LAWS OF MOTION:

Force:
Force is defined as that external agency that changes or tends to
change the state of rest or uniform motion of a body in a straight line.
Inertia:
Inertia is the property of matter by virtue of which it opposes any
change in its state of rest or state of uniform motion along a straight line or
direction.
Momentum:
A body in motion has momentum. The momentum of a body is
defined as the product of its mass and velocity. If m is the mass of the
body and

its velocity, the linear momentum of the body is given by

p

= mv.

Momentum has both magnitude and direction and it is, therefore, a vector
quantity. The momentum is measured in terms of kg m s 1 and its
dimensional formula is MLT1.
Newtons first law of motion:
It states that every body continues in its state of rest or of
uniform motion
along a straight line unless it is compelled by an
external force to change that state.
This law is based on Galileos law of inertia. Newtons first law of
motion deals with the basic property of matter called inertia and the
definition of force.
Inertia:
Inertia is that property of a body by virtue of which the body is
unable to change its state by itself in the absence of external force.
The inertia is of three types
I n e r t i a o f re s t
( i i ) Ine rtia of motion
( i i i ) Ine rtia of dire ction.
(i)

(i) Inertia of rest

It is the inability of the body to change its state of rest by itself.
Examples
A person standing in a bus falls backward when the bus
suddenly starts moving. This is because; the person who is initially at rest
continues to be at rest even after the bus has started moving.
(i)

(ii) A

book lying on the table will remain at rest, until it is moved by

some external agencies.
When a carpet is beaten by a stick, the dust particles fall of
vertically downwards once they are released and do not move along the
carpet and fall of.
(iii)

(ii) Inertia of motion

Inertia of motion is the inability of the body to change its state of
motion by itself.
Examples
(a) When

a passenger gets down from a moving bus, he falls down in

the direction of the motion of the bus.
(b) A

passenger sitting in a moving car falls forward, when the car stops

suddenly.
An athlete running in a race will continue to run even after
reaching the finishing point.
(c)

(iii) Inertia of direction

It is the inability of the body to change its direction of motion by itself.
Examples
When a bus moving along a straight line takes a turn to the right, the
passengers are thrown towards left. This is due to inertia which makes
the passengers travel along the same straight line, even though the bus
has turned towards the right.

Newtons second law of motion:

According to Newtons second law of motion, the rate of change of
momentum of a body is directly proportional to the external force applied on
it and the change in momentum takes place in the direction of the force.
Proof:
Consider a body of mass m moving with an initial velocity u. A constant
force F acts on the body for t seconds and changes the velocity of the body
from u to v
Initial velocity
=u
Final Velocity
=v
Time
=t
Initial momentum
= mu (momentum p = mv)
Final momentum
= mv
Change in momentum =
mv mu
Rate of change of momentum
= (mv-mu/t)
= m (v-u/t)
= ma
(a = v/t)
=F
Force = (mass x acceleration)

The force acting on a body is measured by the product of mass of

the body and acceleration produced by the force acting on the body. The
second law of motion gives us a measure of the force. Force is a vector
quantity. The unit of force is kg m s2 or newton. Its dimensional formula is
MLT2.
Newtons third law of motion:
According to Newtons third law of motion, to every action
there is always an equal and opposite reaction.

It means when a body A exerts a force on a body B, the body B will also

exert equal and opposite force on the body A.

Examples:
When a bullet is fired from a gun with a certain force (action),
there is an equal and opposite force exerted on the gun in the backward
direction (reaction).
(i)

When a man jumps from a boat to the shore, the boat moves
away from him. The force he exerts on the boat (action) is responsible
for its motion and his motion to the shore is due to the force of reaction
exerted by the boat on him.
(ii)

The swimmer pushes the water in the backward direction with

a certain force (action) and the water pushes the swimmer in the forward
direction with an equal and opposite force (reaction).
(i)

A bird flies by with the help of its wings. The wings of a bird push
air downwards (action). In turn, the air reacts by pushing the bird upwards
(reaction).
(ii)

Impulsive force and Impulse of a force

(i)

Impulsive Force
An impulsive force is a very great force acting for a very short time
on a body, so that the change in the position of the body during the time
the force acts on it may be neglected.
(e.g.) The blow of a hammer, the collision of two billiard balls etc.

Impulse:
The change in momentum is called impulse.
From the definition of force,
4

= dp/dt

dp

= F dt

p2
( dp )
p1

integrating,

t
( F .dt )
0
t

p2-p1= ( F .dt )
0

impulse

= ( F .dt )
0

impulse is denoted by J,
J

= ( F .dt )
0

If a constant force F acts on a body for a time t, the impulse

J=Ft
Impulse = Force X time
Examples for Impulse:
(i) A cricket player while catching a ball lowers his hands in the
direction of the ball.
By
for this
time of
ball, so

increasing the time interval, the average force is decreased. It is

reason that a cricket player while catching a ball, to increase the
contact, the player should lower his hand in the direction of the
that he is not hurt.

A person falling on a cemented floor gets injured more where as a

person falling on a sand floor does not get hurt. For the same reason, in
wrestling, high jump etc., soft ground is provided.
(ii)

(iii) The

vehicles are fitted with springs and shock absorbers to reduce

jerks while moving on uneven or wavy roads.

The law of conservation of linear momentum:

The law of conservation of linear momentum may be stated as when

no net external force acts on a system consisting of several particles, the
total linear momentum of the system is conserved, the total linear
momentum being the vector sum of the linear momentum of each particle in
the system.
One body system
For a system consisting of a single particle, Newtons second law can
be rewritten as
F = ma
= m (dv /dt ) ( ... a = dv /dt where v is the velocity of the body )

= d/dt (mv) ( ... mass m is a constant )

Or F = dp /dt
Where p = mv is the linear momentum of the particle. Now if the external
force F is applied to the particle is zero, it is clear that
dp /dt = 0
or p = constant, showing that in the absence of an external force, the linear
momentum of a particle remains constant.
Two-body system
Consider a system of two particles of masses m 1 and m2 moving with
velocities v1 and v2 respectively in the same straight line. These particles
may collide with each other, and as a result their velocities may change. At
any instant of time, we have
Linear momentum of mass m1 is p1 = m1 v1

Linear momentum of mass m2 is p2 = m2 v2

Thus the total linear momentum (p) = vector sum of the individual linear
momentum of
each particle

p = m1 v1 +m2 v2
diferentiating with respect to time, we get
dp /dt = d /dt ( m1v1 + m2 v2 )
= m1 (dv1 /dt ) + m2 (dv2 / dt )
= m1 a1 + m2 a2 ( where a = dv /dt )
= F1 + F2 (where F = ma) -------------------------(a)
Where F1 and F2 are the forces acting on m 1 and m2 respectively .In
a system consisting of two particles, there can be two kinds of forces: (i)
internal forces and (ii) external forces. Internal forces are the force that the
particle exert on each other during their interactions
(e.g.collisions). From Newtons third law these forces always occur in pairs of
action and reaction. Since these forces are equal and opposite, they bring
about equal and opposite changes in the momentum of the particles. Thus
internal forces cannot bring about any net change in the momentum of a
particle. The external forces, on the other hand, are the forces exerted from
outside the system of two particles. From Newtons second law, these
external forces will change the momentum of the particles. Thus we conclude
that forces F1 and F2 in equ (a) are actually the external forces acting on the
particles.
The resultant external force Fext is given by the vector sum
Fext = F1 + F2
Hence, eq.(a) becomes
dp / dt = Fext
If Fext = 0, we have dp /dt = 0
Or p = constant

This implies that the vector sum (p = p1 + p2) of the linear momentum
of the particles remains constant, if the net external force is zero.
Many body system:

The law can be extended to any number of particles. These particles

may be the particles of a rigid body in which their positions are fixed or they
may form an assembly and be free to move freely in any direction.
Let m1, m2,.mn be the masses of the diferent particles and, in
addition to internal forces due to their own interactions with each other, let
there also be external
forces acting on them, so that they acquire velocities v 1,v2,v3.vn
respectively. Then
clearly their total momentum p is equal to the vector sum of their individual
momenta
p1, p2, pn i.e.
p = p1 + p2 + ..+ pn
= m1v1 +m2v2 +..+ mnvn ( ... p =mv)
Diferentiate with respect to t we have
dp / dt = m1 (dv1 / dt) + m2 (dv2 / dt) ++ mn (dvn / dt)
= m1a1 + m2a2 ++mnan ( ... a = dv / dt )
Where a1,a2,..an are the respective accelerations. Now from
Newtons second law, F = ma.
Thus dp / dt = F1 + F2 + + Fn

Where F1, F2,.Fn are the forces acting on individual particles. These forces
include both internal and external forces. The internal forces, which arise due
to mutual inter-particle interactions, always occur in pairs. They bring about
equal and opposite changes in the momentum of the particles of the system.
Thus the internal force cannot change the momentum of the particles.
Therefore F1, F2, ..,Fn are only the external forces acting on the particles. The
net external force Fext is equal to the vector sum of all these forces,i.e
Fext = F1 + F2 +.+ Fn
Thus dp / dt = Fext

If Fext = 0, then dp /dt = 0 or p = constant i.e, the total linear momentum

of the system is constant, if the net external force acting on the system is
zero. This is the law of conservation linear momentum.
EQUILIBRIUM OF CONCURRENT FORCES:
A body is said to be in equilibrium, when the resultant of the force
system acting on it is zero. If a body is in equilibrium, it will continue to
remain in a state of rest or of uniform motion.
EQUILIBRANT:
According to Newtons second law of motion, a body starts moving with
uniform acceleration if it is acted upon by a force. When a body is subjected
to a number of concurrent forces, it moves in the direction of resultant force
with uniform acceleration. However, if another force which is equal in
magnitude of the resultant but opposite in direction is applied to the body,
the body comes to rest. Hence equilibrant of a system of forces is a single
force which acts along with the forces to keep the body in equilibrium.

F3

F2

F1
X

F4

Fn
Fi

Fig. 1(a) Given system of forces

1(b) Resultant (R)

1(c) Equilibrant (E)

The resultant of given system of forces is expressed as,

R=

Fi

eq.1

= ( Fx)i + ( Fy)j

eq.2

When a particle is in equilibrium, the resultant force is zero. In other words,

or

eq.3

Fx

or

eq.4

Fy

eq.5

The x and y axes can be chosen arbitrarily through the point of concurrency.

Frictional force:
The force which always opposes the motion of one body over another
body in contact with it is called the force of friction or frictional force.
Types of friction:
1. Dry friction (external friction)
2. Fluid friction (internal friction)
Dry friction:
It is the interaction between the surfaces of two solid bodies in contact, it is
also known as coulomb friction.
Types of dry friction:
1. Static friction
2. Limiting friction
3. Dynamic or Kinetic or Sliding friction.
Static friction:
The frictional force acting along, between surfaces at rest with respect to
each other is called Static friction.
Dynamic friction:
The frictional forces present when one body slides over other body are
known as dynamic friction.

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Laws of Friction:
1. Laws of static friction
2. Laws of dynamic or kinetic friction
Laws of static friction:
1. The force of friction always acts in a direction opposite to the applied
force.
2. The force of friction is a self adjusting force. Its magnitude is exactly equal
and opposite to the applied force upto a definite.
3. The force of friction is independent of the area and shape of the surface in
contact.
4. The force of friction is depending on the roughness of the surface.
5. The limiting friction (FS) is directly proportional to the normal reaction (R)
between the two surfaces in contact
Law of kinetic or dynamic friction:
1. The force of friction always acts in a direction opposite to that in which
the body is moving.
2. The force of friction remains constant for moderate speeds. But it
decreases slightly with the increase of speed.
3. The kinetic friction has a constant value depending upon the nature of the
two surfaces in contact.
4. The magnitude of kinetic friction is independent of the area and the shape
of the surface in contact so long as the normal reaction remains unaltered.
5. The limiting friction (FS) is directly proportional to the normal reaction (R)
between the two surfaces in contact
FS R
FS = s R
FS / R = s ,a constant called coefficient of static friction.

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Rolling Friction:
Rolling friction is a form of kinetic energy and it comes into play when
one body rolls over the surface of another. The friction force developed is
called the force of rolling friction and the corresponding coefficient is called
the coefficient of rolling friction (r).

FRICTION IS NECESSARY:
Friction plays an important part in daily life. In its absence, many
acts may not be performed. They are given below:
Without friction:
A motion cannot be started (walking)
A motion cannot be stopped (brakes)
A motion cannot be transferred (wheel belts)
Knots will not stay (packing, bandaging)
Grinding will not take place (wheat flour)
Nails will not stay (furniture)
Match stick will not ignite (wet match box)
Writing will not be possible (oiled paper)
Reduction of friction:
Smoothening the surface by rubbing and polishing
Lubricating the surfaces in contact by proper lubricant
Lining the surface with a soft material
Converting sliding friction into rolling friction
Co-efficient of friction:
The limiting friction is directly proportional to the normal reaction.

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The constant ratio of limiting friction to normal reaction is called co-efficient

of friction.
It is represented by the symbol (mu).
If F be the limiting friction and R be the normal reaction, then
Or
F=R
UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION Centripetal Force:
Centripetal Force:
Centripetal force is defined as that force which acts towards
the centre along the radius of a circular path on which the body is
moving with a uniform velocity.
Suppose a body is moving on a horizontal circle (radius r) with a
uniform velocity v. At any point on the circle, the direction of the velocity is
directed along the tangent to the circle at that point i.e. at A the direction of
the velocity is along AX, at B along BY, at C along CZ and so on. (Fig..)
If the body is free at any point it will move tangential to the circle at
that point. But as the body is moving along the circumference of the circle,
there must be a force acting towards the centre of the circular path this force
is called Centripetal Force.

In figure (i), let A and B be two positions of the body after an interval of time
t.
Then,
AB
=
Velocity X Time
=
vXt
Let o a and o b be vectors representing the velocities at A and B
respectively. Then aob = (The angle between the tangents is equal to
the angle between the radii). ab is the change in velocity from A to B.
Acceleration

Change in Velocity
Time
t

= ab

Since A and B are very close to each other, therefore are AB can be taken as
a straight line,
s OAB and oab are similar.
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AB
OA

ab
oa

vt
r

ab
v

or

ab = v2
t
r

= ab
t

v2
r

acceleration

Therefore, the acceleration on the body acting towards the centre of

the circular path :
= v2
r
Centripetal force = Mass x Acceleration
= m x v2
r
= mv2
r
Direction of the centripetal force: When a body moves along a circular
path with uniform speed, the magnitude of the velocity remains the same
but its direction changes at every point. It means there is change in velocity.
Whenever there is a change in velocity, there must be some acceleration. As
the body has mass also, a force must act upon the body. This force must act
along such a direction that the magnitude of the velocity does not change.
As a force has no component at right angles to its direction. The force must
act every point in a direction perpendicular to the direction of the velocity.
F

As the velocity is tangential to the circle at every point, the force

must be acting along the radius and towards the point, the force
must be acting along the radius and towards the centre of the
circular path. Due to this reason it is called Centripetal Force.
Example:

14

1. When a bucket containing water is rotated in a vertical circle, water

does not fall downward even when the bucket is at the highest point.
The centripetal force is provided by the weight of water acting
vertically downwards. Due to this reason water does not fall.
2.
Electrons revolve round the nucleus in various orbits. The
electrons do not collapse into the nucleus. The electro-static force of
attraction of the nucleus on the electron provides the necessary
centripetal force and the electron revolves round the radius.
EXAMPLES OF UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION:
Vehicle on level circular road:
When a vehicle goes round a curved road, it requires some centripetal force.
While rounding the curve, the wheels of the vehicle have a tendency to leave
the curved path and regain the straight line path. Force of friction between
wheels and the roads opposes this tendency of the wheels. This force of
friction therefore, acts towards the centre of circular track and provides the
necessary centripetal force.

Fig. (1) Vehicle moving on level road

In fig (1), it is shown that a vehicle of weight mg (acts vertically downwards)
is moving on a level curved road. R1 and R2 are the forces of normal reaction
of the road on the wheels. These are vertically upward since road is leveled.
Hence,
R1 + R2 = mg

15

Let F1 & F2 are forces of frictions between tyre and road directed towards
centre of curved road.
F1 = R1
And
F2 = R2
Where is coefficient of friction between tyres and road.
If v is the velocity of the vehicle while rounding the curve, the centripetal
force required is mv/r. As this force is provided by the force of friction
therefore

Hence the maximum velocity with which a vehicle can go round a level
curve; without skidding is

Banking of Roads
In the above discussion, we see that the maximum permissible velocity with
which a vehicle can go round a level curved road depends on , the
coefficient of friction between tyres and road. The value of decreases
when road is wet or extra smooth or tyres of the vehicle are worn out. Thus
force of friction is not a reliable source for providing the required centripetal
force to the vehicle. Especially in hilly areas where the vehicle has to move
constantly along the curved track, the maximum speed at which it can run
will be very low. If any attempt is made to run it at a greater speed, the
vehicle is likely to skid and go out of track. In order that the vehicle can go
round the curved track at a reasonable speed without skidding, the sufficient
centripetal force is managed for it by raising the outer edge of the track a

16

little above the inner edge. It is called banking of the circular track or
Banking of Roads.
Consider a vehicle of weight Mg moving round a curved path of radius r
with speed V on a road banked through angle . If OA is banked road and
OX is horizontal line, then AOX = is called angle of banking of road.
Refer Fig (2)

Fig.(2) Vehicle moving on Banked Road

Following forces are involved:
1. The weight Mg acting vertically downwards
2. The reaction R of the ground to the vehicle acting along normal to the
banked road OA in upward direction
3. The vertical component R.Cos of R will balance the weight of the
vehicle.
4. The horizontal component R.Sin of R will provide necessary
centripetal force to the vehicle.
Thus,
R.cos = Mg
And

On dividing equation (1) & equation (2),we get

17

.(1)

Knowing v and r1, we can calculate . If h is the height AX of outer edge

of the road then from fig.(3),

From equations (3) & (4) we get

From above eqn. we can calculate h. usually h < < b. Therefore. h2 is

negligible, hence

Roads are generally banked for the average speed of vehicles passing over
them. However, if the speed of a vehicle is somewhat less or more than this,
the self adjusting state friction will operate between tyre and road and
vehicle will not skid.

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