeerature range at the sacrifice
of the resolution),
on
nly select the temperaturre in kelvinss (K) measurrement,
an
nd check thaat the sampliing rate is 10
00 Hz.
Note thatt the low-preessure sensorr is a gauge--pressure sennsor, which m

means that iit measures tthe
differencce between th
he absolute pressure
p
and
d the atmosphheric pressuure. In order to get the
absolute pressure, wh
hich we simp
ply call pressure, you neeed to add thhe atmospherric pressure,
which yo
ou can assum
me to be equaal to the stan
ndard pressuure p0 = 101..325 kPa , too the gauge
pressure. Therefore,
p = p0 + pgauge .
Now com
mes the sligh
htly complicaated part: Cllick
and defin
ne and calcullate the follo
owing variab
bles:
13
and oppen the Calcculator winddow
Note: Fo
or the multip
plication op
perator, use the asterisk
k * and for the power ooperator, usse
the carett ^. Use pi for
f .
Pa) and exprress it in term

Create
C
a new variable preessure p (kP
ms of the stanndard pressuure p0
an
nd the gaugee pressure pgauge
. Set pgauuge as the Datta Measurem
ment for the low-pressurre
g
seensor (which
h measures the
t gauge preessure). Set p0 as a Consstant equal too
p0 = 101.325 kPa . Click Accept.
Create
C
a new variable vollume V (cm3 ) and usingg the formulaa you deriveed in Questioon
m) of the pistton
2.1-4, expresss it in terms of the follow
wing quantitties: (1) The height h (m
measured
m
from
m the initial height of th
he piston, (2)) initial heighht h0 (cm) oof the piston, (3)
raadius R (cm)) of the pisto
on, and (4) initial
i
volum
me V0 (cm3 ) of the cylindder.
IM
MPORTAN
NT: Note tha
at the rotary
y motion seensor measu
urement h (m) is in meeters
and you musst convert itt into centim
meters by m
multiplying itt with the ap
ppropriate
onversion fa
actor in the formula yo
ou are defin
ning. Then seet h (m) as tthe Data
co
Measurement
M
t correspond
ding to the ro
otary-motionn-sensor posiition readingg in meters. S
Set
Page 12 of 20

13Heat engine
h0 (cm) , R (cm) , and V0 (cm3 ) as Constants. Finally, dont forget to click Accept after
youre done.
The initial position h0 (cm) of the piston should be about 2.0 to 3.0 cm measured from
the bottom. Decide on a value and enter it in DataStudio and click Accept. Remember
this value when doing the experiment. If you observe a different value during the
experiment, make sure to update the value of this Constant.
The diameter of the cylinder is 32.5 mm . Convert the diameter in millimeters to the
radius in centimeters and enter it in the box for the Constant R in DataStudio in
centimeters and click Accept.
For the initial volume V0 (cm 3 ) , use the value you calculated in Question 4.1-1 and enter
it in DataStudio and click Accept.
Set up the appearance of your variables in the graphs:
Select V from the drop-down menu (small triangle) in the Calculator and, under
Properties, set the measurement name, variable name, and units to V, V, and cm3,
respectively.
Select p from the drop-down menu (little triangle) in the Calculator and, under Properties,
set the measurement name, variable name, and units to p, p, and kPa, respectively.
Finally create a pV-diagram:
In the left column of the software, drag the p measurement listed under Data to the Graph
display listed under Display.
Click on the horizontal-axis label (currently set as Time) and select V from the pop-up
menu.
If any of your formulas or constants is incorrect, your data will make no sense. Therefore, at this
point, call your TA and ask him/her to check all your formulas and constants to verify that they
are all correct.
CHECKPOINT: DO NOT PROCEED TO THE NEXT STEP BEFORE YOU HAVE YOUR WORK UP TO THIS
POINT CHECKED BY YOUR TA.
4.3 Running the heat engine

None of the tubes should be clamped during this experiment. Therefore, make sure that all
clamps are open and loose.
The setscrew for the piston rod (used to immobilize the piston) should be loose and not interfere
with the piston rod so that the piston can move freely. But do not remove the setscrew.
13Heat engine

Page 13 of 20
If the volume on the graph decreases when the actual volume is increasing or vice versa, either
the thread is looped over the medium groove of the pulley in the wrong direction (check for the
positive arrow mark on the rotary motion sensor) or the plugs on the interface are crossed
(yellow must be connected to Channel 1 and black to Channel 2).
With respect to the bottom of the cylinder, the piston should be positioned at the h0 (cm) value
you entered in DataStudio. To move the piston, remove the rubber stopper on the can in order to
let air in and out of the system. Do not let the piston hit the bottom or top of the cylinder.
One of the plastic containers must be filled about three quarters full with icy water.
Fill the other plastic container about three quarters full with hot water heated to about 80
100 C. Grab the pot firmly with the potholder and pay extreme attention when handling the hot
water.
Insert the temperature probe connected to Channel B in the cold bath and the temperature probe
connected to Channel C in the hot bath.
Our goal is to physically generate the pV-diagram we studied.
You will start with the aluminum can in the cold bath in equilibrium and no weight on the piston
platform. This will be state a. Remove the rubber stopper on the can in order to let air in and out
of the system so that the pressure in the system is approximately the atmospheric pressure. Then
plug the can with the rubber stopper reasonably tight (but not too tight). Insert the can in the cold
bath, with most of the can in the water but not all of ita few centimeters of it should be above
the water so that you dont get water into the system. After the aluminum can has been inserted
and reached equilibrium in the cold bath (about a minute), record the initial piston height and
enter it into the DataStudio Calculator window as the Constant h0 (cm) and click Accept.
Click Start on DataStudio. To go to state b, you will have to add the 200 g slotted mass. You
need to do this smoothly, without jerking the piston. Once the mass is on the platform, you need
to take the can out of the cold bath quickly and then insert it into the hot bath; otherwise, the
process ab wont be adiabatic (there will be heat exchange with the system).
The next step is to wait for the can to reach equilibrium in the hot bath. Observe the graph to see
if this is happening. Once you are in equilibrium, you are at state c.
Similarly, to go from state c to state d, you need to remove the mass without jerking the platform.
Once the mass is off the platform, you need to take the can out of the hot bath quickly and then
insert it into the cold bath; otherwise, the process cd wont be adiabatic (there will be heat
exchange with the system).
The final step is to wait for the can to reach equilibrium in the cold bath. Observe the graph to
see if this is happening. Once you are in equilibrium, you are at state d.
Page 14 of 20

13
3Heat en
ngine
Click thee Scale to fit button

to
t fit the pV--diagram niccely on the ggraph. Practicce the pVdiagram several timees until you get
g it right. You
Y should ddelete all thee unwanted ddata runs usiing
the Edit menu
m
to redu
uce clutter.
Once you
u get a satisffactory pV-d
diagram with
h the 200 g m
mass, note doown the Runn # for it andd
make surre to keep this data set (d
do not deletee it).
Repeat th
he same expeerimental prrocedure with
h the 100 g m
mass until yyou perform a satisfactorry
data run. Note down the satisfacttory Run # fo
or the 100 g mass, and m
make sure to keep this daata
set (do no
ot delete it).
On the pV-graph, clicck the Data button
b
and seelect No Datta. Then seleect both of thhe
appropriaate Run #s correspondin
ng to the 200 g and 100 g masses. Noow, with botth data appeaaring
on the saame graph, cllick the Scalle to fit butto
on
to fit the pV-diagrram nicely oon the graph..
Maximizze the window
w and obtain
n a printout of
o the pV-di agram in lanndscape modde.
Once you
ure done lig
ghtly tighten the setscrew
w for the pistton rod so thhat the pistonn is immobillized
and thereefore protectted from hitting the botto
om or top off the cylinderr.
5 Ana
alysis
5.1 Sy
ystematic irregularit
i
ties in the pV-cycle
As with any
a real and sophisticateed experimen
nt, you shouuldnt expectt your resultss to fully
conform to pure and simple theorretical physiics. For exam
mple remembber that we aassumed som
me of
the proceesses to be very quick an
nd therefore adiabatic (noo heat absorrbed or released). This iss
obviously
y one condittion that cann
not be fully satisfied durring a real exxperiment. E
Even the isobbaric
processess themselvess wont be trruly isobaric, as there wiill be some ooscillations aand finite
response times in thee system. There will also
o be inherentt problems inn the equipm
ment itself, suuch
t
the sides
s
of the piston,
p
frictiion, backlashhes in variouus linkages, etc. Only
as leaks through
through an
a actual exp
periment, theese effects can be observved and undeerstood. In tthe followingg
questionss, identify th
he causes of such effects.
Question
n 5.1-1. Clicck the Scale to
t fit button
m nicely on the graph annd
to fit thee pV-diagram
examine what is goin
ng on near eaach state a, b,
b c, and d. A
Are there anyy bounces annd drifts neaar
states a, b,
b c, and d? By examinin
ng how mucch time it takkes for these bounces andd drifts in
comparisson to processses ab, b
c, cd, and
a da andd using this iinformation and what yoou
know abo
out these staates and proccesses, identiify what is ccausing thesee drifts and bbounces.
Question
n 5.1-2. Does point d coiincide with point
p
a? Whhat is the reasson for the ddiscrepancy??
Question
n 5.1-3. How
w would the bounces, driifts, and disccrepancies inn Question 55.1-1 and
Question
n 5.1-2 affectt your results?
13Hea
at engine

Page 15 o
of 20
5.2 Ve
erifying the states
The main
n data we wiill analyze in
n this experim
ment is the ppressure andd volume values at the foour
states. We
W will also briefly
b
analy
yze the tempeerature data and see if it can be usefu
ful for our stuudies
or not. In
n the next secction, we wiill integrate the
t pV-data tthrough the cycle to obtaain the workk W.
Lets now
w start with verifying
v
if the
t pV-valuees at the fourr states obeyy the relationnships we
derived in the theory section.
n 5.2-1. On the
t pV-graph
h, click the Data
D button
aand select Noo Data. Thenn
Question
select thee appropriatee Run #, corrresponding to
t either the 200 g or thee 100 g masss. Use the Sm
mart
Tool
to obtain Va, Vb, Vc, and
d Vd for both
h the 200 g an
and 100 g maasses. Note tthat there aree
isotherm shifts at som
me states. Ex
xplain what an
a isotherm shift is and make sure too use the V
values beefore the isottherm shift starts.
s
Also there
t
may bee leakage isssues at some states and bbe
careful to
o record the correct V vaalues.
Question
n 5.2-2. Use the Show Seelected Statiistics button
to obttain the meaan value of pa and
pb for botth the 200 g and 100 g masses.
m
In orrder to do thiis, select Meean under the menu (littlle
triangle) of the button
n and click the
t button. Then,
T
using tthe mouse, select all the points for thhe
correspon
nding isobarric process, being
b
carefu
ul not to selecct points outtside the isobbaric processs.
Question
n 5.2-3. In Question
Q
2.1--2 and Questtion 2.1-3, y ou calculateed the theoretical results for
pa and pb. For both th
he 200 g and
d 100 g massses, measure the exact m
masses using the digital scale
and calcu
ulate and com
mpare the th
heoretical vallues of pb pa to what you measureed in the lastt
question.. (Use g = 9.80665 m / s 2 .)
Question
n 5.2-4. Gen
nerate new grraphs for thee cold-bath teemperature TC and and hhot-bath
temperatu
ure TH. Then
n use the Sho
ow Selected Statistics buutton
TC and TH for both th
he 200 g and
d 100 g masses.
Question
n 5.2-5. Calcculate
tto obtain thee mean valuee of
Va Vd Vc Vd pb
T
, , , ,
, and H ffor both the 2200 g and 1000 g masses.
Vb Vc Vb Va pa
TC
Va Vd
= . Do thhe
Vb Vc
following
g analysis fo
or both the 20
00 g and 100
0 g masses: E
Evaluate r uusing both vvolume ratios.
Find the mean value and percentaage difference of the twoo results. Arre the two vaalues reasonaably
close?
Question
n 5.2-6. Rem
member that the
t definitio
on of the com
mpression rattio is r
Vc Vd
= . Do the
Vb Va
following
g analysis fo
or both the 20
00 g and 100
0 g masses: E
Evaluate using both vvolume ratioos.
Find the mean value and percentaage difference of the twoo results. Arre the two vaalues reasonaably
close?
n 5.2-7. Rem
member that the
t definitio
on of the cutooff ratio is
Question
Page 16 of 20

13Heat engine
pb
= r because the process ab and
pa
process cd are adiabatic. For both the 200 g and 100 g masses, find the percentage difference
p
between r and b . (Use the mean value of r .) How well our experimental results obey the law
pa
of adiabatic compression and expansion?
Question 5.2-8. We had previously shown that
Question 5.2-9. We had also previously shown that
TH
= r 1 . Using the experimental results
TC
TH
and the mean values of r and , find the percentage difference between the experiment
TC
and the theory. What is the physical reason for the large discrepancy between the theory and the
experiment in this case? (Hint: Is the entire system totally immersed in the cold bath or the hot
bath at a given time?)
for
5.3 Analyzing the thermal efficiency

The thermal efficiency e can simply be calculated using the compression ratio r. Other ways are
p
T
to use b , to use C , to use W found by integrating the pressure vs. volume along with QH, or
pa
TH
to use both QC and QH. We will calculate the thermal efficiency using various methods and find
out which methods make sense.
Question 5.3-1. For both masses calculate the thermal efficiency using the compression ratio r
through the formula e = 1 r1 .
Question 5.3-2. We can also replace the compression ratio by the pressure ratio since this is an
p
adiabatic process. For both masses calculate the thermal efficiency using the pressure ratio b
pa
p
through the formula e = 1 b
pa
Question 5.3-3. In the previous section, we had seen that the use of the temperatures in the
analysis was problematic. Nevertheless, calculate the thermal efficiency using the formula
T
e = 1 C for both masses. Do these results make sense? What is the physical reason behind
TH
the problem? (See the hint in Question 5.2-9.)

Question 5.3-4. For both masses calculate QH and QC using the formula from Table 1. Also
calculate QH + QC .
13Hea
at engine

Page 17 o
of 20
Since W = pdV for an

a infinitesim
mal process,, we can inteegrate this too get the worrk for the cycle
W = pd
dV . The onlly problem is
i that all thee variables reecorded in thhe computerr are expressed as
a function of timew
we have p (t ) and V (t ) recorded buut not p (V ) . Fortunatelyy, using the cchain
c write do
own the integ
gral as W = p (t )
rule, we can
In the DaataStudio Caalculator, forr the derivatiive
derivativ
ve(2,V) is pro
ovided. For the
t integral
dV (t )
dt .
dt
dV
funcction, the Sppecial Functiion
dt
f dt
functiion, the Speccial Functionn integral(f) is
provided
d. Using these two Speciaal Functionss in the Calcuulator windoow, create a new variablee W
dV
calculated by the form
mula W = p (t )
dt . Note that ass all variablees are expressses in time t in
dt
DataStud
dio already, you
y should not
n try to exp
plicitly incluude t in yourr expression.. Your expreession
should on
nly include p,
p V, and thee two Special Functions ddescribed abbove. (Note: The 2 in thee
derivativ
ve(2,V) Speciial Function does not meean second-oorder derivattive and is nnecessary forr the
expressio
on to work.)
Once you
u create the variable
v
W, click
c
Acceptt. Under Prooperties set thhe Variable Name to W and
the Unitss to mJ.
Question
n 5.3-5. Explain why thee units of W you calculatted in DataStudio are mJJ (millijouless)
instead of
o J (joules).
Now, gen
nerate a grap
ph of W. Thiis is a graph of W (t ) (ignnore the axiss labels). In order to findd the
work W in
i a complette cycle, whaat we need iss a graph of W (V ) . To ddo that simplly click on thhe xaxis label and select V.
n 5.3-6. To find
f
the work
k W in a com
mplete cycle,, we need to find the woork done wheen
Question
to
going fro
om the initiall volume Va back to the final volumee Va. Use thee Zoom Seleect button
zoom to the
t small po
ortion of the WV-diagram
m centered arround the iniitial and finaal volumes Va.
The finall volume in a complete cycle
c
is the same
s
as the iinitial volum
me. Note thatt the volume Va is
traversed
d three timess in one comp
plete cycle. As
A you see iin the graph,, the work W at the initiaal
volume Va is 0. Use the
t Smart To
ool
to fin
nd W at the ffinal volumee Va (the thirrd time Va is
traversed
d). This is thee work W do
one by the sy
ystem in onee complete cyycle. Importtant: As you will
notice on
n the graph, there
t
are threee values off W at each V value due tto the way D
DataStudio does
the calcu
ulation of thee derivatives and integralls. You shouuld use the toop (highest) value (whicch
comes firrst in time) out
o of the thrree. You can
n see that thi s is justifiedd because thee top value aat the
initial vo
olume Va is exactly
e
0.
Page 18 of 20

13Heat engine
Question 5.3-7. For both masses calculate the thermal efficiency using the formula
e=
W
=
QH
p dV .
QH
Question 5.3-8. In a cyclic process, U = 0 ; therefore, Q = QH + QC = W . Find the percentage
difference between QH + QC and W. Also calculate the thermal efficiency using the formula
e=
QH + QC
. What is the reason for the large discrepancy? (Hint: What happens when you
QH
subtract two large numbers that are almost equal to each other to calculate a quantity that
corresponds to their difference? How is the uncertainty in this quantity related to the uncertainty
in the two large numbers? Also, what is the problem with calculating Q by using only two pVvalues instead of integrating
dQ around the complete cycle?)
Question 5.3-9. Summarize which thermal efficiency e calculationsusing the

compression ratio r, ratio of pb to pa, ratio of TC to TH, integrated W, or sum of QC and QHare
reliable and which arent. Which result is nearly truly experimental, in the sense that it has the
least theoretical assumptions?
5.4 Pumping loss

Heat engines, such as the internal-combustion engines, have various energy losses. The inherent
thermal efficiency e of a heat engine is usually limited to no more than about 5070% for
T
practical compression ratios r (or, relatedly, for practical temperature ratios H ). In reality the
TC
actual energy efficiency of a heat engine is even lower. One significant area of energy waste
happens through the so-called pumping losses. These losses happen because a portion of the
work done by the system is not useful mechanical work, which moves some weight, but work
done against the surroundings in pumping the gas (airfuel mixture and exhaust gas) in the heat
engine.
Our model heat engine also has pumping loss, as part of the work done by the system pumps the
air in the cylinder against the atmospheric pressure but doesnt actually move the mass. We will
now quantify the pumping loss in our model heat engine.
Question 5.4-1. The work done on the mass is equal to the change in its gravitational potential
energy mgh . The mass is placed on the piston platform. The height difference of the piston
platform between which initial and final states (out of a, b, c, or d) must we use in order to
calculate the change in the gravitational potential energy of the mass during the cycle?
Question 5.4-2. The height h with respect to the initial height is equal to the Position
measurement in Data Studio. Double-click on the Position variable in the Data pane on the left
13Heat engine

Page 19 of 20
side and change the Precision to 4 (four digits after the decimal) in the Data Properties window
that opens. Click OK to save and close the window. Generate a Position vs. Time graph. Identify
states a, b, c, and d on the graph. Note that the initial height at state a is zero as it should be. Find
mgh
(where W is the
the value of the height h at state c for both masses. Then calculate mgh ,
W
work in a complete cycle), and the corresponding percentage pumping loss (amount of work not
used to change the potential energy of the mass) for both masses. In your calculations use the
actual, measured values for m and use g = 9.80665 m / s 2 . Express your results in millijoules
(mJ).
Question 5.4-3. Does the percentage pumping loss significantly change with the varying mass?
Page 20 of 20

13Heat engine
Instruction Manual
Manual No. 012-08107
DataStudio Starter Manual

Introduction
What is DataStudio?
DataStudio is a data acquisition, display and analysis program. The software works with PASCO
interfaces and sensors to collect and analyze data. You can use DataStudio to create and perform
experiments in General Science, Biology, Chemistry, and Physics for all grade levels.
Interfaces
Depending on the type of computer, the following interfaces are recommended:
SCSI/serial port computers
ScienceWorkshop interfaces
USB-enabled computers
PASPORT USB Link or Xplorer
DataStudio Requirements
To use DataStudio, you need at least the following requirements:
Macintosh - System 7.5 or higher, Free RAM: 8 Mb (16 Mb preferred), Serial, SCSI, or USB port,
CD-ROM drive, 20 MB Free Hard disk space.
Windows - Windows 95, 98 or NT 4.0, Free RAM: 8 Mb (16 Mb preferred), Serial, SCSI, or USB
port, CD-ROM drive, 20 MB Free Hard disk space.
Using DataStudio
DataStudio collects and displays data during the experiment.
Setting up an experiment is a simple matter of plugging sensors into the interface and configuring the
software. DataStudio has many ways to view data, including a digit display, meter, graph, and an
oscilloscope.
There are several ways to use DataStudio:
1. Open a pre-configured experiment.

2. Open a pre-designed workbook.
3. Create an electronic workbook or configure an experiment.
Equipment and Software Setup

Depending on the type of interface, instructions for setting up DataStudio and other equipment can
vary. See the section that applies to your interface.
Starting DataStudio for the first time- PASPORT

If you are using a PASPort sensor, you can connect the equipment at any time. Details for proper
connection can be found in the interface's manual or the sensor's Quick Start Card.
Connecting a PASPORT Sensor should automatically launch the PASPORTAL window:
These are pre-designed
electronic workbooks.
To use, simply highlight
the desired lab and click
Open Selected
Workbook.
Click here to launch

DataStudio and
create an
experiment on your
own.
If the PASPORTAL window does not launch, double-click the DataStudio icon on your desktop to
launch the DataStudio software.
When DataStudio opens, a "Welcome to DataStudio" navigator screen will appear with four options:
Select Create Experiment from the startup screen.
If DataStudio is already running, select New Activity from the File menu.
Use this option to open an

existing activity.
Use this option to

create a new
experiment.
Create Experiment
Open Activity
Enter a mathematical
Manually enter
data into a table.
expression (e.g. y = x )
Enter Data
Graph Equation
PASPORT Experiment Setup

Connect the desired sensor to a PASPORT interface (e.g. USB Link, Xplorer). DataStudio will
automatically detect the presence of the sensor, and create an appropriate display.
The measurements available will be shown in the Summary panel. In some instances, clicking the
Setup button can access additional measurements or units.
Set the sampling rate for the sensor.
Click the calibrate button to

calibrate the sensor.
Select the unit of measurement.
The Experiment Setup window shows which sensors are connected to the computer. This window also
shows the sampling rate for each sensor and available data types.
Sensors requiring calibration will have a calibrate button, which activates the calibration menu.
If you need to add a sensor that isn't connected to the interface, click on the Add Sensor button in the
Experiment Setup window. A new window listing all sensors will appear, from which you can select
the appropriate sensor.
Starting DataStudio for the first time- ScienceWorkshop

Double-clicking the DataStudio icon on your desktop will launch the DataStudio software.
When DataStudio opens, a Welcome to DataStudio navigator screen will appear with four options:
Use this option to open

an existing activity.
Use this option to

create a new
experiment.
Create Experiment
Open Activity
Enter a mathematical
expression (e.g. y = x 2 )
Manually enter
data into a table.
Enter Data
Graph Equation
ScienceWorkshop Experiment Setup

Click the Setup button to activate the Experiment Setup window. You will use this window to select
sensors and set experimental conditions.
If the software does not immediately recognize the interface, click the Change button and choose
your interface from the list in the Please Choose Data Source window. The Experiment Setup window
will then show the selected interface.
Sensors Panel
The Sensors panel lists all possible sensors. Scroll through the list to find the senor(s) for the
experiment. To select a sensor, double-click the icon in the Sensors panel. The software will
automatically choose the correct available port.
Now connect the physical sensor into the corresponding channel.

When a sensor is selected, an icon will appear in the experiment setup window, with an arrow
indicating the appropriate channel for each sensor. Double clicking the sensor icon in this window will
open up the sensor properties window where you can set measurement(s), calibration and sampling
rate. The available measurements are shown in the summary panel.
Using DataStudio to configure experimentsall interfaces

DataStudio has a variety of tools to assist with configuring experiments. Using the Summary panel
and associated functions helps further define the parameters of the experiment. The displays available
provide a powerful method of data visualization. This section deals with creating data displays and
describes the function of each.
Displaying Data
Summary Panel
The Summary panel lists measurements currently available, any collected
data in the experiment, along with displays.
To display data, the sensor or data must be associated with a display.

Dragging a display type from the bottom area of the summary panel up to a
sensor in the top area of the summary panel will create a display for the
sensor or targeted data set.
Displays can show multiple data types by dragging the sensor or data
run from the data summary column into an open display. Some displays will
be more useful than others depending on the sensors or experimental
conditions.
10
Creating a display for data

You can create or remove a display from the experiment at any time, even during data collection.
Available displays in DataStudio

The following are the types of displays and a description of each:
Graph
The graph display plots a sensor's data vs. time.
To plot one data type against another, drag the data from the data summary (in the Summary panel) to
the time axis (x-axis) of the graph. The new data type will replace time, producing an XY plot (i.e.
Force vs. Position).
Clicking and dragging a number on the axis will directly change the graph scale. Clicking and
dragging the axis line itself will move the axis in the display window.
Table
The table display shows the numerical coordinates in paired columns.
Digits
The digits display shows the instantaneous value of the data as the experiment is running.
Meter
The meter display shows a pictorial representation of the data using a graphical meter.
Histogram
The histogram display plots data points that are lumped together in 'bins' as counts. The area of a bin
is proportional to the frequency of the specified data range, or the number of times a specified
measurement value has been observed.
FFT
The FFT (Fast Fourier Transform) displays the spectral decomposition of the data. Higher sampling
rates will yield finer definition of the data's frequency spectrum. This display does not store data like
other displays. It shows a 'time-slice' snapshot of the data.
Oscilloscope
The oscilloscope display plots a time-based graph, but like the FFT shows a 'time slice' snapshot. The
data is not stored. This display is ideal for experiments using fast sampling rates.
11
Workbook
The workbook display is a powerful, self-contained authoring environment. Use this feature to create
guided scientific inquiry or as a lab write-up tool. Workbooks can contain DataStudio displays,
graphics, and text.
Setting Experiment Options
Options
Use the Options button to set sampling options. Clicking the Options button in the Experiment Setup
window will open the Sampling Options.
Manual Sampling Tab
This option is used with experiments that require selecting specific data points (instead of collecting
continuous data). These data points can then be associated with a parameter that is not measured by a
sensor. The associated parameter can be typed in manually.
Clicking the Keep data values only when commandedcheck box will activate manual sampling
mode. If the data that is kept will have associated manually input data, also check the "Enter a
keyboard value when data is kept" checkbox. If the "Prompt for a value" checkbox is checked, when
data is 'kept', DataStudio will prompt the user to manually input the associated data. The remaining
options are for describing the manually input data. You can describe and name the data, prescribe
units, as well as the numerical accuracy.
Delayed Start Tab
A delayed start condition causes DataStudio to monitor and not store any experiment data until a
prescribed condition has been met. The condition can be based on time, or an experimental condition.
Use the Delayed Start tab to select between time and data measurement, then set parameters for the
start condition.
Automatic Stop Tab
An automatic stop condition causes DataStudio to end data collection when a prescribed condition has
been met. The condition can be based on time or an experimental condition. Use the Automatic Stop
Tab to select between time and data measurement, then set parameters for the start condition.
12
Change
The change button is used to switch PASCO interfaces. Use this button to select the appropriate
interface:
13
Taking Measurements
Collecting Data
Once the experiment is set up, click the Start button to begin collecting data.
Start button and timer

When the Start button is clicked, it will change into a Stop button. Clicking the Stop button will stop
data collection. The experiment timer displays the current timing condition; either how long data has
been collected, or a countdown set by an initial timing condition.
Keep/Stop button
If the experiment has been configured for Manual Sampling (see Setting Experiment Options) the start
button will change into a Keep/Stop button. Pressing the Keep button during data collection will store
a data point. Clicking the red square to the right of the Keep button will stop data collection.
Display and Analysis Tools

DataStudio provides a complement of features designed to aid with displaying and analyzing data.
Displays may be created or closed at any time before, during or after data collection.
Scale to fit
A graph, FFT, histogram, and meter display can auto-scale using the scale to fit tool. The entire
display will automatically adjust the range so the data fills the display window.
Zoom in, Zoom out, Zoom select
The graph and histogram zoom tools change the view of the display window in order to shrink,
expand, or focus in on a select portion of the data. To use the zoom select tool, click the tool then draw
a box by clicking and dragging around the data area of interest. The graph will zoom in to the area you
selected. The Scale to Fit button will return the data back to the optimal view for all data points.
Smart Tool
The Smart Tool activates a set of cross hairs that displays the coordinate data pair of a specific data
point. As you get closer to a data point, the Smart Tool will "gravitate" towards the data point. The
displayed coordinates appear in parenthesis at the upper right edge of the small box around the cross
hairs. The smart tool may also be used to display the difference between two data points.
14
Moving the Smart Tool

To change the position of the cross hairs of the Smart Tool, hover your mouse cursor over the center
of the smart tool until the pointer turns into two crossed double arrowheads and a hand. Drag the cross
hairs of the Smart Tool to the desired location. To constrain the movement of the cross hairs to one
axis, hover the pointer over the dashed line that is perpendicular to the axis you want to move along
until the pointer turns into a hand. Drag the cross hairs to the new location.
Measuring change- Delta Tool

The Delta Tool is a feature of the Smart Tool for measuring the change
in the X and Y coordinates between two data points on a graph display.
To use the Delta Tool:
Drag the cross hairs of the Smart Tool to a data point.
Hover the mouse pointer over one of the edges of the small box around
the cross hairs until the pointer turns into a triangle and hand.
Click and drag the triangle to the second data point A dashed box will
appear with the selected data points at two of its corners. Along the sides
of the dashed box you will see the numbers that are the difference
between the coordinate values for the two points.
To resize this box, click the corner of the box containing the arrowheads and drag it to a new data
point. Clicking and dragging any dashed line will also resize the box (constraining movement to only
one dimension).
Note Tool
The note tool allows you to annotate a graph or
histogram. You can also label individual data points.
Statistics Tool
Statistics can be toggled on and off with this button.
Pressing the drop down arrow next to the sigma
symbol will display a list of available statistics.
Show Time Tool

Toggles on and off the time component of the data pair in digits, meter, and table displays.
15
Edit Data Tool

Click on the Edit Data tool to edit data in a table. When the tool is activated, a copy of the data will
appear in the data summary column. The original data set can never be modified in DataStudio. Using
this tool activates the insert and delete row buttons. These are used to either insert a blank row or
delete a highlighted row in a data table.
Some experiments require manual data collection. This data can be entered into DataStudio for
analysis. The easiest way to enter data is to create an empty data table.
From the Experiment menu, select New Empty Data Table.
After selecting this option, the software creates a table display that is ready to be edited with new data.
An indicator appears in the summary panel as well. Double clicking the measurement in the summary
column will allow the data properties to be changed. Here you can set the name of the data, units and
other properties such as accuracy.
Select Data / Remove Data

Data can be selectively viewed by using the Data button. Data sets can be toggled on and off by
clicking on the Data button, and choosing which sets are to be displayed or hidden. Data can be
removed from a display by using the Remove button. Clicking the Remove button will remove the
highlighted data set from the display.
Display Settings
Clicking the display settings button will open a menu where display options can be changed. Clicking
the down arrow next to the icon will open a menu of common display options. Double clicking in the
middle of the display window will also open the display options menu.
16
Calculator
DataStudio incorporates a calculator feature that is capable of not only calculating mathematical
expressions, but also manipulating data measurements from sensors. Similar to displays, calculations
can be created or deleted at any time.
The calculator may be used to graph equations, as well as perform calculations on data sets. Click the
Calculate button to activate the calculator window. Enter functions in the form of y = f (x) where y =
the name of the function and x = variable. Prompt DataStudio to evaluate the expression by clicking
the "Accept" button. The software will highlight any undefined terms, which need to be defined
before calculation can proceed. Variables can be defined as:
Constant: set the variable to a numeric value. This is a local variable, and will be used only in this
equation.
Experiment constant: set the variable to a numeric value that is recognized by all equations in
the experiment (e.g. mass of cart = 500 g)
Data Measurement: associate a data measurement with a variable. This will perform a calculation on an entire data set to convert the data into another desired quantity (e.g. calculate
momentum using velocity data). Simply click, hold and drag a measurement into the calculator
window and release on the variable to be defined.
Model Range: define a region for the equation, as well as the number of coordinate points
between the range.
Clicking on the buttons below the definition area allows terms to be selected and input automatically
in the correct format. Terms are grouped as:
Scientific (sin (x), cos (x), exp (x), etc.),
Statistical (min (x), avg (x), etc.)
Special (integral (x), derivative (x), etc.)
17
Fit Tool
Use the fit tool to smooth data on a graph, depending on the relationship of data types.
18
Using the Workbook

The Workbook is a special
container that can be used for lab writeups, or to create a lab activity.
Workbooks can contain text, graphics,
and data displays. DataStudio's
Workbook can be used to guide a student
through an activity, allowing the student
to perform each step of the activity and
record observations.
To begin creating a workbook, doubleclick the Workbook icon in the Displays
List of the Summary. A blank workbook
page will open.
To turn off the workbook tools, press <Ctrl> + T.
Workbook Tools
Adding a Display to the Workbook

From the display summary, click and drag a display into the Workbook window. The display will
appear in the window.
Add a text block
This tool allows you to create a text block and add text directly into the workbook. Right clicking over
the text block brings up a list of options to format the text. Selecting Always Editable allows students
to type in the box.
Add a Text File

This tool allows you to import a text file directly into the workbook.
19
Add a Picture
This tool allows you to import a .bmp or .pic graphic into the workbook.
Delete Selected Item

Removes a selected item from the workbook completely.
Add Page / Delete Page

This tool will add a new blank page to your workbook, or delete the current page.
20
Appendix B
B-1
Appendix B
Error analysis
OBJECTIVE
To provide a brief review of the concepts involved in error analysis. To learn about error
propagation in calculations.
BACKGROUND
Error analysis provides the underlying basis for confidence in scientific experiment. This arises
from the fact that measurements cannot be exact. With any measurement there is some
uncertainty introduced by limitations in equipment precision. In addition uncertainty can be
introduced by an experimental method or by the experimentalist herself. It is just this task of
learning how to account for sources of uncertainty in measurements that embodies error analysis.
In addition to errors and uncertainties that arise from direct measurements, errors are also
compounded when measurement values are used in mathematical formulas. Therefore it is
essential to know how errors interact with each other as well.
PROCEDURE
You will be expected to do an error analysis for most experiments. There are two basic ways to
estimate the measurement errors. The first and preferred procedure is to make many
measurements to obtain the mean as an expected value of the measurement and the standard
deviation as a measure of the error. Alternately, if this is not practical, you may estimate your
error in a single measurement. If you use the estimation method, you must justify your
assumptions and choices in arriving at a value for the error. In this case, if you are uncertain, you
may take the one-half the minimum division of the measuring device as the error. For example,
with a meter stick with 1-millimeter divisions, this would be 0.5 mm.
Notation
For any experimental measurement, the result that is listed must have an estimate of error
associated with it. This estimate is generally written as a range of values in which the correct
answer could lie. For example a measurement of the length of a board to be 56.2 0.3 cm means
that the length is somewhere between 55.9 cm and 56.5 cm. In this case the figure 0.3 cm is
called the absolute experimental error. Note that the absolute error must have the same accuracy
as the measured (mean) value. This means that the absolute error must have the same number of
digits after the decimal point as the mean. Another value that is often useful is the relative
error. Relative error is just the absolute error divided by the measured value (mean) and it
expresses the experimental error as a percentage of the original stated value (in this case 0.5%).
The relative error must have the same number of significant figures as the absolute error so
that one can be calculated from the other and there are no redundant digits either.
Appendix B
B-2
As a second example, consider an object with a measured mass of 34,700 300 grams. In this
case, the zeros in 34,700 are simply placeholders and have no significance. You should display
this result in scientific notation, such that there is no confusion about the significance of the
zeros. (3.47 0.03) x 104 gm properly indicates that the error is 3 in the third figure of mass.
Again notice that the decimal accuracy (2 positions to the right of the decimal) is identical for the
result (mean) and absolute error.
In addition, when making a series of measurements, the error in each measurement is unrelated
to the error in the previous measurement. This type of error is referred to as random error. An
additional type of error arises when the same error occurs repeatedly (i.e. someone cut the end
off of your ruler). This type of error is referred to as systematic error. Random errors are
statistical in nature and can be analyzed with statistical methods. Systematic error is usually
discovered by making a measurement of the same physical quantity using two completely
independent methods. These methods will not have the same systematic error associated with
them and will therefore expose the existence of a problem.
Calculation of uncertainty in a measurement
A common solution to estimating the precision of a measurement is to repeat the measurement
many times and assume that the average value of these measurements has a greater significance
than any individual measurement. How closely the measurements agree with each other (the
reproducibility of the experiment) can be used as a measurement of experimental uncertainty. If
the spread of the measurements is large compared to the average value, we infer that the
reproducibility and precision is poor and vice versa. Thus the width of the distribution of
measurements is a measure of the uncertainty or precision of our results.
The statistical method for describing a symmetric distribution is to calculate the center (the
mean) and the spread (the standard deviation). For an asymmetric distribution, interpretation of
the mean and standard deviation should be done with care. Specifically, the quantities are
defined as:
Mean value of N measurements = x =
1
N
(1)
Standard deviation of N measurements = N 1 =
(x
i
x )2
N 1
(2)
Utilizing this statistical method for a symmetric distribution provides a level of confidence in
your measurements. The derivation of the method shows that about 68% of all measurements fall
within x N 1 and about 95% of all measurements fall within x 2 N 1 . Most inexpensive
scientific calculators have these statistical functions included on them and the calculation of the
mean and standard deviation can be quite simple. It is advisable to do a calculation of the mean
and standard deviation with a calculator and by using Equations 1 and 2 to compare the results
and to make sure that you understand how the calculator works.
Appendix B
B-3
Propagating errors through calculations
After making a set of measurements, it is generally desirable to use the values obtained in some
mathematical formula. For example the measurement of a radius of a sphere may be used to
calculate the volume of the sphere. To use the value in a formula, it is essential to know how the
errors relate to each other.
The main formula in Equation 3 that you can always use is as follows. If a quantity y has to be
calculated from experimentally measured quantities x1 , x2 , x3 , , which are uncorrelated with
each other, one uses this simple partial-derivatives formula to find the absolute error y in y in
terms of the absolute errors x1 , x2 , x3 , in x1 , x2 , x3 , :
2
1 y
1 y
y 1 y
2
2
2
( x3 ) +
( x1 ) +
( x2 ) +
=
y y x1
y x2
y x3
1 y
2
=
( xi )
i y xi
(3)
Below we give you the following exercises to work out the basic cases:
Question 1. Addition and subtraction of uncorrelated quantities
If y = ai xi , with ai being constants (positive or negative), show using Equation 3 that

i
( y )
= ai2 ( xi ) .
2
(4)
Question 2. Multiplication, division, and powers of uncorrelated quantities
If y = xini , with ni being constants (positive or negative), show using Equation 3 that
i
y
2 x
= ni .
i
y
xi
(5)
Question 3. Area of a square
You are given a square with two sides being almost perfectly equal. You are asked to determine
its area A = a 2 by measuring its sides a and also to give a relative-error estimate A / A for its
area in terms of your relative errors a / a in the measurements of its sides. If you directly use
the result of Question 2, you get A / A = 2 ( a / a ) . But if you consider the square as a rectangle
with sides a b and measure both sides and use the formula A = ab , the result of Question 2
gives A / A =
( a / a ) + ( b / b )
2
2 ( a / a ) = 2 ( a / a ) .
2
Appendix B
B-4
Should the relative error A / A for the area of the square be taken as 2 ( a / a ) or as
2 ( a / a ) ? Why or why not? If you can answer this question properly, you have understood
error propagation. Hint: How does the prior knowledge that the square is almost a perfect
square affect your result?
Sample graph paper
Appendix C
Sample graph paper
This appendix is provided as a convenience so that you will have a supply of graph paper of the
appropriate kind. You should not draw on these samples but should instead make photocopies. In
using these copies, you should be aware that most photoopiers slightly distort the image,
asymmetrically expanding the image by up to about 2%. However, none of the experiments in this
laboratory manual require this level of precision.
If you believe that your data is better than this, you should carefully measure dimensions on your
copies with a ruler before reporting a result. Alternatively you can purchase small quantities of
appropriate graph papers at the campus bookstore. (Don't wait until the last minute because the
bookstore frequently runs out of popular types.
Both log and semilog papers are three cycle graphs. This is adequate for all of the data you will
take in this course. The absence of labeling on the log and semilog papers is deliberate.
Sample graph paper
Sample graph paper
Linear graph paper
Sample graph paper
Sample graph paper
Log (loglog) graph paper
Sample graph paper
Sample graph paper
Semilog graph paper
Sample graph paper
Physics 151Lg/161LMechanics and Thermodynamics

Laboratory-Report Summary
EXPERIMENT I
MEASUREMENTS AND EXPERIMENTAL ERRORS
Name: _________________________________
Date: ______________________
Partner: ________________________________
Lab period: _________________
Your lecture instructor: ____________________

(not your partners)
Lecture period: ______________
Object
#1:
#2:
#3:
#4:
Mass ( uncertainty)
Linear Dimensions
( uncertainties)
Density ( uncertainty)
Object
Mass ( uncertainty)
Linear Dimensions
( uncertainties)
Density ( uncertainty)
Turn In: This cover page and your laboratory notebook carbons.

EXPERIMENT II
PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA BY MEANS OF GRAPHS
Name: _________________________________
Date: ______________________
Partner: ________________________________
Lab period: _________________

(not your partners)
Data Set ID
Set #1
Set #2
Set #3
Video Vy vs. t
Power Law A-
Exponential B-
y = mx + b
y = axg
y = aegx
Corresponding
Function Type
Graphically Determined:
m=
g=
g=
b=
a=
a=
m=
g=
g=
b=
a=
a=
Least Squares Fit Determined
Comment on how well your three determined functions match up to the original data. Compare
the data at both ends and at least at one point near the middle.
Comment on how the values determined by each of the two methods compare.
Turn In: This cover page, your laboratory notebook carbons, and your log and semi-log graphs.

EXPERIMENT III
FREE FALL
Name: _________________________________
Date: ______________________
Partner: ________________________________
Lab period: _________________

(not your partners)
Technique
Acceleration of
Gravity
(m/s2)
"known"
9.806
Experimental
Uncertainty
(m/s2)
slope of v(t)
mean of ai
least squares
from slope
Total number of data points recorded (not spark marks): _________________
Number of missing spark marks detected: _________________
Did you do the least squares analysis using your calculator's linear regression feature or the
manual table of products?
Since all three determinations of g start from the same raw data, all three determinations should be
the same. If one (or more) of these numbers differ significantly from the others (and the "correct"
value) comment on how this may have happened, and hence how you could avoid the problem if
you had to do the experiment over again.
Turn In: This cover page, your laboratory notebook carbons, and your marked tape.

EXPERIMENT IV
ATWOOD'S MACHINE
Name: _________________________________
Date: ______________________
Partner: ________________________________
Lab period: _________________

(not your partners)
Constant Masses:
Quantity
Value (include units and uncertainty)
MA
MB
MF
What is the formula for the uncertainty in acceleration determined from Eqn. (IV-3)?
How well did your experimental values of a compare with the predictions of Eqn. (IV-4)?
Comment on the agreement (or lack of it) as a function of the added mass M3.
What value of g would your data imply? Include units and uncertainty.
Physics 151Mechanics and Thermodynamics

Experiment 5
Name: ____________________________
Partner: __________________________
Your lecture instructor: _____________
(not your partners)
Date: ___________________________
Lab period: ______________________
Lecture period: ___________________
Table 1. Masses.
m1 = m2
m1 > m2
m1 < m2
Left cart
m1 = _._ _ _ _ kg
m1 = _._ _ _ _ kg
m1 = _._ _ _ _ kg
Right cart
m2 = _._ _ _ _ kg
m2 = _._ _ _ _ kg
m2 = _._ _ _ _ kg
Table 2. Experimental data and error.
m1 = m2
Initial
m1 > m2
Final
Initial
m1 < m2
Final
Initial
Final
v1
v2
v1theory
final
% error =
% error =
% error =
v2theory
final
% error =
% error =
% error =
p1
p2
P
P
K1
K2
K
K
K
K
100
Turn in: This cover sheet and your laboratory-notebook carbons including the answers to
Questions 116.
Physics 151Mechanics and Thermodynamics

Experiment 6
Name: ____________________________
Date: ___________________________
Partner: __________________________
Lab period: ______________________
Lecture period: ___________________
(not your partners)
______________________________________________________________________________
Fill out the following tables from the lab manual.
TABLE 1. The masses.
Mass (g)
Steel ball
m1 = _._ g
Mass (our units)

m1 = 1.000
Glass ball
m2 = _._ g
m2 = _._ _ _
the lab frame.
v1
v2
p1 = m1v1
p2 = m2v2
K1 =
1
m1v12
2
K2 =
1
m2 v22
2
Initial
Finalelastic
Finalinelastic
TABLE 3. Total kinetic energy.
K1 + K 2
( K1 + K 2 )final / ( K1 + K 2 )initial
Initial
Finalelastic
Finalinelastic
the center-of-mass frame.
v1CM
v2CM
p1CM = m1v1CM
p2CM = m2v2CM
Initial
Finalelastic
Finalinelastic
Turn in: This cover sheet, the butcher paper, and your lab-notebook carbons including the
answers to Questions 15.

EXPERIMENT VII
MOMENT OF INERTIA OF A RIGID BODY
Name: _________________________________
Date: ______________________
Partner: ________________________________
Lab period: _________________

(not your partners)
Measurement
(include units and uncertainty)
Weight Holder
mass
Pulley
mass
Rp (=Dp /2)
Ring
mass
R1 (=D1 /2)
R2 (=D2 /2)
Retarding Frictional Forces
FE'
FT'
Results:
Result
(include units and uncertainty)
IE
IT
IR (dynamic)
IR (static)

Experiment 8
Name: ____________________________
Partner: __________________________
(not your partners)
Date: ___________________________
Lab period: ______________________
Lecture period: ___________________
( Fb versus d graph)
slope m =
y-intercept b =
W=
Ws =
indicates mean value.)
ds =
W actual =
Percent error =
W static-equilibrium laws W actual

100 =
W actual
Wsactual =
Percent error =
Ws static-equilibrium laws Ws actual

100 =
Ws actual
d smeterstick reading =
d ameterstick reading =
d sactual = d smeterstick reading d ameterstick reading =
Percent error =
d sstatic-equilibrium laws d sactual

100 =
d sactual
Turn in: This cover sheet and your laboratory-notebook carbons including the answers to
Questions 3 and 810.

EXPERIMENT IX
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
Name: _________________________________
Date: ______________________
Partner: ________________________________
Lab period: _________________

(not your partners)
Spring constant (k)

Hookes Law
k=
SHM (Measurement of Period)
k=
SHM (Video Model Function)
k=
Pendulum-string length (L)

Ruler Measurement
L=
SHM (Measurement of Period)
L=
SHM (Video Model Function)
L=
Damped harmonic oscillator

Initial amplitude
A=
Decay rate
Angular frequency
Phase angle
Comment on the agreement, or lack of agreement, between the two determinations of the spring
constant. Which technique do you think gives a better result and why?

EXPERIMENT X
FLUID FLOW
Name: _________________________________
Date: ______________________
Partner: ________________________________
Lab period: _________________

(not your partners)
Room temperature in celcius: _________________ Mass of styrfoam cup:

d=1/16 " R=
time of outflow, ti
[s]
mass of H2O
outflow [gm]
Volume of outflow
[m3]
Qi [m3/s]
time of outflow, ti
[s]
mass of H2O
outflow [gm]
Volume of outflow
[m3]
Qi [m3/s]
L1=
L2=
L3=
d=1/32 " R=
L1=
L2=
L3=
Path 1
Q1 =vol/time =
=
Path 2
Q2 =vol/time =
Path 3
Q3 =vol/time =
Path 4
Q4 =vol/time =
Pa s
Turn In: This cover page, your laboratory notebook carbons with the analysis, and all graphs.

Experiment 11
Name: ____________________________
Partner: __________________________
(not your partners)
Tambient inside = _ _._ C
Date: ___________________________
Lab period: ______________________
Lecture period: ___________________
Tambient outside = _ _._ C
Table 1. Outer-surface temperatures and inside and outside temperature differences.
Touter surface 1 Touter surface 2 Touter surface 3 Touter surface 4 Touter surface Touter surface ambient outside Tambient inside outer surface
Front
(glass)
Left
Right
Back
( DUROCK)
Top
_ _._
_ _._
_ _._
_ _._
_ _._
_ _._
_ _._
_ _._
_ _._
_ _._
_ _._
_ _._
_ _._
_ _._
_ _._
_ _._
_ _._
_ _._
_ _._
_ _._
_ _._
_ _._
_ _._
_ _._
_ _._
_ _._
_ _._
_ _._
_ _._
_ _._
_ _._
_ _._
_ _._
_ _._
_ _._
Rair = _._ _ _ _ C / W
Front
(glass)
Left
Right
Back
( DUROCK)
Top
Table 2. Analysis.
Table 3. Experimental data

for the Leslies cube.
Temperature setting
Powerswitch
setting
Thermistor
resistance
(k)
Temperature
( C )
Pwall
Rwall
C / W
Rv wall
Rv wall
m C / W
US
_ _ _._
_._ _ _ _ _._ _ _ _
_._ _ _
_ _ _._
_._ _ _ _ _._ _ _ _
_._ _ _
_ _ _._
_._ _ _ _ _._ _ _ _
_._ _ _
_ _ _._
_._ _ _ _ _._ _ _ _
_._ _ _
_ _ _._
_._ _ _ _ _._ _ _ _
_._ _ _
Thermal-radiation-sensor reading off the surface

(mV)
Black
White
Polished
aluminum
Dull
aluminum
5.0
6.5
8.0
HIGH
Turn in: This cover sheet and your laboratory-notebook carbons including the answers to all the
questions.

EXPERIMENT XII
IDEAL GAS LAW AND THE ABSOLUTE ZERO OF TEMPERATURE
Name: _________________________________
Date: ______________________
Partner: ________________________________
Lab period: _________________

(not your partners)
Raw Data:
Gas 1
Temperature
(C)
Gas 2
Pressure
Temperature
(C)
Pressure
Analysis:
Referring to Eqn. (XII-6), what are the slope and intercept?
Result
(include units)
Uncertainty
(include units)
m
b
Measured in C, what is your inferred value of absolute zero? Specify the uncertainty in your
measurement.
What is the magnitude of the correction to the above determination caused by the finite thermal
expansion of the stainless steel pressure canister?

Experiment 13
Heat engine
Name: ___________________________________________________
Partner: _________________________________________________
Your (not partners) lecture instructor: _______________________
Date: _________________________________________
Lab period: ____________________________________
Lecture period: ________________________________
Background and procedure calculations:
pd =
p c=
(2.1-4) V ( h, h0 , R, V0 ) =
(2.3-1) QH ( , p? , V? ,) =
(4.1-1) V0 = _ _ _ . _ (cm3)
(2.1-2) pa ( p0 ) =
(2.1-1)
(2.1-3) pb ( p0 , m, g , A) =
QC ( , p? ,V? ,) =
DataStudio Calculator expressions:
V in terms of V0 , h, h 0 , pi, R =
p in terms of pgauge , p0 =
( h must be converted from m to cm)
W in terms of p,V , integral(?), derivative(2,?) =

Experimental results and analysis:
Run # = _
Large mass mactual = _ _ _ . _ (g)

(5.2-1)
Run # = _
Small mass mactual = _ _ _ . _ (g)
Va = _ _ _ . _ _ Vb = _ _ _ . _ _ (cm )
Vc = _ _ _ . _ _ Vd = _ _ _ . _ _ (cm3)
pa = _ _ _ . _ _ pb = _ _ _ . _ _ (kPa)
pb / pa = _ . _ _ _ _
Va = _ _ _ . _ _ Vb = _ _ _ . _ _ (cm3)
Vc = _ _ _ . _ _ Vd = _ _ _ . _ _ (cm3)
pa = _ _ _ . _ _ pb = _ _ _ . _ _ (kPa)
pb / pa = _ . _ _ _ _
( pb pa )exp = _ _ _ . _ _ ( pb pa )theo = _ _ _ . _ _
( pb pa )exp = _ _ _ . _ _ ( pb pa )theo = _ _ _ . _ _
100 exp theo / theo = _ _ . _ % error
100 exp theo / theo = _ _ . _ % error
(5.2-7)
TC = _ _ _ . _ TH = _ _ _ . _ (K) TH / TC = _ . _ _ _
Va / Vb = _ . _ _ _ _ Vd / Vc = _ . _ _ _ _
r = _ . _ _ _ _ _ _ . _ %
Vc / Vb = _ . _ _ _ _ Vd / Va = _ . _ _ _ _
= _ . _ _ _ _ _ _ . _ %
TC = _ _ _ . _ TH = _ _ _ . _ (K) TH / TC = _ . _ _ _
Va / Vb = _ . _ _ _ _ Vd / Vc = _ . _ _ _ _
r = _ . _ _ _ _ _ _ . _ %
Vc / Vb = _ . _ _ _ _ Vd / Va = _ . _ _ _ _
= _ . _ _ _ _ _ _ . _ %
(5.2-8)
100 pb / pa r / r = _ _ . _ % error
100 pb / pa r / r = _ _ . _ % error
(5.2-2)
(5.2-3)
(5.2-4)
(5.2-5)
(5.2-6)
(5.2-9)
(5.3-1)
(5.3-2)
* 100 TH / TC r
/ ( r 1 ) = _ _ _ . _ % error
e = 1 r1 = _ . _ _ 10 _
e = 1 ( pb / pa )
(1 ) /
= _ . _ _10 _
* e = 1 (TC / TH ) = _ . _ _ 10
(5.3-4)
QH =
(5.3-8)
QC =
( p dV ) / Q
QH + QC = _ _ _ . _ (mJ)
* 100 QH + QC
e = 1 ( pb / pa )
(1 ) /
QH =
( p dV ) / Q
* 100 QH + QC
h = 0.0 _ _ _ (m)
mgh = _ _ _ . _ _ (mJ)
100 mgh / W = _ _ . _ %
100 (W mgh ) / W = _ _ . _ %
QH + QC = _ _ _ . _ (mJ)
W = pdV = _ _ _ . _ _ (mJ)
pdV / pdV = _ _ _ . _ % error

_
= _ . _ _10 _
QC =
e=
*Expect large errors for these results.
/ ( r 1 ) = _ _ _ . _ % error
* e = 1 (TC / TH ) = _ . _ _ 10
= _ . _ _ 10 _
* e = 1 + QC / QH = _ . _ _ 10
(5.4-2)
W = pdV = _ _ _ . _ _ (mJ)
e=
e = 1 r1 = _ . _ _ 10 _
(5.3-3)
(5.3-6)
(5.3-7)
* 100 TH / TC r
= _ . _ _ 10 _
pdV / pdV = _ _ _ . _ % error
* e = 1 + QC / QH = _ . _ _ 10
h = 0.0 _ _ _ (m)
mgh = _ _ _ . _ _ (mJ)
100 mgh / W = _ _ . _ %
100 (W mgh ) / W = _ _ . _ %

Phys 151L

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Phys 151L

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Newton

Department of Physics and Astronomy

Physics 151Lg/161L laboratory rules and policies

Measurements and experimental errors

Presentation and analysis of data by means of graphs

Collisions in one dimension

Collisions in two dimensions

Moment of inertia of a rigid body

Forces and torques in static equilibrium I: cantilever

Simple harmonic motion

Thermal conduction and radiation: case study and Leslies cube

Ideal gas and the absolute zero of temperature

DataStudio starter manual

Sample graph paper

Green sheets for laboratory-report summary

Laboratory policy for 151Lg/161L

Registering for full laboratory sections*

2.1 Specifying Uncertainty

I - MEASUREMENTS AND EXPERIMENTAL ERRORS

2.2 Significant Figures

I - MEASUREMENTS AND EXPERIMENTAL ERRORS

2.3 Deducing Uncertainty from a Series of Measurements

the standard deviation: =

I - MEASUREMENTS AND EXPERIMENTAL ERRORS

Table I-1: Measuring the Focal Length of a Lens

2.4 What if All of the

I - MEASUREMENTS AND EXPERIMENTAL ERRORS

2.5 Sources of Error

I - MEASUREMENTS AND EXPERIMENTAL ERRORS

2.6 Propagating Errors Through Calculations: Oversimple Rules

I - MEASUREMENTS AND EXPERIMENTAL ERRORS

Examples: ( 15.30 0.03 ) ( 41.5 0.2 )

( 77.5 0.2 ) ( 82.6 0.3 )

2.7 Propagating Errors Through Calculations Correctly: Better Rules

I - MEASUREMENTS AND EXPERIMENTAL ERRORS

Consider the previous example for addition:

I - MEASUREMENTS AND EXPERIMENTAL ERRORS

2.8 A Worked Example: Errors From Multiple Sources

I - MEASUREMENTS AND EXPERIMENTAL ERRORS

3.2 Permanent Lab Apparatus

Triple beam balance

3.3 Check-out From Physics Stockroom

I - MEASUREMENTS AND EXPERIMENTAL ERRORS

3.4 Vernier Calipers

Figure I-1: Vernier Calipers Used in

Now open the jaws so that the zero

I - MEASUREMENTS AND EXPERIMENTAL ERRORS

I - MEASUREMENTS AND EXPERIMENTAL ERRORS

4.1 Weigh the object on a triple beam balance

I - MEASUREMENTS AND EXPERIMENTAL ERRORS

4.2 Measure each dimension that is necessary to calculate the volume.

Table I-2: Data Table for Ring

Caution: Do not assume that each object you

I - MEASUREMENTS AND EXPERIMENTAL ERRORS

The volume of a sphere with diameter D is

The uncertainty in the determination of its volume, V, is given by

which can also be written

The uncertainty in the determination of the volume, V, in this formulation is given by

The uncertainty in the determination of its volume, V, is given by

I - MEASUREMENTS AND EXPERIMENTAL ERRORS

Type of Graph Paper

II - PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA BY MEANS OF GRAPHS

2.1.1 Graphing Rules