Physics 2CL

Lecture 1

"You do not really understand something unless

you can explain it to your grandmother."
--Albert Einstein

Introduction
Welcome to Physics 2CL!

The Physics 2 series is a four quarter
course designed as an introductory level
look into physics for engineers and
physical scientists.

Physics 2CL, in particular, explores
electricity, circuits, magnetism, and waves.

Introduction
Who is this guy?

My name is Brian Maple

I am a Professor in the
Physics Department

My Ph.D. degree is in
condensed matter
physics from UCSD

I have taught Physics
and carried out
research at UCSD for
more than 40 years

My research interests
include superconductivity,
magnetism, properties of
materials at low temperatures, high pressures,
and high magnetic fields

Introduction
My office is located in 1230
Mayer Hall.
The Lab TA Coordinator (LTAC)
for this course is:
Paul Rozdeba.
Pauls LTAC office is located in
2544 Mayer Hall Addition.

Pauls office hours:
Will be announced on TED

Discussion Board on TED
administered by Paul.

Administrativa
There is a lot of help available for you to complete
your homework and understand the concepts:
The LTAC and I will
hold office hours
(announced on TED).
The book we will be
using is:
Taylor, An Introduction
to Error Analysis.

Administrativa
Your grades will be determined by your performance in
lab and the final exam.

Each lab will be worth 14 points. 2 of these points will
be from the weekly reading quiz, 2 of these points from
assigned Taylor problems, and 10 of these points will be
from the final lab report.

Your lowest lab score will be dropped (except for Lab 06).

The final exam will be worth 25 points.

The cumulative final exam will be Monday, March 9 from
8:00 am - 9:00 am in 2722 York Hall.

You will be given an equation sheet of relevant equations
and constants for the final exam.

Administrativa
The Lab 01 Write-up is available in the Physics

2CL Laboratory Manual which can be obtained

from the UCSD Bookstore.

You should read the Lab 01 Writeup before the

beginning of your lab session.

You should attend the lab section you signed up
for (i.e., there are no make-up lab sessions for
you to attend).

Every lab will start with a short reading quiz
(worth 2points) based upon the lab writeup and
that weeks lecture. You will also turn in your
Taylor problems.

Administrativa
You should download the Academic Integrity Policy

and bring it to your lab meeting for Lab 01 (next

week). (You can bring it to lab this week, as well.)

You need to sign it and hand it in to the TA to
acknowledge our expectations of how you should
complete your final lab reports.

No Taylor problems are assigned for this week.

Yet, you will have a Data Studio MATLAB
assignment that is posted on TED (this will count
as 5 points towards your final grade).

It is due at the beginning of your meeting for the
first lab (Lab 01) next week.

My Feelings Regarding Labs

"I think, however, that there isnt any solution to this problem of
education other than to realize that the best teaching can be done
only when there is a direct individual relationship between a
student and a good teachera situation in which the student
discusses the ideas, thinks about the things, and talks about the
things. Its impossible to learn very much by simply sitting in a
lecture, or even by simply doing problems that are assigned. But
in our modern times we have so many students to teach that we
have to try to find some substitute for the ideal. ..."
--Richard Feynman in the Preface to The Feynman Lectures
on Physics, 1963

Errors
Your first reading assignment is Chapters 1 and 2 of
Taylor.

Error analysis will play a significant role in how you

interpret the data obtained in lab.

You must understand the limitations of your data. You
may, for example, have to compare your results to
another set of results.

For every measurement, x, you make in lab:

x = xbest x
measured value

best estimate

of x
of x

uncertainty
OR

error in the
measurement

Errors

When dealing with errors, you may have to estimate the

uncertainty of a measurement.
For example, if you measure
the length of an object using
a ruler (in cm here):
Be reasonable in what could
be the maximum and minimum
values for this measurement.
What is the highest
reasonable value for length?

9.3 cm

What is the lowest

reasonable value for length?

9.1 cm

What is the best estimate for

9.2 cm
the length?

x = 9.2 0.1 cm

Errors

You may also have to calculate an error due to

repeatable measurements.

For example, you may be asked to measure the period
T of a pendulum with a stopwatch.

Lets say you make four separate attempts and get:

2.3 s, 2.4 s, 2.5 s, 2.4 s

It is reasonable to then say
that for this experiment:

T = 2.4 0.1 s

Sometimes you will compare your measurements to

known constants, like g (acceleration due to gravity).

Always report what your data tells you, NOT what
you think the answer should be!

Significant Figures

Experimental uncertainties should be rounded to one

significant figure (although it is okay to leave two
significant figures if the leading digit in the
uncertainty is a 1).

g = 9.82 0.02385 m

g = 9.82 0.02 m

The last significant figure in any answer should be

of the same order of magnitude as the uncertainty.

g = 9.82378 0.02 m

g = 9.82 0.02 m

Significant Figures

So, in lab you may make the following measurement

regarding the velocity of an object (like a charged
particle in a magnetic field):

v = 6051.78 32 m

According to the rules of significant figures, first set

the uncertainty of your measurement:

v = 6051.78 30 m

Then adjust your best estimate based upon the

leading value of your uncertainty:

v = 6050 30 m

Propagation of Uncertainties

Many times you will have to calculate a value based

upon measurements made in lab. You must propagate
the errors in each independent measurement.
For example, you may have to add two independent
measurements (x and y).

x = xbest x

y = ybest y

The sum of these

q
=
x
+
y
=
x

x
+
y

y
(
)
(
)
best
best
two values is:

The maximum possible value for the length is:

qmax = ( xbest + x ) + ( ybest + y)

qmax = ( xbest + ybest ) + ( x + y)

Propagation of Uncertainties
The minimum possible value for the length is:

qmin = ( xbest x ) + ( ybest y)

qmin = ( xbest + ybest ) ( x + y)

We could naively conclude then that:

q = ( xbest + ybest ) ( x + y)

q = qbest q

Such that:

qbest = xbest + ybest

q = x + y

But this overestimates q because you are

simultaneously overestimating x and y.
As it turns out the quadratic
2
2
q = ( x ) + ( y)
sum is the best q:

For This Week

First Lab

During the first lab you will be

exploring the base concepts for the
class along with the equipment and
tools you will be using throughout the
quarter.

A lab activity will be to explore the
Van de Graaff generator located in the
lab.

This generator transfers charge to the
dome by means of a rotating belt.

The generator is creating a potential
difference, (V).

+Q

Equipotentials
Electric Field will be perpendicular
to the equipotential surface.

Resistors
Resistors are put in circuits to control
the current available.

When we draw a resistor in a circuit, we
will draw it as a choppy, connected
section.
If a wire has negligible resistance, then we will
represent it with a straight line.

We will consider all wires in a circuit diagram to
have negligible resistance unless stated otherwise.

All resistors will have a potential difference
across them (if current passes through them).

Measuring Current
The potential difference created by a battery
terminal is also called EMF (ElectroMotive Force).

This is a rather confusing name as EMF is
measured in Volts.

We physically measure the amount of current in
a circuit with an ammeter.
You connect the ammeter in
the circuit in series with the
element whose current you
are trying to measure.

Want resistance of ammeter
to be very small.

Ammeter
A

Break open
to detect flow

Measuring Voltage
A voltmeter is used to measure electric potential
difference (or voltage).

You connect a voltmeter in the circuit in parallel
with the element whose voltage (potential
difference) you are trying to measure.
You basically want to
measure what the potential
is before and after the
element.

Want resistance of
voltmeter to be very large.

Voltmeter
V

Connect on both
sides of element

Resistivity

If you were constructing a wire, for a given

battery how could you lower its resistance?

Use a good conductor.

Increase its cross-sectional area.

Decrease its length.
The resistance of an ohmic
conductor is given by:
is called the electrical resistivity (depends on
the type of material of the conductor).

L is the length of the conductor and A is the
cross-sectional area of the conductor.

Resistivity
We actually define the resistivity of a material as
the amount it resists current flow due to an
applied electric field.
Resistivity is measured in units of: [ m]

Metals typically have very low resistivity:

Insulators have very high resistivity:

Ohms Law

No matter how good your conductor is, you are

always going to have a minute reduction of
current due to the conductor (excluding
superconductors).

Ohms Law quantifies the ability of a given
material to resist the flow of charge for a given
electric potential difference.

where R is called the resistance and is

measured in (Ohms).

[]=[Volt]/[Ampere]

Ohms Law
A good conductor will have a low resistance; this
means that current will easily flow through it.

A good insulator will have a high resistance; this
means that current will have a very hard time
flowing through it.

With Ohms Law, as you increase electric potential
(V), then current will increase linearly.

The resistance in a circuit arises due to collisions
between the electrons moving against the electric
field and the electrons that are fixed in the
atoms.

For This Week

Download the Academic Integrity Policy for your
lab meeting for Lab 01 next week. (You can
bring it to your lab meeting this week, as well.)

Download the Data Studio Assignment from TED
for your lab meeting this week.

Download the Syllabus and read it and Lab 01
for your lab meeting to perform Lab 01 (next
week).

Read Chapters 1 and 2 of Taylor.

Supplementary material not

covered in lecture due to
lack of time

Resistivity

For most metals, as you increase the temperature,

the resistivity of the metal increases.

The following equation takes temperature into
account for resistivity:

is the resistivity at some temperature T.

o is the resistivity at some reference
temperature To.

is the temperature coefficient of resistivity.

To is usually taken to be 20oC.

Ideal resistors

Lovely Resistors
(Source: Windell H. Oskay)
http://www.flickr.com/photos/oskay/437341603/

Real resistors

T
Filament
(Source: St Stev)
http://www.flickr.com/photos/st-stev/2289828469/

Ohms Law

Ohms Law is not really a law in the technical

sense. It merely defines the resistance for
certain materials.

Certain materials obey Ohms Law; these are
called ohmic materials.
There is a linear
relationship between
current and electric
potential.

Certain materials do not
obey Ohms Law; these are
called nonohmic materials.

Example (not in lecture)

Find the momentum of a body with mass

m = 0.53 0.01 kg moving with a velocity
v = 9.1 0.3 m/s.

First calculate the best estimate for momentum
(leave digits, round later):

qbest = xbest ybest

pbest = ( 0.53 kg) 9.1 m

pbest = mbest vbest

= 4.823 kg m

s
s
Next calculate the uncertainties (use general formula):
p
= v = 9.1 m
s
m

2
" p
%
$ m ' = 9.1 m s ( 0.01 kg) = 0.00828 kg m s
# m &

Example

Again using the general formula:

p
= m = ( 0.53 kg)
v
2

" p %
$ v ' = 0.53 kg 0.3 m s
# v &

))

= 0.02528 kg m

This gives us:

" p
% " p %
p = $ m' + $ v'
# m & # v &

p =

p = 0.18319 kg m 0.2 kg m
s
s
Our reported result would be:

p = 4.8 0.2 kg m

(0.00828) + (0.02528)