History of GSM

1 GSM Development
Mobile telecommunications technology began as early as 1920s when the mobile
telecommunications system for shortwave developed first at that time. The first public bus
telephony system in 1946 served as the basis for modern public mobile telecommunications
system.
Following the development of telecommunications technologies such as mobile radio
transmission, channel management and mobile switching, various mobile
telecommunications systems like cellular phone, mobile call, land cellular mobile
telecommunications and satellite mobile telecommunications also emerged rapidly.
Since 1980s, cellular mobile telecommunications has developed from the first generation of
simulation cellular mobile telecommunications system to the second generation of digital
cellular system. Established in Europe, 1991, GSM is a global system for digital cellular
mobile telecommunications and has gained unprecedented development because of its
public standards worldwide and strong roaming ability. According to global mobile
telecommunications system institution, the number of GSM subscribers is expected to reach
1 billion in over 206 roaming countries by early 2004. GSM mainly provide voice service and
low speed data service. Compared with the first generation, GSM has such distinct features
as high security, strong anti-interference ability, high spectrum effectiveness and capability
with the mean frequency reuse coefficient less than 7.
2 GPRS Development
General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) is a new bearer service based on the current GSM
system. It can be regarded as the application of GSM in IP and X.25 data network, and also as
the application of internet in radio service. GPRS can be used in FTP, WEB browser, E-mail
etc
The primary difference between GPRS radio packet data system and the current GSM voice
system is that GSM is a circuit-switched system while GPRS is a packet switched system. The
basic process of packet switching is to divide the data into several small packets and transfer
them to the destination in a storage-switch way through different routes, and then arrange
into complete data.
Radio channel is a very rare resource in GSM system. Each channel can only provide a
transfer rate of 9.6kbit/s or 14.4kbit/s in circuit-switched system. Combining several slots
together provides higher rate, but it can only be enjoyed by one subscriber and is not
feasible considering cost-efficiency. Packet switched GPRS can arrange the mobile channels
in a flexible way to serve many GPRS data subscribers and make full use of the radio
resource. GPRS can theoretically combine a maximum of 8 slots together and provide a
bandwidth as high as 171.2kbit/s shared by many subscribers. GPRS is a great leap for GSM
system in radio data service which provides a convenient and highly efficient radio packet
data service at low costs.
GPRS is especially for interrupted, burst, frequent or small data transmission. It is also
adopted in burst large data transmission. Most mobile internet protocols have such features.
According to the GPRS proposal made by ETSI, GPRS can be divided into two stages after
commercial use. In the first stage, it offers services such as E-mail, internet browsing. The
second stage of GPRS is based on EDGE E-GPRS.
EDGE is a high rate mobile data standard with a data transmission rate as high as 384kbit/s.
EDGE can greatly improve the efficiency of GPRS channel coding and fully meet the
requirement for broadband in the future radio multimedia application. Different from the
current GSM system, EDGE adopts a modulation technology recommended in the 3G mobile
telecommunications. As a transition from GPRS to 3G/UMTS, EDGE finished its feasibility
study and got ETSI approval in 1997. The standardization process of EDGE consists of two
stages. The first stage focused on the enhanced GPRS (EGPRS) and enhanced circuit
switching digital service (ECSD) and standardized in 1999. The second stage defined the
improved multimedia and real time services and standardized in 2000. EDGE enables
network operators to make full use of the current radio network equipment during the
transition from GPRS to 3G/UMTS. EDGE has the following primary features:

1) EDGE has a high rate. The current GSM network mainly uses Guassian Minimum Shift
Keying (GMSK) modulation. EDGE adopts Octal Phase Shift Keying (8PSK) modulation with a
rate of 384kbit/s in mobile environment and 2Mbit/s in static environment, which generally
meets the requirement of the third mobile telecommunication system and all kinds of radio
application.
2) EDGE supports both packet switched data transmission and circuit switched data
transmission at the same time. The timeslot rate of packet switched service with EDGE is as
high as 11.2-69.2kbit/s, and for circuit switched service, this rate can reach 28.8kbit/s.
3) EDGE supports both symmetric and asymmetric data transmission. It is a very important
feature for mobile network and other data services. In EDGE system, subscribers can enjoy a
downlink rate higher than uplink rate.
4) Technically, EDGE is an improvement for radio interface. To a large extent, it can be
regarded as an effective general radio interface technology which promotes the 3G evolution
for cellular mobile system.
3 Evolution to 3G
In order to uniform the global mobile telecommunication standard and telecommunication
band, realize 3G global roaming, and improve the spectral efficiency and the data service
transmission rate to meet the requirement of multimedia service, International
Telecommunications Union -Radiocommunication Sector ITUR began the study on the
3G mobile telecommunications 14 years ago. By June 30th, 1998, the calling deadline for
the standard of the 3G mobile telecommunications radio transmission technology (RTT), ITU
R had received sixteen 3G RTT standard resolutions consist of six resolutions for satellite
mobile and ten resolutions for land mobile from America, Europe, China, Japan, South Korea
etc The TDSCDMA standard resolution proposed by China is one of the ten land mobile 3G
RTT resolutions.
ITUR raised the following requirement for the 3G:
high speed land mobile:
FDD: terminal at 500km/h mobile speed provides a transmission rate of 144kbit/s.
TDD: terminal at 120km/h mobile speed provides a transmission rate of 144kbit/s.
medium and low speed land mobile:
FDD and TDD: terminal at medium and low speed provides a transmission rate of 384kbit/s.
land walking and indoor fixed terminal
FDD and TDD: terminal at walking speed or in fixed condition provides a transmission rate of
2Mbit/s.
According to 3G standard requirement, ITUR carried out a two-year study on ten land
mobile standard resolutions in terms of evaluation, emulation, integration, key parameter
confirmation and finally approved five technical specifications (including that proposed by
China) for radio transmission in Turkey ITUR plenary meeting in May 5th, 2000. Among
these five specifications, three are based on CDMA and two are based on TDMA.
specifications based on CDMA:
IMT2000 CDMA DSWCDMAcdma2000 DS
IMT2000 CDMA MCcdma2000 MC
IMT2000 CDMA TDDTDSCDMATDCDMA
specifications based on TDMA:
IMT2000 TDMA SCuwc 136
IMT2000 TDMA MCDECT
Since TDMA is not a mainstream in the 3G, TDMA SC and TDMA MC are used as regional
standards for upgrading IS136 and DECT system. The three RTT specifications based on
CDMA, also called one family, three members, become the mainstream in the 3G. Both
CDMADS and CDMAMC are frequency division duplex (FDD). CDMA TDD is time division duplex
(TDD). ITUR assigns independent band for 3G FDD and TDD; Therefore, FDD and TDD are
coexistent and complementary with each other.
Considering core network signaling adaptation and public core network resource, most GSM
network operators choose UMTS/WCDMA. Although 3G is called radio broadband multimedia,

in fact, the primary task of 3G is to solve the problem of increasing voice service. In China,
the current bandwidth is already not in line with the rapid increase of the voice subscribers.
Voice service with 3G network can not only meet the requirement of the increasing
subscribers but also help to reduce costs and improve service ability. The overall building
costs of 3G network voice service is expected to be just half of that of 2G network voice
service. Meanwhile, the high-quality voice service at low costs enables subscribers to
explore more services 3G provides, such as videotelephony, multimedia and other data
services.
During the initial stage, UMTS coverage may not as large as that of GSM, together with the
uneven development of 3G worldwide; therefore, the terminal should be GSM/UMTS
dualband and support GSMUMTS roaming and system switching, in order to solve the
problem of service continuity and cross-operator roaming. In UMTS coverage area, dualband
terminal can enjoy UMTS high rate data service and voice service as well. In the dead zone
of UMTS, dualband terminal subscribers can still get support from GSM voice service and low
rate data service.
Therefore, GSM network will continue to provide voice service and low rate data service for
a long time in future. It is a long term task to carry out GSM network optimization and GSM
radio planning for the future 3G building.

Radio Network Planning Optimization

The objective is to build a radio network of large capacity and broad coverage as best as
possible and make it available for future network development and expansion.
Network planning optimization is a systematic project covering the whole process of network
building from technology system comparison to radio transmission theory, from antenna
feeder index analysis to network capability forecast, and from project low level design to
network performance test and system parameter adjustment optimization. Network planning
is an integrated technology requiring wired and wireless knowledge and abundant practical
experiences. It involves from macro view such as technology system, characteristic of
coverage capability and general design idea of radio network, to micro view such as cell
parameters.
1 Radio Network Planning Optimization Flow
The first stage is call service coverage analysis. The following information is required in
order to support network planning: cost limit, various maps, coverage area type, service
type, terminal type and proportion, coverage and capability requests of different services,
available band, class of service, population distribution, the development of system capacity,
income distribution, and the use of fixed-line phone.
The second stage is emulation. Network dimensioning estimate should be carried out on the
basis of BSS equipment and the mature planning method after call service coverage analysis
to get the coverage areas and the number of base stations, and then obtain the configuration
(type, address and height of base station, carrier type, power amplifier type, frequency,
antenna feeder combination, equipment type) of all base stations according to call service
distribution. Use planning software for emulation and verify and adjust the estimate result.
Ensure the stated coverage and capacity and a certain class of service.
The third stage is survey. Carry out field exploration according to emulation result. Record
potential base station address following the requirement of base station building, including
power supply, transmission, electromagnetic background, land condition. Recommend proper
resolution for base station address on the basis of the offset range from the ideal address,
the influence on the future cell splitting, economic return, and coverage forecast, and
decide whether the electromagnetic background is purified or not.
The forth stage is system design. Decide the frequency, neighboring cell plan, and operating
parameters of each cell according to the distribution and type of base stations. Finish the
database.
The fifth stage is installation and debugging. Carry out system installation and debugging

according to designed data and make sure the normal system running.
The sixth stage is optimization. With the increase of subscribers, network requires
continuous optimization. Optimization is a refined adjustment and a complementary to
project defects. It also includes resource adjustment of exception conditions such as highvolume traffic burst. Circuit test, traffic statistics, alarm and subjective sense are usually
used as optimization measures. Signaling tracing and analysis plays a decisive role in solving
tough problems. Carry out optimization report and suggestions for future network building.
When the traffic volume exceeds the former object, extend the network and carry out new
analysis of capacity and coverage.
2 Difficulties in Radio Network Planning
Among the six stages above, the first four stages are usually called preplanning/planning
stages and the last two stages are optimization stages. Early planning is of vital importance
to network running. Late optimization can hardly change the network architecture and the
quality of network running; therefore, network planning deserves enough emphasis and
attention.
The main problems of GSM planning optimization are as follows:
1) It is difficult to make theoretical forecast of coverage area because of the complex
transmission environment, highly fluctuant signals, and big differences among multi-channel
transmissions due to various buildings.
2) Besides man-made noise, other serious interferences such as adjacent signals,
intermodulation and other radio jamming have to be considered in project design and
controlled within a proper range.
3) Frequency resource becomes more and more limited with great increase of subscribers.
4) Due to outside influences, the cellular structure and base station placement cannot be
carried out exactly according to plan in actual project.
5) There are some network planning problems in particular situation.

1 GSM Principles and Call Flow

1.1 GSM Frequency Band Allocation
GSM cellular system can be divided into GSM900M and DCS1800M according to frequency
band, with carrier frequency interval of 200 KHz and up and down frequencies as follows:
Table 1-1 GSM frequency allocation
Frequency band(MHz), Bandwidth(MHz), Frequency number, Carrier frequency number (pair)
GSM900 Up 890915 Down 935960, 25, 1124, 124
DCS1800 Up 17101785 Down 18051880, 75, 512885, 374
Up and down are classified according to base station. Base station transmitting - mobile
station receiving is down; mobile station transmitting - base station receiving is up.
With the expanding services, GSM protocol adds EGSM(expanded GSM frequency band) and
RGSM (expanded GSM frequency band including railway service) to the original GSM900
frequency band. The frequency band allocation is as follows:
Table 1-2 EGSM/RGSM frequency allocation
Frequency band(MHz), Bandwidth (MHz), Frequency number, Carrier frequency number
(pair) EGSM Up 880915 Down 925960, 35, 0124 , 9751023, 174
RGSM Up 876915 Down 921960, 40, 0124, 9551023, 199

1.2 Multiple Access Technology and Logical Channel

1.2.1 GSM Multiple Access Technology

In cellular mobile communications system, since many mobiles stations communicate with
other mobiles stations through one base station, it is necessary to distinguish the signals
from different mobile stations and base stations for them to identify their own signals. The
way to this problem is called multiple access technology. There are now five kinds of Multiple
access technology, namely: Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA), Time Division
Multiple Access (TDMA), Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA), Space Division Multiple Access
(SDMA), and polar division multiple access (PDMA).
GSM multiple access technology focuses on TDMA, and takes FDMA as complement. The
following only introduces FDMA and TDMA technologies.
I. FDMA
FDMA divides the whole frequency band into many single radio channels (transmitting and
receiving carrier frequency pairs). Each channel transmits one path of speech or control
information. Any subscriber has access to one of these channels under the control of the
system.
Analog cellular system is a typical example of FDMA application. Digital cellular system also
uses FDMA, but not the pure frequency allocation. For example, GSM takes FDMA technology.
II. TDMA
TDMA divides a broadband radio carrier into several time division channels according to time
(or timeslot). Each subscriber takes one timeslot and sends or receives signals only in the
specified timeslot. TDMA is applied in digital cellular system and GSM.
GSM adopts a technology combined with FDMA and TDMA.
1.2.2 TDMA Frame
The basic conception of GSM in terms of radio path is burst. Burst is a transmission unit
consists of over one hundred of modulation bits. It has a duration limit and takes a limited
radio frequency. They are exported in time and frequency window which is called slot. To be
specific, in system frequency band, central frequency of slot is set in every 200 KHz (in
FDMA). Slot occurs periodically in each 15/26 ms, which is about 0.577 ms (in TDMA).The
interval between two slots is called timeslot. Its duration is used as time unit, called burst
period (BP).
Time/frequency map illustrates the concept of slot. Each slot is expressed as one little
rectangle with 15/26ms length and 200 KHz width. See Figure 1-1. Similarly, the 200 KHz
bandwidth in GSM is called frequency slot, equal to radio frequency channel in GSM protocol.
Burst represents different meaning in different situation. Sometimes it concerns time
frequency rectangle unit, and sometimes not. Similarly, timeslot sometimes concerns time
value, and sometimes means using one of every eight slots periodically.
Using a given channel means transmitting burst with a particular frequency at particular
time, that is, a particular slot. Generally, the slot of a channel is not continuous in time.
Physical channel combines frequency division multiple access and time division multiple
access together. It consists of timeslot flow that connects base station (BS) and mobile
station (MS).The position of these timeslots in TDMA frame is fixed. Figure 1-2 shows the
complete structure of TDMA frame, including timeslot and burst. TDMA frame is a repetitive
physical frame in radio link.
One TDMA frame consists of eight basic timeslots, about 60/134.615ms in total. Each
timeslot is a basic physical channel with 156.25 elements, coving 15/260.557ms.
There are two kinds of multiframes, consisting of 26 and 51 continuous TDMA frames
respectively. Multiframes are applied when different logical channels are multiple used in
one physical channel.
The 26 multiframe, with a period of 120 ms, is used in traffic channel and associated control
channel. Among the 26 bursts, 24 are used in traffic and 2 are used in signaling.
The 51 multiframe, with a period of 3060/13235.385 ms, is specially used in control
channel.
Many multiframes together form a super frame. Super frame is a continuous 5126TDMA

frame, that is to say, a super frame consists of fifty-one 26 TDMA multiframes or twenty-six
51 TOMA multiframes. The period of super frame is 1,326 TDMA frames, or 6.12 s.
Many super frames together form a hyper frame.
A hyper frame consists of 2,048 super frames with a period of 12,533.7s, or 3 hours and 28
53 760. It is used in encrypted voice and data. Each period of hyper frame consists of
2,715,648 TDMA frames numbered from 0 to 2,715,648. The frame number is transmitted in
sync channel.
1.2.3 Burst
Burst is the message layout of a timeslot in TDMA channel, which means each burst is sent to
a timeslot of TDMA frame.
Different message in the burst determines its layout.
There are five kinds of bursts:
Normal burst: used to carry messages in TCH, FACCH, SACCH, SDCCH, BCCH, PCH and AGCH
channels
Access burst: used to carry message in RACH channel
Frequency correction burst: used to carry message in FCCH channel
Synchronization burst: used to carry message in SCH channel
Dummy burst: transmitted when no specific message transmission request from system (In
cells, standard frequency sends message continuously)
Each kind of burst includes the following elements:
Tail bits: Its value is always 0 to help equalizer judge start bit and stop bit to avoid lost
synchronization.
Information bits: It is used to describe traffic and signaling information, except idle burst and
frequency correction burst.
Training sequence: It is a known sequence, used for equalizer to generate channel model (a
way to eliminate dispersion). Training sequence is known by both transmitter and receiver. It
can be used to identify the location of other bits from the same burst and roughly estimate
the interference situation of transmission channel when the receiver gets this sequence.
Training sequence can be divided into eight categories in normal burst. It usually has the
same BCC setting with cells, but when accessed to burst and synchronization bust, training
sequence is fixed and does not change with cells. For example, in access burst, training
sequence is fixed (occupying 41 bits). The 36-bit message digit of the random access burst
includes BSIC information of the cell. BSIC settings of the same BCCH should be different, in
order to avoid mis-decoding of random access burst from neighboring cells into local access.
Guard period: It is a blank space. Since each carrier frequency can carry a maximum of eight
subscribers, it is necessary to guarantee the non-overlapping of each timeslot in
transmission. Although timing advance technology (introduced later) is used, bursts from
different mobile stations still show little slips; therefore, protection interval is adopted to
allow transmitter to fluctuate in a proper range in GSM. On the other hand, GSM requires
protection bits to keep constant transmission amplitude of the effective burst (except
protection bits) and properly attenuate the transmission amplitude of mobile station. The
amplitude attenuation of two sequential bursts as well as proper modulation bit stream can
reduce the interference to other RF channels.
The following is a detailed introduction to the structure and content of burst:
Access burst
It is used for random access (channel request from network and switchover access).
It is the first burst that the base station needs in uplink modulation.
Access burst includes a 41-bit training sequence, 36-information bit, and its protection
interval is 68.25 bits. There is only one kind of training sequence in access burst. Since the
possibility of interference is rather little, it is unnecessary to add extra kinds of training
sequences. Both training sequence and protection interval are longer than normal bursts in
order to offset the bug of timing advance ignorance in the first access of mobile station (or
switch over to another BTS) and improve demodulation ability of the system.
Frequency correction burst

It is used for frequency synchronization in mobile station, equal to an unmodulated carrier.

This sequence has 142 constant bits for frequency synchronization. Its structure is pretty
simple with all constant bits being 0. After modulated, it becomes a pure sine wave. It is
used in FCCH channel for mobile station to find and modulate synchronization burst of the
same cell. When mobile station gets the frequency through this burst, it can read the
information of following bursts (such as SCH and BCCH) in the same physical channel.
Protection interval and tail bit are the same with that of normal burst.
Synchronization burst
With a 64-bit training sequence and two 39-bit information fields, synchronization burst is
used for time synchronization of mobile station in SCH channel. It belongs to downlink. Since
it is the first burst required to be modulated by mobile station, its training sequence is
relatively long and easy to be detected.
Normal burst
It has two 58-bit groups used in message field. To be more specific, two 58-bit groups are
used to transmit subscriber data or voice together with two stealing flags. Normal burst is
used to describe whether the transmitted is traffic information or signaling information. For
example, to distinguish TCH and FACCH (when TCH channel is used as FACCH channel to
transmit signaling, the stealing flag of the 8 half bursts should be set to 1. It has no other use
in channels except in TCH channel, but can be regarded as the extension of training
sequence and always set to 1.Normal burst also includes two 3-bit tails and a protection
interval of 8.25 bits. The only bug is that the receiver has to store the preceding part of
burst before modulation. Normal burst has a total of 26 bits, 16 of which are information
bits. In order to get 26 bits, it copies the first five bits to the end of the training sequence
and the last five bits to the head of the training sequence. There are eight kinds of such
training sequence (these eight sequences have the least relevancy with each other). They
correspond to different base station color code (BCC, 3 bits) respectively to distinguish the
two cells using the same frequency.
Dummy burst
This kind of bust is sometimes sent by BTS without carrying any information. Its format is the
same with normal burst. The encrypted bits are changed into mixed bits with certain bit
model.
1.2.4 Logical Channel
In real networking, each cell has several carrier frequencies and each frequency has eight
timeslots, proving eight basic physical channels. Logical channel carries out time
multiplexing in one physical channel. It is classified according to the type of information in
physical channel. Different logical channel transmits different type of information between
BS and MS, such as signaling and data service. GSM defines different burst type for different
logical channel.
In GSM, logical channel is divided into dedicated channel (DCH) and common channel (CCH),
or traffic channel (TCH) and control channel (CCH) sometimes.
I. TCH
TCH carries coded voice or subscriber data. It is divided into full rate TCH (TCH/F) and half
rate TCH (TCH/H) with 22.8 bit/s information and 11.4 Kbit/s information respectively. Using
half of the timeslots in TCH/F can get TCH/H. A carrier frequency can provide eight kinds of
TCH/F or sixteen kinds of TCH/H. Voice channel types are as follows:
Enhanced full rate speech TCH (TCH/EFS)
Full rate speech TCH (TCH/EFS)
Full rate 9.6 Kbit/s TCH (TCH/F9.6)
Full rate 4.8 Kbit/s TCH (TCH/F4.8)
Full rate 2.4 Kbit/s TCH (TCH/F2.4)
II. CCH
CCH is used to transmit signaling or synchronous data. It mainly consists of broadcast channel
(BCCH), common control channel (CCCH), and dedicated control channel (DCCH).
III. BCCH
Frequency Correction Channel (FCCH)

It carries the information for frequency correction in mobile station. Through FCCH, mobile
station can locate a cell and demodulate other information in the same cell, and recognize
whether this carrier frequency is BCCH or not.
Sync Channel (SCH)
After FCCH decoding, mobile station has to decode SCH information. This information
contains mobile station frame synchronization and base station identification. Base station
identification code (BSIC) occupies six bits, three of which are PLMN color codes ranging
from zero to seven, and the other three are base station color codes (BCCs) ranging from
zero to seven.
Reduced TDMA frame (RFN) occupies 22 bits.
BCCH
Generally, each BTS has a transceiver containing BCCH in order to broadcast system
information to mobile station. System information enables mobile station to work efficiently
in null state.
IV. CCCH
Paging Channel (PCH)
PCH is a downlink channel used to page mobile station. When the network wants to
communicate with a certain mobile station, it sends paging information marked as TMSI or
IMSI through PCH to all the cells in LAC area according to the current LAC registered in
mobile station.
Access Grant Channel (AGCH)
AGCH is a downlink channel used for base station to respond the network access request of
mobile station, that is, to allocate a SDCCH or TCH directly. AGCH and PCH share the same
radio resource. Keep a fixed number of blocks for AGCH or just borrow PCH when AGCH
requires without keeping special AGCH block (AGB).
Random Access Channel (RACH)
RACH is an uplink channel used for mobile station to request SDCCH allocation in random
network access application. The request includes the reason to build 3-bit (call request,
paging response, location update request and short message request) and 5-bit reference
random number for mobile station to identify its own access grant message.
V. DCCH
Stand-alone Dedicated Control Channel (SDCCH)
SDCCH is a bi-directional dedicated channel used to transmit information of signaling,
location update, short message, authentication, encrypted command, channel allocation,
and complementary services. It can be divided into SD/8 and SD/4.
Slow Associated Control Channel (SACCH)
SACCH works with traffic channel or SDCCH to transmit subscriber information and some
specific information at the same time. Uplink mainly transmits radio measurement report
and the first layer head information; downlink mainly transmits part system information and
the first layer head information. The information includes quality of communications, LAI,
CELL ID, BCCH signal strength in neighboring cells, NCC limit, cell options, TA, and power
control level.
Fast Associated Control Channel (FACCH)
FACCH works with TCH to provide signaling information with a rate and timeliness much
higher than that provided by SACCH.
There is another control channel called cell broadcast channel (CBCH) besides the three
control channels mentioned above. It is used in downlink and carries short message service
cell broadcast (SMSCB) information. CBCH uses a physical channel same as SDCCH.
VI. Channel Combination
Logical channel is mapped to physical channel according to certain rules. The channel
combinations specified in GSM protocol are as follows:
TCH/F + FACCH/F + SACCH/TF
TCH/H(0,1) + FACCH/H(0,1) + SACCH/TH(0,1)
TCH/H(0,0) + FACCH/H(0,1) + SACCH/TH(0,1) + TCH/H(1,1)
FCCH + SCH + BCCH + CCCH (main BCCH)

FCCH + SCH + BCCH + CCCH + SDCCH/4(0..3) + SACCH/C4(0..3)(BCCH combination)

BCCH + CCCH(BCCH extension)
SDCCH/8(0. .7) + SACCH/C8(0. .7)
VII. Uncombined BCCH/SDCCH and Combined BCCH/SDCCH
Paging information transmits in the timeslot 0 of BCCH. Timeslot 0 has the following sub
channels:
Broadcast channel (BCH): FCCH, SCH, BCCH
CCCH: PCH, AGCH
DCCH (combined BCCH/SDCCH): SDCCH, SACCH, CBCH ( if using cell broadcast)
Physical channel timeslot 0 is made of multiframes logically. Each multiframe is 235.4 ms in
length. Multiframe has different channel configurations, such as combined BCCH/SDCCH and
uncombined BCCH/SDCCH. Different configuration has different paging capacity.
Uncombined BCCH/SDCCH
Each frame of Uncombined BCCH/SDCCH can have nine paging blocks. The timeslot 0 of BCCH
carrier frequency does not have SDCCH channel or CBCH channel.
Combined BCCH/SDCCH
Each multiframe of combined BCCH/SDCCH can have three paging blocks. The timeslot 0 of
BCCH carrier frequency contains four SDCCH subchannels (no CBCH) or three SDCCH and one
CBCH subchannel.
The configuration of combined BCCH/SDCCH has a great influence on paging capacity. Each
multiframe has only three paging blocks instead of nine in uncombined BCCH/SDCCH, which
means the paging capacity of cells with combined BCCH/SDCCH is only one third of that of
cells with uncombined BCCH/SDCCH.

1.3 Data Transmission

Radio channel has totally different characteristics from wired channel. Radio channel has a strong
time-varying characteristic. It has a high error rate when the signal is influenced by interferences,
multipath fading, or shadow fading. In order to solve these problems, it is necessary to protect the
signals through a series of transformation and inverse transformation from original subscriber data or
signaling data to the information carried by radio wave and then to subscriber data or signaling data.
These transformations include channel coding and decoding, interleaving and de-interleaving, burst
formatting, encryption and decryption, modulation and demodulation.
1.3.1 Voice Coding
Modern digital communication system usually uses voice compression technology. GSM takes tone and
noise from human throat as well as the mouth and tongue filter effect of acoustics as voice encoder to
establish a model. The model parameters transmit through TCH channel.
Voice encoder is based on residual excited linear prediction encoder (REIP) and its compression effect
is strengthened through long term predictor (LTP). LTP improves residual data encoding by removing
the vowel part of voice.
Voice encoder divides voice into several 20 ms voice blocks and samples each block with 8 kHz, so each
block has 160 samples. Each sample is quantified through frequency A 13 bits (frequency 14 bits).
Since the compression rates of frequency A and frequency are different, add three and two 0 bits
to the quantification values respectively, and then each sample gets 16 bits quantification value.
Therefore, 128 Kbit/s data flow is obtained after digitizing but before encoding. This data flow is too
fast to transmit in radio path and has to be compressed in encoder. With full speed encoder, each voice
block is encoded into 260 bits to form a 13 Kbit/s source coding rate. Next is channel coding. With 20
ms as a unit, 260 bits are output after compression encoding, so the encoding rate is 13Kbit /s.
Compared with the direct coding transmission of voice in traditional PCM channel, the 13kbps voice
rate of GSM is much lower. More advance voice encoder can reduce the rate to 6.5kbps (half rate
encoding).
1.3.2 Channel Coding
Channel coding is used to improve transmission quality and remove the influence of interferential
factors on signals at the price of increasing bits and information. The basic way of coding is adding

some redundant information to the original data. The added data is calculated on the basis of original
data with certain rules. The decoding process of receiving end is judging and correcting errors with this
redundant bit. If the redundant bit of received data calculated with the same way is different from the
received redundant bit, errors must have occurred in transmission. Different code is used in different
transmission mode. In practice, several coding schemes are always combined together. Common coding
schemes include block convolutional code, error correcting cyclic code and parity code.
In GSM, each logical channel has its own coding and interleaving mode, but the principle is trying to
form a unified coding structure.
Encode information bit into a unified block code consisting of information bits and parity check bits.
Encode block code into convolutional code and form coding bits (usually 456 bits).
Reassemble and interleave coding bits and add a stealing flag to form interleaving bits.
All these operations are based on block. The block size depends on channel type. After channel coding,
all channels (except RACH and SCH) are made of 464-bit block, that is, 456 coded information bits plus
8-bit header (header is used to distinguish TCH and FACCH). Then these blocks are reinterleaved
(concerning channel).
In TCH/F voice service; this block carries one speech frame of information. In control channel, this
block usually carries one piece of information. In TCH/H voice service, speech information is
transmitted by a block of 228 coded bits block.
For FACCH, each block of 456 coded information bits is divided into eight sub blocks. The first four sub
blocks are transmitted by even bits of the four timeslots borrowed from the continuous frames of TCH,
and the rest four sub blocks borrows odd bits of the four timeslots from the four continuous frames
delayed for two or four frames after the first frame. Each 456 coded bit block has a stealing flag (8
bits), indicating whether the block belongs to TCH or to FACCH. In the case of SACCH, BCCH or CCCH,
this stealing flag is dummy.
The synchronous information in Downlink SCH and the random access information in uplink use short
coded bit blocks transmitted in the same timeslot.
In TCH/F, a 20ms speech frame is encoded into 456-bit code sequence. The 260 bits of the 13 Kbit/s
20ms speech frame can be divided into three categories: 50 most import bits, 132 important bits and
78 unimportant bits. Add 3 parity check bits to the 50 most important bits, and these 53 bits together
with 132 important bits and 4 tail bits are convolutionally encoded ( with 1/2 convolutional coding rate
) into 378 bits, plus the 78 unimportant bits, and the 456 bits code sequence is obtained.
In BCCH, PCH, AGCH, SDCCH, FACCH and SACCH, data is transmitted by Link Access Procedure on the
Dm channel (LAPDm). Each LAPDm frame has 184 bits, together with 40 bits error correcting cyclic
code and 4 tail bits, through 1/2 convolutional coding rate, and the 456 bits code sequence is
obtained.
Each SCH contains 25-bit message field. Among them, 19 bits are frame number and 6 bits are BSC
number. These 25 bits plus 10 parity check bits and 4 tail bits are 39 bits. Through 1/2 rate
convolutional coding, 78 bits are obtained, which occupy an entire SCH burst. .
RACH message only has 8 bits, including 3-bit setup cause message and 5-bit discrimination symbol. On
the basis of these 8 bits, add 6 bits of color code (obtained through the MOD 2 of the 6-bit BSIC and 6bit parity check code), plus 4 tail bits to get 18 bits. Through 1/2 rate convolutional coding, 36 bits are
obtained, which occupy an entire RACH burst.
1.3.3 Interleaving
If speech signal is modulated and transmitted directly after channel coding, due to parametric
variation of mobile communication channel, the long trough of deep feeding will affect the succeeding
bits, leading to error bit strings. That is to say, after coding, speech signal turns into sequential frames,
while in transmission, error bits usually occur suddenly, which will affect the accuracy of continuous
frames. Channel coding only works for detection and correction of signal error or short error string.
Therefore, it is hoped to find a way to separate the continuous bits in a message, that is, to transmit
the continuous bits in a discontinuous mode so as to change the error channel into discrete channel.
Therefore, even if an error occurs, it is only about a single or very short bit stream and will not
interrupt the decoding of the entire burst or even the entire information block. Channel coding will
correct the error bit under such circumstances. This method is called interleaving technology.
Interleaving technology is the most effective code grouping method to separate error codes.
The essence of interleaving is to disperse the b bits into n bursts in order to change the adjacent

relationship between bits. Greater n value leads to better transmission performance but longer
transmission delay. Therefore, these two factors must be considered in interleaving. Interleaving is
always related to the use of channel. GSM adopts secondary interleaving method.
After channel coding, The 456 bits are divided into eight groups; each group contains 57 bits. This is
the first interleaving, also called internal interleaving. After first interleaving, the continuity of
information in a group is broken. As one burst contains two groups of 57-bit voice information, if the
two-group 57 bits of a 20 ms voice block after first interleaving are inserted to the same burst, the loss
of this burst will lead to 25% loss of bits for this 20 ms voice block. Channel coding cannot restore so
much loss. Therefore, a secondary interleaving, also called inter-block interleaving, is required
between two voice blocks.
After internal interleaving, the 456 bits of a voice block B are divided into eight groups. Interleave the
first four groups of voice block B (B0, B1, B2, and B3) with the last four groups of voice block A (A4, A5,
A6, and A6), and then (BO, A4), (B1, A5), (B2, A6), and (B3, A7) form four bursts. In order to break the
consistency of bits, put block A at even position and block B at odd position of bursts, that is, to put B0
at odd position and A4 at even position. Similarly, interleave the last four groups of block B with the
first four groups of block C.
Therefore, a 20 ms speech frame is inserted into eight normal bursts after secondary interleaving.
Theses eight bursts are transmitted one by one, so the loss of one burst only affects 12.5% voice bits. In
addition, as these bursts have no relations with each other, they can be corrected by channel coding.
The secondary interleaving of control channel (SACCH, FACCH, SDCCH, BCCH, PCH, or AGCH) is
different from voice interleaving which requires three voice blocks. The 456-bit voice block is divided
into eight groups after internal interleaving (the same as that of voice block), and then the first four
groups are interleaved with the last four groups (the same interleaving method as that of voice block)
to get four bursts.
Interleaving is an effective way to avoid interference, but it has a long delay. In the transmission of a
20 ms voice block, the delay period is (9*8)-7=65 bursts (SACCH occupying one burst), which is 37.5 ms.
Therefore, MS and trunk circuit have echo cancellers added to remove the echo due to delay.
1.3.4 Encryption
Security is a very important feature in digital transmission system. GSM provides high security through
transmission encryption. This kind of encryption can be used in voice, user data, and signaling. It is
used for normal burst only and has nothing to do with data type.
Encryption is achieved by XOR operation of poison random sequence (generated through A5 algorithm
of encryption key Kc and frame number) and the 114 information bits of normal burst.
The same poison random sequence generated at receiving end and the received encryption sequence
together produce the required data after XOR operation
1.3.5 Modulation and Demodulation
Modulation and demodulation is the last step of signal processing. GSM modulation adopts GMSK
technology with BT being 0.3 at the speed of 270.833 Kbit/s and Viterbi algorithm. The function of
modulation is to add a certain feature to electromagnetic wave according to the rules. This feature is
the data to transmit. In GSM, the phase of electromagnetic field bears the information.
The function of demodulation is to receive signals and restore the data in a modulated electromagnetic
wave. A binary numeral has to be changed into a low-frequency modulated signal first, and then into an
electromagnetic wave. Demodulation is the reverse process of modulation.

1.4 Timing advance

Signal transmission has a delay. If the MS moves away from BTS during calling, the signal from
BTS to MS will be delayed, so will the signal from MS to BTS. If the delay is too long, the
signal in one timeslot from MS cannot be correctly decoded, and this timeslot may even
overlap with the timeslot of the next signal from other MS, leading to inter-timeslot
interference. Therefore, the report header carries the delay value measured by MS. BTS

monitors the arrive time of call and send command to MS with the frequency of 480 ms,
prompting MS the timing advance (TA) value. The range of this value is 063(0233 us), and
the maximum coverage area is 35km. The calculation is as follows:
1/23.7us/bit63bit*c=35km
3.7us/bit is the duration per bit (156/577); 63bit is the maximum bit for time coordination; c
is light velocity (transmission rate of signal); 1/2 is related to the round-trip of signal.
According to the preceding description, 1bit to 554 m, due to the influence of multi-path
transmission and the accuracy of MS synchronization, TA error may be about 3 bits (1.6km).
Sometimes a greater coverage area is required, such as in coastal areas. Therefore, the
number of channels that each TRX contains must be reduced. The method is to bind odd and
even timeslots, so there are only four channels (0/1, 2/3, 4/5, and 6/7) for each TDMA frame
in extended cell. Allocate channels 0, 2, 4, and 6 to MS. Within 35 KM around BTS, the TA
value of MS is in the normal range 0-63; for the area beyond 35 KM, TA value stays at 63. This
technology is called extended cell technology. The maximum value of TA in BTS measurement
report is 63+156.25=219.25 bit, so the maximum radius of coverage area is:
1/23.7us (63+156.25) 3108m/s=120km
In real scheme, in order to improve the utilization of TRX, both common TRXs and dual
timeslot TRXs can be included. BCCH must be in dual timeslot TRX to receive random access
from any area. The calls within 35 km are allocated to common TRX; the calls within 35 km
120 km and the switched in calls are allocated to dual timeslot TRX. If the system detects
the switched in call is within 35km, it will switch over this call to common TRX. If the MS in
conversation goes beyond 35 km, an intra-cell switchover will be carried out. Therefore,
both the capacity requirement for remote areas and the coverage requirement for local
areas can be satisfied.

1.5 System Information

System information is sent to MS from network in broadcast form. It informs all the MSs within the
coverage area of location area, cell selection and re-selection, neighbor cell information, channel
allocation and random access control. By receiving system information, MS can quickly and accurately
locate network resources and make full use of all kinds of services that network provides. There are 16
types of system information: type1, 2, 2bis, 2ter, 3, 4, 5, 5bis, 5ter, 6, 7, 8, and 13.
System information is transmitted on BCCH or SACCH. MS receives system information in different
mode from different logic channel.
In idle mode, system information 1 4, 7, and 8 are transmitted on BCCH ;
In communication mode, system information 5 and 6 are transmitted on SACCH;
The content of system information is as follows:
System information 1cell channel description + RACH control parameter, transmitted on BCCH
System information 2 frequency description of neighbor cell + RACH control information + network
color code (NCC) permitted, transmitted on BCCH, used for cell re-selection
System information 2bis Extended neighbor cell BCCH frequency description + RACH control
information, transmitted on BCCH, used for cell re-selection.
System information 2ter Extended neighbor cell BCCH frequency description, transmitted on BCCH,
used for cell re-selection.
System information 3 Cell identity + location area identity (LAI) + control channel description + cell
selection + cell selection parameter + RACH control parameter, transmitted on BCCH.
System information 4 LAI + cell selection parameter + RACH control parameter + CBCH channel
description + CBCH mobile configuration, transmitted on BCCH.
System information 5 Neighbor cell BCCH frequency description, transmitted on SACCH channel, used
for cell handover.
System information 5bis Extended neighbor cell BCCH frequency description, transmitted on SACCH
channel, used for cell handover.

System information 5ter Extended neighbor cell BCCH frequency description, transmitted on SACCH
channel, used for cell handover.
System information 6 Cell Global Identification (CGI) + cell optionNCC Permitted, transmitted on
SACCH.
System information 7 cell re-selection parameter
System information 8 cell re-selection parameter
BCCH is a low-capacity channel, every 51 multiframes ((235 ms) have only four frames (one information
block) to transmit a 23 byte LAPDm message.
Each information unit contains:
Cell channel description contains all the frequencies used in this cell.
RACH control information contains parameters such as Max Retrans, TX_integer, CBA, RE, EC, and AC
CN.
Neighbor cell BCCH frequency description contains the BCCH frequency that the neighbor cell uses.
Allowed PLMN is used to provide NCC Permitted that MS monitors on BCCH TRX.
Control channel description contains parameters such as MS ATTACH/DEATTACH allowed Indicator ATT,
BS-AG-BLKS-RES, CCCH-CONF, BA-PA-MFRMS, and T3212.
Cell selection contains parameters such as power control (PWRC) indication, discontinuous Transmission
(DTX) indication, and RADIO-LINK-TIMEOUT.
Cell selection parameter contains parameters such as cell re-selection hysteresis, MS-TXPWR-MAX-CCH,
and RXLEV-ACCESS-MIN.
CBCH channel description contains channel type and TDMA deviation (the combination mode of
dedicated channel), timeslot number (TN), training sequence code (TSC), hopping frequency channel
indication H, mobile allocation index offset (MAIO), hopping frequency sequence number (HSN) and
absolute radio frequency channel number ( ARFCN).
CBCH mobile configuration contains the relationship between hopping channel sequence and cell
channel description.
Cell re-selection parameter contains CELLRESELIND, cell bar qualify (CBQ), cell reselection offset
(CRO), temporary offset (TO), and penalty time (PT).

1.6 Cell Selection and Re-Selection

1.6.1 Cell Selection
When a MS is switched on, it tries to contact GSM PLMN that the SIM permits and select a
proper cell to extract control channel parameters and other system information. This process
is called cell selection.
The priority levels of cells include normal, low, and barred. Low priority level cell is selected
when there is no proper normal cell.
A proper cell means:
The cell belongs to the selected network;
The cell is not barred;
The cell is not in the national prohibited roaming location area;
The path loss between MS and BTS is under the limit set by network.
The priority level of a cell is determined by CELL_BAR_QUALIFY (CBQ) and
CELL_BAR_ACCESS (CBA).
1.6.2 Cell Selection Process
To perform cell selection and re-selection, MS requires all the frequencies monitored to stay
at the unweighted average value of Relev RLA_C.
I. Cell Selection When MS Storing No BCCH Information
MS searches all RF channels (at least 30 channels for 900 M, 40 for 1800 M, and 40 for
PSC1900) in the system to obtain the Relev of each RF channel, and calculate the RLA_C
based on at least five samples in three to five seconds, and then arrange these levels in

descending order to select the proper BCCH. MS selects the cells with normal priority first. If
the proper cells have low priority, MS will select the cell with the highest Relev. MS has
already decoded and identified all these frequencies by now. If there is no proper cell, MS
will keep on searching. It takes a maximum of 0.5 s to synchronize a BCCH TRX and 1.9 s to
read the synchronized BCCH TRX data, except that it takes n*1.9s(n>1)to obtain the system
information.
II. Cell Selection When MS Storing BCCH Information
If MS stores the BCCH frequency list of the former selected networks, MS will perform
measurement sampling procedure (only for the stored BCCH TRX) according to this list. If the
cell selection within this list fails, common cell selection will be performed. If all the cells
have low priority level, MS will select the cell with the highest Relev. MS has already decoded
and identified all these frequencies by now. When a 900 M MS enters the 900/1800 network,
MS will probably choose 900 M network and ignore the priority level, because the MS stores
all the 900 M frequency information in BCCH frequency list.
III. Cell Selection Criteria
Parameter C1 is the path loss criteria for cell selection, C1 of the service cell must exceed 0,
the formula is as follows:
C1= RLA_C - RXLEV_ACCESS_MIN- MAX ((MS_TXPWR_MAX_CCH- P), 0) (2-1)
For DCS 1800 cells:
C1 = RLA_C - RXLEV_ACCESS_MIN- MAX ((MS_TXPWR_MAX_CCH + POWER OFFSET- P), 0)
In the formula:
RLA_C: Average value of Relev
RXLEV_ACCESS_MIN: Minimum Relev that MS allows
MS_TXPWR_MAX_CCH: Maximum transmit power on control channel
P: Maximum transmit power of MS
POWER OFFSETPower offset related to MS_TXPWR_MAX_CCH used by DCS1800 cells.
1.6.3 Down Link Failure
Downlink failure criteria are based on DSC. When a mobile phone stays in a cell, DSC is
initialized to an integer most close to 90/N ( N is BS_PA_MFRMS, range value: 29). Each time
when mobile phone successfully decodes a message on its paging subchannel, DSC increases
by 1, but DSC cannot exceed the initial value; when decoding fails, DSC decreases by 4.
When DSC<=0, downlink failure occurs. Down signaling link failure will lead to cell reselection.
1.6.4 Cell Re-Selection Process
In cell re-selection, mobile phone will synchronize and read the information from six BCCH
TRXs (in BA list) with strongest signals outside the service area. For multi-frequency mobile
phones, the TRXs with strongest signals may be in different frequency bands.
In idle mode, mobile phone monitors all the BCCH TRXs in BA list and averages each Relev
from BCCH TRX within 5 s to Max {5, ((5 * N + 6) DIV 7) * BS_PA_MFRMS / 4} s. N is the
number of BCCH TRXs outside service area in BA list. Each RLA_C requires at least five level
measurement samples and has to be updated from time to time. Service area samples the
Relev at least once for each paging block to mobile. RLA_C is calculated by averaging the
level samples received from 5s to Max {5s, five consecutive paging blocks of that MS}.
Each RLA_C update is followed by the update of the six BCCH TRXs outside the service area
in BA list. And the latter update may be even faster.
Mobile phone decodes all the BCCH data in a service cell every other 30 s and the BCCH data
blocks related to cell re-selection parameters of the six BCCH TRXs with strongest signals
every other five minutes. When the mobile phone detects that a new BCCH TRX becomes one
of the six TRXs with strongest signals, this BCCH TRX data should be decoded within 30 s.
Mobile phone checks the BSICs of the six BCCH TRXs with strongest signals to make sure they
are in the same cell. If the BSIC of a TRX is changed, the MS will regard the TRX as new TRX
and reread the BCCH data.
MS will re-select a neighbor cell as service cell under certain condition. This condition
includes several factors, such as RLA_C, cell restriction (decided by cell_bar and
cell_bar_qualify), and access state of the neighbor cell.

Cell re-selection adopts C2 algorithm. The calculation formula is as follows:

When PENALTY TIME is not 11111
C2=C1+CELL_RESELECT_OFFSETTEMPORARY_OFFSET*H (PENALTY_TIMET);
When PENALTY_TIME is 11111
C2=C1-CELL_RESELECT_OFFSET.
When X>0, function H(x) =0; when XO, function H(x) =1.
T is a timer; its initial value is 0. When a cell is included in the six neighbor cells with
strongest signals by MS, the timer T of this cell begins to time; when a cell is excluded from
the six neighbor cells with strongest signals by MS, T will be reset.
CELL_RESELECT_OFFSET adjusts the value of C2.
After T starts, TEMPORARY_OFFSET will modify the C2 algorithm according to the defined
value before the penalty time in order to avoid a micro cell or a cell with small coverage
area is selected by a fast moving MS. If the defined penalty time is out, the temporary offset
will be ignored. Penalty time can avoid the frequent cell re-selection in those coverage areas
like express highway.
These parameters in C2 algorithm works only when CELL_RESELECTION_INDICATION is
activated. Otherwise, MS will ignore the setting of CELL_RESELECT_OFFSET,
TEMPORARY_OFFSET, and PENALTY_TIME, under such circumstances, C2=C1.
Cell re-selection will be triggered under the following conditions:
The C2 value of a certain cell (belonging to the same location area with the current cell)
exceeds that of the current cell by 5 seconds successively;
The C2 value of a certain cell (belonging to different location area from the current cell)
exceeds the sum of the C2 value of the current service cell and cell selection hysteresis
value by 5 seconds successively;
The current service cell is barred;
MS detects downlink failure;
The C1 value of the service cell is less than 0 for 5 seconds successively.

1.7 Frequency Hopping

With the ever growing traffic volume and the limited frequency resource, frequency reuse is
more and more aggressive. Therefore, the problem of how to reduce frequency interference
becomes more and more remarkable. The essence of anti-interference is to fully utilize the
current spectrum, time domain, and space resources. The key measures include frequency
hopping, discontinuous transmission (DTX), and power control. Frequency hopping also can
effectively reduce the influence of fast fading.
1.7.1 Types of Frequency Hopping
GSM radio interface uses slow frequency hopping (SFH) technology. The difference between
slow frequency hopping and fast frequency hopping is that the frequency of latter changes
faster than frequency modulation. In GSM, the frequency remains the same during burst
transmission. Therefore, GSM frequency hopping belongs to slow frequency hopping.
In frequency hopping, the carrier frequency is controlled by a sequence and hops with time.
This sequence is frequency hopping sequence. Frequency hopping sequence is a sequence of
frequencies decided by hopping sequence number (HSN), mobile allocation index offset
(MAIO) and frame number (FN) through a certain algorithm in the mobile allocation
containing N frequencies. The N channels of different timeslots can use the same hopping
sequence. The different channels of the same timeslot in the same cell adopt different MAIO.
Frequency hopping can be divided into frame hopping and timeslot hopping according to
time domain and RF hoping and baseband hopping according to implementation mode.
Frame hopping: the hopping frequency changes once in each TDMA frame period. Each TRX
can be regarded as a channel. The TCH of BCCH TRX cannot join in the frequency hopping in
a cell. The hopping TRX should have a different MAIO. Frame hopping is an exception of

timeslot hopping.
Timeslot hopping: the timeslot frequency of each TDMA frame changes once. The TCH of
BCCH TRX can join in the frequency hopping, which happens in baseband hopping.
RF hopping: both transmission and reception of TRX join in the frequency hopping. The
number hopping frequencies can exceed the number of TRXs in the cell.
Baseband hopping: each transceiver works at a fixed frequency. TX does not join in
frequency hopping. Frequency hopping is performed through the handover of banseband
signal. Therefore, the number of hopping frequencies cannot exceed the number of TRXs in
the cell.
The two frequency hopping modes above are based on BTS. As for MS, since each MS has only
one TRX unit, RF hopping is the only mode.
I. Baseband Hopping
The system has multiple baseband and TRX processing unit. Each TRX processing unit has a
fixed working frequency; each baseband processing unit processes one line of service
information and sends the processed information to the TRX unit with bus topology in time
sequence according to frequency hopping rule. This kind of frequency hopping is called
baseband hopping.
In baseband hopping, each transceiver works with a fixed frequency. The bursts on the same
speech path are sent to each transceiver. Baseband hopping is based on the handover of
baseband signals. Since the transceiver of each BTS has a fixed working frequency, both
broadband combiner and cavity combiner can be adopted. The number of TRXs decides the
maximum number of frequency hopping. The problem for baseband hopping is that if one
TRX board fails, the corresponding code word will be lost, thus affecting all the calls under
hopping mode in the cell.
II. RF Hopping
Under this mode, each line of service information is processed by fixed baseband unit and
frequency band unit. The working frequency of frequency band unit is provided by
frequency combiner. Under the control of control unit, frequency can be changed according
to certain rules. In RF hopping, the frequencies used by a TRX to handle all the bursts of a
call come from the frequency change of combiner, instead of the handover of baseband
signals. The number of TRXs is not limited by carrier frequency. As the working frequency of
TRX changes, which means the frequency of the input port to combiner changes, only
broadband combiner can be adopted. This kind of broadband combiner leads to about 3dB
insertion loss in two-in-one combination and the loss is greater in the link insertion of multicombiner. GSM protocol does not specify which kind of frequency hopping is used in GSM
BTS. The mode of frequency hopping can be decided by operators according to the
equipments.
1.7.2 Frequency Hopping Algorithm
The parameters related to frequency hopping algorithm are as follows:
CA: cell allocation, the collection of frequencies used by a cell
FN: TDMA frame number, broadcasted on sync channel. FN (02715647) synchronizes BTS
with MS
MA: mobile allocation, the collection of radio frequencies used for MS frequency hopping. It
is a subset of CA. MA contains N frequencies, 1N64.
MAIO: mobile allocation index offset, (0N-1). During communication, the radio frequency at
air interface is an element of MA. Mobile allocation index (MAI, 0N-1) is used to determine
the element of MA. That is to say, the actual frequency used is decided by MAI. MAIO is the
initial offset of MAI and it is used to avoid the contention of frequency by several channels at
the same time.
HSN: hopping sequence number (063). It determines that the hopping sequence with
concentrated frequencies is adopted in frequency hopping. When HSN=0, the hopping is
cyclic hopping; when HSN0, the hopping is random hopping.
The proper setting of parameters is based on the understanding of the use of each parameter
in hopping algorithm and the hopping theory. The proper setting ensures the healthy working
state of the system.

Remarks: For the cyclic hopping in discontinuous transmission (DTX), the number of hopping
frequencies should avoid N mod 13 = 0, because under such condition, the probability of
transmission and measurement of SACCH frame at the same frequency is rather high, and the
harms are obvious.
When HSN=0, S equals the frame number, in other cases, S is only related to frame number
and frequency hopping number. When HSN is fixed and frame number is the same, S must be
the same. Therefore, as the TRXs of each sync cell have the same frame number, different
hopping groups in sync cells can adopt the same HSN. A proper configuration of MAIO can
avoid the inter-cell or intra-cell frequency collision within the same BTS. The aggressive
frequency reuse adopts this theory.
1.7.3 Benefits of Frequency Hopping
In GSM, frequency hopping has two benefits: frequency diversity and interference averaging.
I. Frequency Diversity
Frequency hopping can reduce the influence of signal strength change due to multipath
transmission. This effect equals that of frequency diversity. In mobile communications,
Rayleigh fading leads to the great change of radio signal in a short time. This kind of change
is related to frequency: a more independent fading accompanies a greater frequency
difference. The 200 KHz interval generally ensures the independence of inter-frequency
fading, while the 1 MHz interval can fully guarantee this kind of independence. Through
frequency hopping, all the bursts containing the code word of the same speech frame are
protected from the damage of Rayleigh fading in the same way.
Statistics shows that frequency hopping gain is related to environmental factors, especially
to the moving speed of MS. When the MS moves at a high speed, the location difference
between two bursts on the same channel is also affected by other kinds of fading. The higher
the speed is, the lower the gain will be. Frequency diversity benefits a lot to a large number
of MSs moving at low speed.
Frequency hopping gain is also related to the number of frequencies. When the number of
frequencies decreases, the hopping gain falls. The relationship between the number of
frequencies and hopping gain can be explained in this way: frequency hopping is pseudo
spectrum spread, and the hopping gain is the processing gain after transmission frequency
band spread. The basic way to test frequency hopping gain is to calculate the differences
between different C/I at different hopping frequencies under the same FER. These C/I
differences are the frequency hopping gain.
II. Interference Averaging
Frequency hopping provides the diversity of interference on transmission channel, so that all
the bursts containing the code word of the same speech frame are protected from the
damage of interference in the same way. Through error correction coding and interleaving of
the system, the original data can be restored from the rest part of the received flow. The
hopping gain is obtained only when the interference is in narrowband distribution. If the
interference is in broadband distribution, all the bursts will be destroyed and the original
data cannot be restored. Therefore, no hopping gain is obtained. The common interference
after frequency hopping can be regarded in narrowband distribution.
In frequency hopping, error rate tends to increase in the test, but we feel the conversation
quality improves. It is because although the error rate increases, the influence of
interference is homogenized in frequency hopping, the speech restoring ability improves
because of the interleaving and de-interleaving before. In GPRS data services, frequency
hopping can be harmful when the data rate is rather high (CS4).

1.8 Discontinuous Reception and Discontinuous Transmission

1.8.1 Discontinuous Reception and Paging Channel
In idle mode, if MS selects a cell as its service cell, it begins to receive the paging

information from this cell. But in order to reduce power consumption, discontinuous
reception (DRX) is introduced in GSM. Each user (IMSI) belongs to a paging group and each
paging group corresponds to a paging subchannel. MS can calculate which group it belongs to
based on the last three digits of its IMSI and the configuration of paging channel in this
location area, and then locate the paging subchannel of this paging group. In fact, in idle
mode, MS just listens to the paging information from the system on its subchannel (MS also
monitors the Relev of BCCH carrier frequency in non-service area during this period of time)
and ignores the information on other paging subchannels. Some of the hardware equipments
are even switched off to save the power of MS. But MS must complete the required task of
network information measurement within a specified time.
Through DRX, MS can receive the broadcast short messages that the users want to know with
less power consumption, thus extending the service time. BSC has to send scheduling
messages to support DRX at MS. One scheduling message contains lots of broadcast short
messages to be sent soon. The time that all broadcast short messages of a scheduling
information takes is a scheduling cycle. Scheduling information contains the description of
all short messages to be broadcast in order and also indicates the position of the messages in
scheduling cycle. Through scheduling messages, MS can find the broadcast short messages it
wants quickly so as to reduce its power consumption.
The number of paging subchannels of each cell can be calculated based on the configuration
type of CCCH, BS_AG_BLKS_RES (the number of blocks belonging to AGCH in 51 multiframe),
and BS_PA_MFRMS (the number of 51 multiframes used as one paging subchannel cycle).
When there are three CCCHs in a 51 multiframe, the number of paging subchannels is (3BS_AG_BLKS_RES) BS_PA_MFRMS
When there are nine CCCHs in a 51 multiframe, the number of paging subchannels is (9BS_AG_BLKS_RES)BS_PA_MFRMS
In addition, the configuration of CCCH parameters has the following principles:
The greater the parameter BS_PA_MFRMS, the more the paging subchannels, and the less the
users of each paging subchannel, but the total capacity of the system remains the same,
because the average delay of the paging information on radio channel increases. When the
ratio of retransmission waiting is relatively high, BS_PA_MFRMS should be improved to
increase the paging subchannels; when the ratio of retransmission waiting is relatively low,
BS_PA_MFRMS should be reduced to shorten the paging delay.
The capacities of paging subchannels of all cells in a location area should be the same,
because the paging message of a location area must be sent in all the cells of this location
area at the same time.
The longer the cycle of paging channel, the less power the MS in this service area takes. For
example, in cities, this cycle can be defined as 2, which means MS listens to paging messages
once for every 102 frames. In rural areas, this cycle can be defined as 4 or 6. The MS with
the paging channel cycle of 6 consumes 18% less power than the MS with the paging channel
cycle of 2. After measuring the system information, MS enters the rest state and listens to
the paging information in the specified paging blocks only and measures the Relev of BCCH of
neighbor cells at the same time. After 30 s, MS will listen to system information again to
judge the cell re-selection process.
In GSM, CCCH mainly includes AGCH and PCH. Its primary function is to transmit immediate
assignment messages and paging messages. CCCH can be one or several physical channels and
it can also share a physical channel with SDCCH. The combination mode of CCCH depends on
the parameter CCCH_CONF. The configuration of CCCH_CONF must be consistent with the
actual configuration. It is recommended that when there is only one TRX in a cell, the
configuration of CCCH can be a physical channel shared with SDCCH (3 CCCH information
blocks).
When the traffic volume is extremely large, in case one physical timeslot is not enough, GSM
specification allows the configuration of multiple CCCH channels on the TRX besides BCCH,
but these channels must be used in timeslot 0, 2, 4, and 6.
When CCCH_CONF is confirmed, parameter BS_AG_BLKS_RES actually decides the ratio of
AGCH and PCH on CCCH. It is recommended that this parameter be configured as little as

possible in order to reduce the response time of MS to paging.

1.8.2 DTX
I. DTX Overview
During communication, only 40% time is used for conversation; no useful information is
transmitted during the rest 60% time. If all the information is transmitted to network, many
of the system resources will be wasted, in addition, the interference will aggravate. In order
to solve this problem, GSM adopts DTX technology to stop signal transmission when there is
no voice signal. Therefore, the interference level is reduced and the system efficiency is
improved.
There are two kinds of transmission modes in GSM: normal mode and discontinuous
transmission (DTX) mode. In normal mode, noise and voice have the same transmission
quality. In DTX mode, the transmission of unuseful messages is prohibited. MS only sends
man-made noise signals that are tolerable, which means this noise will not annoy the
listeners nor affect the conversation. This kind of noise is called comfort noise. In DTX mode,
260-bit code is transmitted in every 480 ms; in normal mode, 260-bit code is transmitted in
every 20 ms.
Whether the downlink DTX is adopted or not is controlled by network operators of the
exchange part. This kind of control is based on BSC. The control information is transmitted to
baseband processing part through dedicated signaling channel, and then arrives at TC
through the inband signaling of TRAU frame to indicate whether downlink DTX is adopted.
For some vendors, the downlink DTX can be configured on the basis of cell.
Uplink DTX is configured by network operators of the radio part. The parameter DTX in
system information consists of 2 bits.
Parameter DTX is contained in cell option of information unit and transmitted periodically
in the system information of each cell broadcast. MS decides whether to start DTX function
based on this information.
DTX can be used for voice signal transmission and nontransparent data transmission. BCCH
TRX does not use this technology. The benefits of DTX are listed below:
Uplink DTX can save MS batteries and reduce interference.
Downlink DTX can save BTS power consumption and reduce interference and intra-BTS
intermodulation.
Uplink DTX and downlink DTX used together can improve the intra-frequency ratio of the
system. This kind of improvement, when used in aggressive-frequency-reuse cell planning,
especially when used with frequency hopping, can greatly expand the system capacity.
II. Voice Activity Detection
For voice activity detection (VAD), the source must indicate when the transmission is
required. When DTX mode is activated, the encoder must detect the signal is voice or noise.
Therefore, the VAD is required. VAD can differentiate voice from noise through calculating
some signal parameters and threshold values. This kind of differentiation is based on an
energy rule: the energy of noise is always lower than that of voice.
VAD generates a group of threshold value in every 20 ms to judge whether the next 20ms
block is voice or noise. When the background noise is too loud, the noise signal will be
regarded as voice signal to transmit.
III. Silence Indicator
The coding procedure of noise is the same as that of voice. After sampling and
quantification, a noise block will be produce by encoder in every 20ms. Like voice block, the
coded noise block also contains 260 bits, which forms a SID frame. The SID frame will go
through channel coding, interleaving, encryption and modulation and finally be sent by eight
continuous bursts.
On TCH, a complete SACCH information block has four 26 muliframe cycles (480 ms). In
order to differentiate voice frame and SID frame, these eight continuous bursts are arranged
at the beginning of the third multiframe. During other time of the 480 ms, no information is
transmitted except SACCH timeslot. The SID frame made from the 20 ms noise block is
interleaved with the preceding frame and the following frame; the first SID frame is
interleaved with the preceding voice frame and the following SID frame.

IV. Measurement
Uplink DTX and downlink DTX are two irrelevant procedures that are activated by system
parameters respectively. There are two kinds of measurement in GSM: full measurement and
sub measurement.
Global measurement is the average of the level and quality of the 104 timeslots in a
measurement cycle (four 26 multiframes); local measurement is the average of level and
quality of 12 timeslots, including eight continuous TCH bursts (for TCH/F, 0-103 TDMA frames
as a cycle. The frame numbers of these eight bursts are 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, and 59.
when no voice or signaling is transmitted, the descriptor of comfort noise they contain is
called SID) and four SACCH bursts (0-103 TDMA frames as a cycle, for timeslot 0, the frame
numbers of these four bursts are 12, 38, 64, and 90; for timeslot 1, the frame number is that
of timeslot 0 plus 13. similarly, the frame numbers that the eight timeslots correspond to can
be obtained in this way). In order to achieve uniformity, no matter the uplink DTX or
downlink DTX is activated or not, BTS and MS must complete these two kinds of
measurement. Each SACCH measurement report of BTS and MS indicates whether DTX is used
in last measurement report time. BSC choose one of the two kinds of measurement based on
this indication.

.9 Power Control
1.9.1 Power Control Overview
Power control is to change the transmission power of MS or BTS (or both) in radio mode
within certain area. Power control can reduce the system interference and improve the
spectrum utilization and prolong the service time of MS battery. When the Relev and quality
is good, the transmission power of the peer end can be reduced to lower the interference to
other calls.
In GSM, power control can be used in uplink and downlink respectively. The power control
range for uplink MS is 20 dB30dB. Based on the power class of MS (most MSs belongs to class
4, which means the maximum transmission power is 33 dbm), each step can change 2 dB.
The downlink power control range is decided by equipment manufacturer. Although whether
to adopt uplink or downlink power control function is decided by network operators, all MSs
and BTS equipments must support this function. BSS manages the power control in the two
directions.
To facilitate BCCH frequency pull-in and the measurement of Relev (including the Relev of
neighbor cell BCCH frequency), GSM protocol specifies that no power control is allowed for
the timeslots in the downlink of BCCH TRX.
1.9.2 MS Power Control
The power control of MS includes two adjustment stages: stable adjustment stage and initial
adjustment stage. Stable adjustment is the common way to implement power control
algorithm. Initial adjustment is used at the beginning of call connection. When a connection
occurs, MS sends signals with nominal power (before receiving power adjustment commend,
the nominal transmission power of MS is the maximum transmission power on BCCH of the
cell. If MS does not support this power level, it will adopt other power level most close to
this level, such as the maximum power level supported by the classmark of MS in indication
message establishment). Therefore, MS accesses to network through RACH with the
maximum power broadcast on BCCH. When MS power is lower than this value, it will transmit
with its maximum transmission power. The system specifies that the power level of the first
message that MS sends on DCH is also this value. The system control begins after MS receives
the power control command in SACCH information block from SDCCH or TCH.
Since BTS can support multi-call at the same time, the Rxlev should be quickly reduced in
the new connection. Otherwise, other calls supported by this BTS will deteriorate and the
calls in other cells will also be affected. The purpose of initial adjustment stage is to quickly
reduce the transmission power of MS to get the stable MR, so MS can be adjusted according
to stable power control algorithm.

The required parameters in uplink power control, the expected uplink Rxlev, and the uplink
received quality can be adjusted according to the situation of the cell. After receiving a
certain number of uplink MRs, the system compares the actual uplink Rxlev and received
quality obtained by interpolation, filtering, and other methods with the expected values and
calculate the power level that the MS should be adjusted to through power control
algorithm. If the calculated power level differs from the output power level of MS and meets
certain limit conditions (such as step limit of power adjustment and range limit of MS output
power), the system will send power adjustment command.
The command of changing MS power and the required time advance will be sent to MS in the
layer 1 header of each downlink SACCH information block. MS will configure the power level
it uses now in its uplink SACCH information block and send it to BTS in measurement report.
This level is the power level of the last burst in the previous SACCH measurement cycle.
When MS receives the power control information in SACCH information block from DCH, it
will transmit with this power level. One power control message does not make the MS switch
to the required level immediately. The maximum change rate of MS power is 2 dB for every
60 ms. For 12 dB, before MS receives the next power control message, it will not end as one
SACCH measurement cycle takes 480 ms. In addition, it takes three measurement cycles to
send power control message and execute the command. Therefore, the power control cycle
should not be too short in order to ensure its accuracy. See Figure 1-10.
Figure 1-1 Execution of power control command
The purpose of uplink power control adjustment is to minimize the difference between the
actual uplink Rxlev and received quality and the expected uplink Rxlev and received quality.
The purpose of interpolation and filtering is to process the lost measurement reports and
remove temporary nature to ensure the stability of power control algorithm.
The difference between initial adjustment and stable adjustment is that the expected uplink
Relev and received quality and the length of filter in initial adjustment are different from
that of stable adjustment, and the initial adjustment only has downlink adjustment.
1.9.3 BTS Power Control
BTS power control is an optional function. It is similar to MS power control, but it only uses
stable power control algorithm. The required parameters are Rxlev threshold (lower limit),
and the maximum transmission level can be received (upper limit). The Relev is divided into
64 levels ranging from 0 to 63. Level 0 is the lowest Rxlev; level 63 is the highest Rxlev.
BTS power control is divided into static power control and dynamic power control. Dynamic
power control is the fine tuning based on static power control. There are six steps (2
dB/step) of static power control according to Protocol 0505. If the maximum output power is
46 dBm (40W), the step 6 is 34 dBm.
Static power control step is defined in the cell distributes list of data management system,
which specifies the maximum output power (suppose this value is Pn) of static power
control. For step 15 of dynamic power control, the corresponding value range is Pn dBPn30dB. When the maximum power control still cannot satisfy the requirement, adjust static
power control step to improve the maximum output power of dynamic power control Pn.
1.9.4 Power Control Processing
I. Measurement Report Interpolation
Each measurement report has a sequence number. If network detects incontinuous sequence
numbers, it means some of the measurement reports are missing. The network will complete
the reports based on interpolation algorithm.
The network receives measurement reports n and n+4. It detects the sequence numbers are
not continuous, so it uses an algorithm to add n+1, n+2, and n+3 to complete the reports.
The purpose of measurement report interpolation is to avoid call loss when the power is too
low.
II. Measurement Report Filtering
Network will not judge the state of MS based on only one measurement result, because that
is too incomprehensive, in addition, the MS may be fluctuating. Therefore, filtering is
required. Filtering combines several continuous measurement results together to determine

the state of MS during this period of time. TA has filters for Rxlev and received quality of
uplink and downlink
The purpose of measurement report filtering is to remove temporary nature and ensure the
algorithm stability.
III. Power Control Adjustment
Calculate the power adjustment value based on the difference between the Rxlev and the
expected value.
Power control adjustment based on Rxlev
Power control module compares the estimate value of Rxlev obtained through pre-processing
of measurement report with the expected value, and calculates the step length of
adjustment. In power control algorithm, variable step is often used for quick power control.
Power control adjustment based on received quality
Power control module compares the estimate value of received quality obtained through
pre-processing of measurement report with the expected value, and calculates the step
length of adjustment. When the received quality is bad, improve the transmit power; when
the received quality is good, reduce the transmit power. This kind of power control adopts
fixed step.
Comprehensive decision for power control
Consider both Rxlev and received quality and adopt different power control strategies in
different conditions to keep the stability and efficiency of power control algorithm.
When the received quality requires the improving of transmit power while the Rxlev
requires the reducing of it, the system will make a comprehensive decision to perform no
power control adjustment, because bad received quality and good Rxlev represent strong
network interference. Under such circumstances, improving transmit power will further
increase the interference.

1.10 Immediate Assignment Procedure

The purpose of immediate assignment is to establish a radio connection (RR connection)
between MS and system at Um interface.
1.10.1 Network Access License and Random Access Request
The request of MS for channel assignment is controlled by its own access level and the access
grant level broadcast in cell. Each MS has one access level of the ten levels from 0 to 9. In
addition, it may also have one or several levels of the five special access levels from l1 to 15.
Access level is stored in SIM card. BCCH system information broadcasts access levels and
special access levels that the network grants and the information that whether all MSs allow
emergency call or allow special access levels only. If the mobile originated call is not
emergency call, the MS can access to network only when it belongs to the granted access
level or granted special access level. If the mobile originated call is emergency call, the MS
can access to network only when all the MSs in the cell allow emergency call or it belongs to
the granted special access level.
When an MS wants to establish connection with the network, it sends a channel request to
network through RACH channel. Channel request information contains 8-bit useful signaling
information, among which 3 bits6 bits are used as the minimal indicator of access cause.
The system processes different channel requests based on this rough indication. It
differentiates the granted calls from the denied calls and assigns proper channels for the
granted calls. This kind of process is especially useful when the network is overload and the
flow control is required. Since the channel capacity is limited, this indicator cannot transfer
all the information from MS, such as the detailed cause of channel request, user identity and
the features of mobile equipment. These kinds of information are sent in the following SABM
messages. The 8-bit information also contains the random discriminator sent by the MS and
the immediate assignment command (it contains information about the assigned channel).

Immediate assignment command carries the discriminator sent by the previous MS. MS
compares this discriminator with its own discriminator and judges whether it is the message
for itself from network. Since there are at most 5 bits in the 8 bits information carrying
discriminator, only 32 MSs can be differentiated at the same time. Further discrimination of
the MSs requires the response information at Um interface. Channel request information
belongs to internal information of BSS.
In GSM, RACH is a kind of ALOH. In order to reduce the collision on RACH during MS access to
network and improve the efficiency of RACH channel and MS access. GSM specifies the
required access algorithm for MS. This kind of algorithm defines three parameters:
Tx_interger T, the maximum retransmission times RET, and parameter S related to T and
channel combination.
T represents the number of timeslots between two transmissions when continuous channel
requests are sent. S is an intermediate variable depends on T and the configuration of CCCH.
See the description of this parameter in Chapter 7. RET is the MS maximum retransmission
times allowed in order to avoid access collision. Each time after MS sends access request,
T3120 is to receive (or reject) immediate assignment message. MS will retransmit access
request for the messages that are not received or rejected when T3120 times out under the
premise that RET is not exceeded and restart the T3120. When the retransmission times
reaches RET and T3120 times out, T3126 will be started to receive (or reject) immediate
assignment message. When T3126 times out, cell re-selection will be initiated.
1.10.2 Initial Immediate Assignment
After decoding the channel request information, BTS sends a channel required message to
BSC. This message contains important additional information and the estimation of TA by
BTS. After receiving this message, BSC selects a proper channel for this request and activates
the land resources by sending a channel active message to BTS. BTS returns a channel active
acknowledge message to BSC. If BSC receives this message, BTS will send an immediate
assignment command or immediate assignment extended message on CCCH. In order to
improve channel efficiency, GSM introduces the message layout of immediate assignment
extended that contains the assignment information of two MSs. The immediate assignment
message contains the assignment information of one MS. According to GSM specifications, MS
must identity the immediate assignment (extended) information for the last three channel
requests.
If there is no channel to activate, BSC will send an immediate assignment reject or
immediate assignment extended reject message to MS. After receiving the reject message,
MS stops T3120 based on one of the last three channel requests and starts T3122. During the
specified time of T3122, MS has no access to network and turns into idle mode. Before
T3122 times out, MS cannot initiate connection attempt except emergency call within the
same cell.
After receiving immediate assignment message, MS compares the received assignment
command with the information stored in its channel request and judges whether this
message is for itself. If this message matches one of its last three channel requests, MS will
stop T3120 or T3126 and switch to the assigned channel. Then it starts to establish the
signaling link by using Set Asynchronous Balanced Mode (SABM) command.
1.10.3 Initial Message
After receiving immediate assignment message and decoding it, MS adjusts its configuration
of transmission and reception to the assigned channel and transmits signaling according to
the TA value specified by BSS and the initial maximum transmission power broadcast in BCCH
system information (see the description of msTxPwrMaxCCH). MS sends an SABM frame on
assigned SDCCH/TCH to establish the asynchronous balanced mode (SAPI=0) that is used to
establish signaling message link layer connection under acknowledgement mode. According
to GSM protocol, SABM carries an initial message that contains layer 3 service request
information.
When two MSs send the same channel requests (which is possible in high traffic volume
area), the two MSs may respond to the same dedicated channel. in order to save this
problem, after receiving SABM frame, BTS makes no modification but sends a UA frame (no

frame number acknowledgement) containing the same information as that of initial message.
If the information of UA frame is different from that of SABM frame, MS will abandon this
channel and start reaccess process. Only the right MS can stay on this channel.
SABM frame carries four kinds of initial messages: CM service request (such as call setup,
short message, and supplementary service), location updating request (generic location
updating, periodic location updating, and IMSI attach), IMSI detach, and paging response. All
these messages contain the identity of MS, detailed access cause, and MS classmark
(indicating some key features such as transmission power level, encryption algorithm, short
message capacity, and frequency capacity).
After receiving the initial message, BTS sends an establish indication message to BSC. BSC
receives this message and sends complete layer 3 information to MSC to request SCCP
connection to MSC. Layer 3 information carries the causes for CM service request, which
includes mobile originated call, emergency call, location updating, and short message
service. This information also carries cipher key sequence number, MS identification number,
and some physical information of the MS such as transmit power level, ciphering algorithm,
pseudo-synchronization, and short message. After receiving this information, MSC sends
connection confirmed message to BSC (if the connection cannot be established, MSC will
send SCCP refused message) to indicate that the signaling link between MS and MSC has been
established. By this time, MSC can control the transmission properties of RR management;
BSS monitors the transmission quality and prepares for handover. Then the MM connection
begins.
Authentication or encryption is triggered when required in the following processing.
In the immediate assignment process, T3101 starts when BSC sends channel active message
to BTS and ends when the establish indication is received. If T3101 times out before
signaling channel is established, the activated channel will be released.
1.10.4 Immediate Assignment Failure
If a failure occurs to the underlaying MS on the new channel before the establishment of
signaling link, the network releases the assigned channel of MS. The following processing
depends on the failure type and previous actions. If the failure is caused by the mismatch of
message field in decision contention and no re-assignment is initiated, the immediate
assignment is restarted.
If the failure is caused by other reasons or if the re-assignment triggered by the mismatch of
message field in decision contention is carried out and the assignment still fails, MS turns
into idle mode and triggers cell re-selection.
If the available information is not sufficient to define a channel after the MS receives
immediate assignment message, RR connection fails.
If the assigned frequencies of MS belong to two or more than two frequency bands, RR
connection fails. If the assigned frequency of MS is not consistent with the requested
frequency but supported by MS, MS accesses the channel with the frequency used in channel
request. If MS does not support the assigned frequency, RR connection fails.
If T3101 times out before the signaling channel is established, network releases the assigned
channel. Network cannot tell whether MS resends the access attempt or not.

1.11 Authentication and Encryption

GSM takes lots of measures to protect the safety of system, such as using Temporary Mobile
Subscriber Identity (TMSI) to protect IMSI, using Personal Identification Number (PIN) to
protect SIM card, authentication through authentication center (AUC) for network access,
encryption, and equipment identity register.
Authentication and encryption require a group of three parameters that generated in AUC.
Each client is assigned a Mobile Station International ISDN Number (MSISDN) and IMSI when
registers in GSM network. IMSI is preserved onto SIM card through SIM printer and SIM printer
will generate a corresponding client authentication value Ki that is stored in SIM card and
AUC as permanent information. AUC has a pseudo number generator used to generate a

random number RAND. GSM defines algorithm A3, A8, and A5 that are used for authentication
and encryption. In AUC, RAND and Ki together produce a response number SRES through A3
authentication algorithm and a Kc through A8 encryption algorithm. RAND, Kc, and SRES form
a three-parameter group of client. This group is stored in the data base of this client in HLR.
Generally, AUC transfers five groups of parameters to HLR for automatic storage. HLR can
save ten groups of such parameters. When MSC/VLR requests for three-parameter group
transfer, HLR sends five groups at the same time for MSC/VLR to use one by one. When there
are two groups left, MSC/VLR will request for transfer again.
1.11.1 Authentication
Authentication is the process that GSM network checks whether the IMSI or TMSI from MS at
radio interface is valid or not. The purpose of authentication is to avoid unauthorized access
to GSM network and the theft of private information by illegal users. Authentication also
provides parameters for MS to calculate new encryption key.
The network initiates authentication procedure in the following situations:
MS requesting for the change of information in VLR or HLR;
Service access, including MS originated call, MS terminated call, MS activation and
deactivation, and supplementary services;
The first network access after MSC/VLR reboot;
Mismatching Cipher key Sequence;
Whether to initiate authentication procedure depends on if the Kc value of the last service
processing stored in network consistent with that of the present access stored in MS. If
consistent, authentication procedure can be escaped and this Kc value is used directly for
encryption; if not, Kc value needs to be recalculated. MS does not send Kc value to network
through radio path for the sake of privacy. Therefore, Cipher Key Sequence Number (CKSN)
is introduced. CKSN is sent to MS by MSC/VLR through authentication request message during
the last network access. It is stored in both SIM card and MSC/VLR. During the initial access
of MS, CKSN is sent to MSC/VLR through the initial request message of SABM frame. MSC/VLR
compares it with the last CKSN. If they are not consistent, authentication is required before
encryption. If CKSN=0, it means no Kc is assigned. Authentication procedure is initiates and
controls by network. MSC/VLR sends an authentication request message to MS to initiate
authentication procedure and T3260.
I. Authentication Success
2) AUTHENTICATION REQUEST contains a RAND (128 bits) and a CKSN. The Ki and RAND
together generate a SERS (32 bits) through algorithm A3 and a Kc (64 bits) through algorithm
A8. The new Kc replaces the former key and is stored in SIM card together with CKSN.
3) MS sends AUTHENTICATION RESPONSE to network. After receiving this message, the
network stops T3260 and checks its validity (network compares it with the SERS generated
by Ki and RAND through algorithm A3 and check whether they are consistent or not), and
then enters the subsequent procedures, such as encryption.
II. Authentication Reject
If authentication fails, it means AUTHENTICATION RESPONSE is invalid.
If the MS uses TMSI, the network will initiate identity procedure. If the IMSI provided by the
MS is different from that in network, the network will restart the authentication procedure;
if the IMSI is correct, the network will send AUTHENTICATION REJECT to the MS.
If the MS uses IMSI, the network will send AUTHENTICATION REJECT directly to MS. After
sending AUTHENTICATION REJECT message, the network releases all the MM connections
under establishment and restarts the procedure for RR connection release.
After receiving AUTHENTICATION REJECT message, MS sets the roaming disabled flag and
deletes information such as TMSI, LAI, and cipher key.
If MS receives AUTHENTICATION REJECT message in IMSI DETACH INITIATED state, it stops
T3220 after RR connection is released. If possible, MS initiates local release procedure after
the normal release procedure or T3220 timeout; if not (such as the IMSI detach after switch
off), MSRR exits abnormally.
If MS receives AUTHENTICATION REJECT message in other state, it exits all MM connections
and call re-establishment procedures, stops T3210 and T3230, sets and starts T3240 to enter

WAIT FOR NETWORK COMMAND state and wait for the release of RR connection; If RR
connection is not released after T3240 timeout, MS will exit RR connection abnormally.
Under the two conditions above, MS enters MM IDLE and NO IMSI state.
1.11.2 Encryption
Encryption occurs in service requests such as location updating, service access, and interoffice handover. It requires the support of GSM network equipment (especially BTS), as well
as the encryption ability of MS.
I. Signaling Procedure
1) MSC sends BSC a Ciphering Mode CMD that contains encryption algorithm, Kc, and whether
the MS is required to add IMEI in Ciphering Mode CMP.
2) BSC decides the final algorithm based on the encryption algorithm in Ciphering Mode CMD,
the encryption algorithm that BSC allows, and the encryption algorithm that MS supports,
and then inform BTS.
3) BSC sends MS Ciphering Mode CMD to inform MS of the selected encryption algorithm.
4) After receiving Ciphering Mode CMD, MS starts the transmission of ciphering mode and
sends Ciphering Mode CMP to the system.
5) After receiving the Ciphering Mode CMP from MS, BSC transfer it to MSC.
II. Procedure Description
A5 algorithm
GSM protocol specifies eight kinds of encryption algorithm from A5/0 to A5/7. A5/0 stands for
no encryption. The encryption procedure is initiated by the network. The encryption
information of Cipher Mode CMD specifies the required encryption algorithm. The algorithm
that generates encrypted code is called A5 algorithm. It calculates by using the Kc (64 bits)
and the current frame number (22 bits) to generate a 114-bit encryption sequence and then
implements XOR operation with the 114-bit burst. Two encryption sequences are used for
uplink and downlink. For each burst, one sequence is used for MS encryption and BTS
decryption, the other sequence is used for BTS encryption and MS decryption.
Encryption algorithm selection
When MS initiates call request, the SABM frame carries Classmark 1 or 2 to indicate whether
the MS supports algorithm A5/1, A5/2, or A5/3, and reports Classmark 3 in CLASS MARK
CHANGE to further indicate whether the MS supports Algorithm A5/4, A5/5, A5/6, or A5/7(In
system information, if ECSC=1, MS reports Classmark 3 immediately; if ECSC = 0, the
Classmark 3 is reported after CLASSMARK ENQUIRY is initiated by the network. Therefore,
the configuration of ECSC = 1 is recommended when the encryption is used). MSC sends
encryption command based on the configuration of secret data. BSC chooses the intersection
of the encryption algorithm allowed in the command sent by MSC, the encryption algorithm
allowed in BSC data configuration, and the encryption algorithm supported in the MS report.
In the intersection, BSC selects a proper algorithm based on the priority level of A5/7 > A5/6
> A5/5 > A5/4 > A5/4 > A5/3 > A5/2 > A5/1 > A5/0.
Encryption in handover
The HANDOVER REQUEST contains the encryption information unit that indicates the
required encryption algorithm and key. If one of the two A interfaces of BSS is in PHASE I,
due to the limitation of ETSIGSM PHASE I protocol (no ciphering mode setting information
unit in handover command), the two A interfaces match only when they share the same
encryption algorithm (such as A5/2) to ensure the normal inter-BSC handover. Otherwise,
special treatment has to be made to the target MSC or target BSC (or the source MSC or
source BSC) to change the handover command for inter-BSC handover.
For the interconnection of A-interfaces when the encryption is used, whether special data
configuration is required for BSC and MSC must be considered.
1.11.3 TMSI Reallocation
After authentication and encryption, the system sends CM SERVICE ACCEPT or TMSI
reallocation command to MS and initiates T3250.
When MS registers in the location area for the first time, the network allocates a TMSI to it.
When the MS leaves this location area, it releases the TMSI. When the MS receives the TMSI
reallocation command, it saves the TMSI and LAI and sends TMSI reallocation complete

message. After receiving this message, the network stops T3250.

If the system cannot identify TMSI of the MS, for example, when the data base error occurs,
the MS must provide its IMSI. The identification program is initiated before the TMSI
reallocation to request for the IMSI.
The identification program sends identity request message to the MS, after receiving this
message, the MS provides its IMSI by sending identity response message to the network.
When this procedure is over, authentication, encryption, and IMSI reallocation are
implemented if required.
1.11.4 Exceptional Situations
I. Authentication
RR connection failure
If the network detects RR connection failure before receiving AUTHENTICATION RESPONSE, it
releases all the MM connections and terminates all the active MM procedures.
T3260 timeout
T3260 is started when MSC sends authentication request to BSC and stops when MSC receives
AUTHENTICATION RESPONSE. If the T3260 times out before the AUTHENTICATION RESPONSE
is received, the network releases RR connection, terminates the authentication procedure
and all the active MM procedures, and then releases all the MM connections and initiates RR
connection release procedure.
Unregistered SIM card
If the SIM card of the MS is not registered, the network sends AUTHENTICATION REJECT
message directly to the MS.
II. Encryption
Encryption reject
If BSS does not support the encryption algorithm specified in CIPHERING MODE CMD, it sends
CIPHER MODE REJECT message to MSC.
If the encryption is initiated in BSS before MSC requests for the change of encryption
algorithm, BSS also sends CIPHER MODE REJECT message to MSC.
Un-encrypted MS
The CIPHERING MODE COMMAND message is valid when:
The un-encrypted MS receives CIPHERING MODE COMMMAND message that requires
encryption.
The un-encrypted MS receives CIPHERING MODE COMMMAND message that requires nonencryption.
The encrypted MS receives CIPHERING MODE COMMMAND message that requires nonencryption.
In other cases, CIPHERING MODE COMMAND is considered wrong. The MS sends RR STATUS
message with the cause of protocol error and performs no action.
III. TMSI Reallocation
RR connection failure
If RR connection fails before TMSI reallocation complete message is received, all the MM
connections are released and both the old and new TMSIs are saved during a certain recovery
time.
T3250 timeout
T3250 is started when MSC sends TMSI_ REALL_ CMD message or LOC UPD ACC message with
the new TMSI and stops when MSC receives TMSI _REALL_COM. If T3250 times out before the
TMSI _REALL_COM is received, MSC sends CLEAR COM message to release RR connection and
terminate TMSI reallocation.

1.12 Location Update

In GSM, the paging information cannot be sent in the whole network due to the capacity limit of the

paging channel. Therefore, the definition of location area (LA) is introduced. LAC contains many cells.
The paging for the MS is carried out through the paging in all the cells within the LA of the MS. The size
of the LA is of vital importance to the system performance in network design.
The registration management for the LA is required since the paging for the MS is carried out through
the paging in all the cells within the LA, which brings about the definition of location update. Location
update is divided into generic location update, periodic location update, and IMSI attach.
1.12.1 Generic Location Update (Inter-LA Location Update)
When the MS moves from one LA to another LA, registration is required. If the LAI stored in the MS is
different from the LAI of the current cell, the MS informs the network to change the location
information it stores. This procedure is called generic location update.
In idle mode, if cell re-selection occurs when the MS moves within the LA, the MS will not inform the
network immediately but implement cell re-selection without location update or network involvement.
If the MS moves to another LA after re-selection, the MS informs the network of this LA change, which
is called forced registration.
According to whether the VLR changes or IMSI involves, generic location update is divided into the
following types:
I. Intra VlR Location Update
It is the simplest location update that requires no IMSI. It happens in the current VLR without informing
the HLR.
In the initial message carried by SABM frame, the access cause is MM LOCATION UPDATING REQUEST
that carries the MS TMSI and LAI. The generic location updating is indicated. MSC receives this message
and forwards it to VLR. VLR updates the MS location information and stores the new LAI, and then
sends a new TMSI to MS if required (MS uses the former TMSI if no TMSI is carried in the TMSI reallocation command). After receiving the TMSI re-allocation complete message, MSC sends location
updating accept message and releases the channel. Location updating completes.
II. Inter-VLR Location Updating, Sending TMSI
After the MS enters a cell, if the current LAI is different from the LAI it stores, it sends its LAI and TMSI
to VLR through MSC in location updating request. VLR deduces the former VLR based on the LAI and
TMSI it received and sends a MAP_SEND_IDENTIFICATION to the former VLR to request for IMSI and
authentication parameter. The former VLR sends the IMSI and authentication parameters to the current
VLR. If the current VLR cannot obtain the IMSI, it sends MS an identity request message to request for
the IMSI. After receiving the IMSI, VLR sends HLR the location updating message that contains the MS
identity information for the data query and path establishment of HLR. After receiving this message,
HLR stores the number of the current VLR and sends MAP/D_CANCEL_LOCATION to the former VLR if
the current MSC/VLR has the normal service rights. After receiving this message, the former VLR
deletes all the information about this MS and sends the HLR a MAP/D_CANCEL_LOCATION_RESULT
message to confirm the deletion. The HLR will send MAP_INSERT_SUBSCRIBER_DATA message to provide
the current VLR with the information it requires (including authentication parameters) after the
procedure for authentication, encryption, and TMSI reallocation is over, and confirm the location
updating after receiving the response from the VLR.
III. Inter-VLR Location Updating, Sending IMSI
The procedure is similar with the procedure above but easier because it requests for authentication
parameter from the HLR through IMSI directly.
1.12.2 Periodic Location updating
The network and the MS lose contact when:
The MS is switched on but moves out of the network coverage area (dead zone). The network lost
contact with the MS and regards it still in attach status.
The MS sends IMSI detach message and the uplink quality is bad due to interference, the network may
not be able to decode this message correctly. The MS is still regarded in attach status.
The MS is power off. It cannot inform the network of its status and the contact is lost.
If the paging for MS happens when the contact is lost, the system sends paging information in the LA
that the MS registered before. The network cannot receive the response from the MS. The system
resource is wasted. To solve this problem, the implicit detach timer is introduced in the VLR for the
IMSI status management. In addition, measures are taken in BSS to force the MS to report its location
periodically. Therefore, the network is informed of the status of MS. This kind of mechanism is called

periodic location updating. The network sends a periodic location updating time T3212 to all the users
in the cell through BCCH to force the MS to send location updating request with the cause of periodic
location updating after T3212 times out.
Before the T3212 times out, if the timeout value is changed (for example, the service cell changes and
the T3212 timeout value is broadcast), the MS uses the time when the change happens as the initial
value and keep on timing.
If the T3212 times out when the MS is in NO CELL AVAILABLE, LIMITED SERVICE, PLMN SEARCH, or PLMN
SEARCH-NORMAL SERVICE status, the location updating is initiated after the MS is out of these service
status.
Periodic location updating ensures the close contact between network and mobile users. The shorter
updating period leads to better network performance. But the frequent location updating will increase
the signaling flow and reduce the utilization of the radio resources, or even affect the processing
ability of MSC, BSC, and BTS. On the other hand, it will greatly increase the power consumption of MS
and reduce its standby time. The T3212 setting should be based on comprehensive consideration.
The procedure for periodic location updating is the same as that for generic location updating.
1.12.3 IMSI Attach and Detach
IMSI attach and detach means to attach a binary mark to the subscriber record in MSC/VLR. The former
one is marked as access granted, and the latter one is marked as access denied.
When the MS is switched on, it informs the network of its status change by sending an IMSI ATTACH
message to the network to inform. After receiving this message, the network marks the current user
status in the system database for the paging program.
If the current LAI and the LAI the MS stores are the same, IMSI attach is initiated. The procedure is
similar to the intra VLR location updating only that the location updating request message is marked as
IMSI attach and the initial message contains IMSI of the MS.
If the current LAI is different from the LAI stored, generic location updating is initiated.
When the MS is switched off, the IMSI detach is triggered by a key-press. Only one command is sent to
MSC/VLR from the MS. This is an unacknowledged message. After receiving this message, MSC informs
VLR to do detach mark to this IMSI while the HLR is not informed of the no-radio of this user. When the
paging for this user occurs, HLR requests for the MSRN from the VLR and is informed of the no-radio of
this user by this time. Therefore, no paging program is implemented. The paging message is handled
directly, such as playing the record: "The subscriber is powered off."
The procedure above is explicit IMSI detach. There is also implicit detach. The implicit detach happens
before the implicit detach timer times out. If the contact between MS and network is not established,
the VLR sets the IMSI status as detach. The implicit detach timer is set longer than the periodic
location updating timer T3212 to avoid "abnormal" implicit detach. The implicit detach is denied during
the establishment of radio connection. The implicit detach timer is reset after the release of radio
connection. Implicit detach timer is also called IMSI delete time.
VLR deletes the IMSI marked as detach periodically (The period is adjustable) and reports the user
status to the HLR.
1.12.4 Exceptional Situations
I. MS
Access denied because of access level limit
MS stays in the service cell and performs the normal cell re-selection procedure without triggering
location updating. When the current cell allows access or other cell is selected, The MS initiates
location updating immediately.
IMMEDIATE ASSIGNMENT REJECT message is received during random access
MS stays in the service cell and starts T3122 based on the value in the immediate assignment reject
message. The normal cell selection and re-selection procedure is performed. If the cell that the MS
stays changes or T3122 times out, the MS initiates location updating.
Random access failure
If the random access fails, T3213 is started. After the T3213 times out, the random access procedure is
initiated. If two successive random accesses fail, the location updating is terminated. For the
subsequent processing, see the following description.
RR connection failure: Location updating procedure is terminated. For the subsequent processing, see
the following description.

T3210 timeout: Location updating fails. For the subsequent processing, see the following description.
The completion of RR connection is abnormal: Location updating fails. For the subsequent processing,
see the following description.
Location updating reject due to reasons other than #2, #3, #6, #11, #12, or #13: MS waits for the
release of RR connection. For the subsequent processing, see the following description.
# 2 (IMSI unknown in HLR)
# 3 (Illegal MS)
# 6 (Illegal ME)
# 11 (PLMN not allowed)
# 12 (Location Area not allowed)
# 13 (Roaming not allowed in this location area)
Subsequent processing: If the T3210 is still timing, stop it; If T3210 times out, RR connection fails. Add
1 to the location updating attempt timer. The following processing depends on the LAI (stored and
received from the service cell) and the value of the location updating attempt timer.
If the location updating status is UPDATED, the stored LAI and the received LAI are the same, and the
location updating attempt timer is less than 4, MS keeps the UPDATED status. After the release of RR
connection, the sub status of MM IDLE becomes NORMAL SERVICE. The MS also stores the information
about the former location updating type. The T3211 is started after RR connection release. After it
times out, the location updating procedure is started again.
If the location updating status is not UPDATED, or the stored LAI is different from the received LAI, or
the location updating attempt timer is equal to or less than 4, the MS deletes the ciphering key
sequence, LAI, TMSI stored in SIM card and sets the location updating status as NOT UPDATED. After the
release of RR connection, the sub status of MM IDLE becomes ATTEMPTING TO UPDATE. After the RR
connection release, if the location updating attempt is less than 4, T3211 is started. Otherwise, T3212
is started. After the T3211 or T3212 times out, the location updating procedure is started again.
After the sub status of MM IDLE becomes ATTEMPTING TO UPDATE, the MS will do the following:
If T3211, T3213, or T3212 times out, perform location updating.
If LA changes, perform generic location updating
If the cause for the status change is (3), (4), (6) (the cause is not the abnormal release with unknown
reason), or (7) (cause retry in the new cell), perform location updating when entering the new cell.
If the cause for the status change is (5), (6) (the cause is abnormal release with unknown reason), or
(7) (the cause is not retry in the new cell), location updating is not performed when entering the
new cell.
No IMSI detach.
Support emergency call request
Respond the paging with IMSI
Perform generic location updating triggered by the request from CM layer (if the location updating
succeeds, the MML connection request will be accepted. For details, see section 4.5.1 of the Protocol
0408).
II. Matching Between IMSI Delete Time and T3212
If the periodic location updating fails for four times, T3212 will be started for the next update. In the
bad coverage area, especially in the area where the uplink and downlink do not match (downlink is
better than uplink), after the periodic location update fails,
Another location updating is initiated after T3212 times out. Therefore, the T3212 is set to be shorter
in the bad coverage area. In addition, if the IMSI delete time is less than twice of the T3212, the users
stay in the service area but cannot be called. So the IMSI delete time should be more than twice of the
T3212 and based on LAC.
III. Network
RR connection failure
Among all the sub procedures attached to the location updating procedure, if the RR connection fails,
it is handled according to the exception handling of other common procedures.
If no other common procedure is attached to the location updating procedure, the MS location updating
is terminated.
Protocol error
If the network detects protocol error after receiving LOCATION UPDATING REQUEST, it sends LOCATION

UPDATING REJECT message to the MS with the following cause if possible:

#96 required IE error
#99 IE error or no IE exists
#100 Conditional IE error
#111 Protocol error, undefined
After sending LOCATION UPDATING REJECT to the MS, the network initiates channel release procedure.

1.13 MS Originating Call Flow

The MS needs to set up a main signaling link to connect to MSC first, and then initiates the
authentication, encryption, and TMSI reassignment flow.
1.13.1 Called Number Analysis
After the authentication, encryption, and TMSI reassignment flow are over, the MS starts the
call setup flow.
First, the MS sends a SETUP message to the network side. This message contains called
number and the required services. The MSC implements the call proceeding according to the
message.
When receive the SETUP message, the MSC sends the outgoing call message
SEND_INFO_FOR_O/C_CALL to the VLR. After receive the outgoing call message, the VLR
analyzes the items such as called number, the calling party capability, and network resources
capability according to the user information obtained from the HLR during the location
updating process, to check whether to accept this call request. If a certain item cannot be
passed, the VLR sends the RELEASE COMPLETE message to the MS. The call fails. The MS then
proceeds to release the bottom layer connection and switches to the idle state. If the above
items can be passed, the VLR sends the COMPLETE_CALL message to the MSC. After receive
this message, the MSC sends the CALL PROCEEDING message to the MS. It means that the call
request is accepted and the call is set up.
1.13.2 Voice Channel Assignment (Follow-up Assignment)
After send the CALL PROCEEDING message to the MS, the MSC activates the follow-up
assignment according to the service request. That is, assign the TCH voice channel to the
user. At this time, the MSC sends the ASSIGNMENT REQUEST message to the BSC. This
message contains the information such as the requested channel type to request the BSC to
assign the TCH voice channel for the call.
After receive the channel request from the MSC, the BSC sends the Channel Activation for
TCH message to the BTS to activate corresponding terrestrial resources and start a timer at
the same time if the TCH channel resources are available. If the BTS has prepared the
resources such as circuit, the BTS sends the CHANNEL ACTIVATION ACK message to the BSC. If
the BSC has no available resources to assign, it sends the RESOURCE FAILURE message to the
MSC. But if the system allows queuing, the BSC sends the QUEUING INDICATION message to
the MSC and places the assignment request in the queue and starts the timer T11. If the T11
times out, the BSC sends the CLEAR REQUEST message to the MSC.
The immediate assignment request, intra-BSC handover, and inter-BSC handover do not
support queuing. Only the TCH resource request (that is, the assignment request and intracell handover) allows queuing. The TCH resource requests in the queue are assigned with
relevant channels in the sequence of their priorities. In the length of the queue reaches its
threshold or the timer times out, the request is rejected.
When the BSC receives the CHANNEL ACTIVATION ACK message from the BTS, the BSC puts
the physical information of the channel provided by the BTS in the ASSIGNMENT COMMAND
message (this message contains the information such as channel type, voice/data indication,
channel rate, voice decoding algorithm and transparent transmission indicator, assignment
priority and CIC). The ASSIGNMENT COMMAND message is sent to the MS through the SDCCH

channel.
After receive the ASSIGNMENT COMMAND message from the BTS, the MS adjusts the
transceiver configuration to the TCH channel and then sends the SABM message to the BTS
through the FACCH channel in the way of stolen frame. After the BTS receives the SABM
message, the BTS sends the ESTABLISH INDICATION message to the BSC and then sends an
Unnumbered Acknowledge (UA) to the MS, just as the initial signaling channel assignment
does.
After receive the UA, the MS sends the ASSIGNMENT COMMPLETE message to the BTS through
the FACCH channel. If the MS fails to identify the assignment information and fails to occupy
the specified channel due to the radio interface failure, radio interface message failure or
interference, or hardware problems, the MS returns to the original channel and sends the
ASSIGNMENT FAILURE to the BTS. If the MS does not receive the ASSIGNMENT COMMAND sent
from BTS or the BTS does not receive the response message sent from MS due to
interference or other causes, the system starts the corresponding timers (such as T3103 or
T3107) and when the timer times out, the channel is released.
When receive the ASSIGNMENT COMPLETE message, the BSC sends the ASSIGNMENT
COMPLETE message to the MSC. At the same time, it also sends the RF CHANNEL RELEASE
message to the BTS to release the occupied SDCCH signaling channel. When the BTS releases
the signaling channel, it sends the RF CHANNEL RELEASE ACK message to the BSC. After the
BSC receive the message, it considers that the signaling channel is in idle state and can be
assigned to other channel requests.
For different purposes, the GSM has three different channel assignment flows. They are
initial channel assignment, follow-up channel assignment, and handover channel assignment.
Initial channel assignment: is mandatory to establish the link transmission between the MS
and the network. For example, process the location updating request.
During the establishment of the signaling transmission, if the TCH channel is assigned
preferably, this assignment is called very early assignment (VEA). After the MSC sends the
ASSIGNMENT REQUEST message, the BSC does not apply for new channel but initiate the
Mode_Modify flow. After the Mode_Modify is complete, the BSC reports the ASSIGNMENT
COMPLETE message to the MSC.
If the SDCCH channel is assigned first, and the TCH channel is assigned when it is needed,
and then ASSIGNMENT REQUEST message from MSC is sent before the Alerting message, this
assignment is called early assignment (EA).
If the SDCCH channel is assigned first and the TCH is assigned after the called party sends the
CONNECT message, Generally, it adopts the EA mode.
If the EA mode is used in the initial assignment, when no SDCCH is available, assign the TCH
channel for the channel request directly. The TCH channel replaces the SDCCH channel to
send the signaling message. Please note that using the TCH channel to transmit the signaling
wastes the resources a lot because one TCH channel equals eight SDCCH channels. When this
situation is quite serious, add more SDCCH to meet the requirement in time.
Follow-up channel assignment
After the signaling channel finishes the authentication and encryption process, if there is
still voice or data request, the follow-up channel assignment is triggered to assign a TCH
channel.
Handover channel assignment
This assignment is used to apply for channels due to handover during the call process. The
system judges whether the handover occurs in the SDCCH or in the TCH to assign
corresponding channels. The handover flow and the assignment flow in the cell are the
same. The only difference is that the message names are different. Similar to the immediate
assignment flow, in the MS assignment flow, the timer T3107 starts when the BSC sends the
ASSIGNMENT COMMAND message to the BTS. After the BSC receives the ASSIGNMENT
COMPLETE message from the BTS, the timer T3107 resets. Generally, the timeout of the
timer is caused by the bad radio coverage. When the timer times out, the MS is considered

disconnected with the network and the resources are released for other MSs. Based on the
statistics, the channel assignment is generally complete within two seconds. If the BSC does
not receive the ASSIGNMENT COMPLETE message within two seconds, the assignment fails.
But sometime, the network quality is bad, some messages needs to be sent several times, in
this case, the assignment can be extended to five seconds. Generally, if the traffic load of
the cell is heavy, set the timer as 2 seconds to 5 seconds. If not heavy, set the timer as 10
seconds.
1.13.3 Call Connection
After receiving the ASSIGNMENT COMPLETE message from the BSC, the MSC sends the Initial
Address Message (IAM) that includes the information used to establish the route to the called
network. The MSC will receive the call setup report soon. If succeeds, the MSC receives an
ADDDRESS COMPLETE message (ACM); if fails because of certain reason (such as busy line or
congestion), the MSC receives a RELESASE message from the called end.
If MSC receives the ACM, MSC sends the ALERTING message to the MS (MS translates it into
ring back tone). This message is a DTAP message. If no answer is received from the called
party and the calling party does not terminate the connection, the network will terminate
the call or perform no answer call transfer after a while.
If the called party picks up the phone, MSC receives an ANSWER message. The link between
the calling party and the called party is connected. MSC sends a CONNECT message in the CC
protocol to the MS. After receiving this message, the MS sends a CONNECT ACKNOWLEDGE
message in the CC protocol to the system. The system starts charging after receiving this
message. If the called end is data device, it enters CONNECT status directly after receiving
the SETUP indication. The call connection procedure is over and the two parties start the
conversation or data transmission service.
1.13.4 Call Release
If the calling party hangs up first, the MS sends disconnect message to MSC through FACCH.
After receiving this message, the MSC sends release message to inform the called party to
terminate the communication. The end-to-end connection is over. But the call is not
complete, because certain tasks such as sending charge indication are performed. When the
connection to the MS is no longer necessary, the system sends a RELEASE message to the MS
and starts T308. After receiving this message, the MS sends a RELEASE COMPLETE message to
the system and the call is over. The MS stops the T308 after receiving the RELEASE
COMPLETE message. Similarly, if the called party hangs up first, it sends a RELEASE message
to the calling party. The MSC sends the calling party a DISCONNECT message after receiving
the RELEASE message. If the call is terminated in an abnormal way, this message further
indicates the cause for that.
When the MSC receives the RELEASE COMPLETE message from the MS, it sends a CLEAR
COMMAND message to BSC to release all the signaling links. This message contains the cause
for the call clearance, such as handover complete or location updating complete. The call
connection release is over. If the abnormal release occurs because of radio link failure or
device failure, the BSC sends a CLEAR REQUEST message to the MSC.
After receiving the CLEAR REQUEST message, BSC sends a CHANNEL RELEASE message to the
MS and starts T3109 to show that all the lower layer links are released. Meanwhile, it
requires the MS to enter the idle mode. When the MS receives the CHANNEL RELEASE
message, it removes the uplink signaling link (to stop sending the measurement report of
uplink channel associated signaling on SACCH). The MS sends DISC message to BTS and starts
T3110. After receiving this message, The BTS sends UA to MS and the RELEASE INDICATION to
the BSC. When the T3110 times out or the MS receives the UA frame, it enters the idle
mode.
In order to ensure the timely removal of the uplink and downlink, when the BSC sends the
CHANNEL RELEASE message to the MS for the uplink removal, it also sends a deactivate
SACCH (SACCH) to the BTS requiring for the release of the downlink signaling (to stop the
signaling connection between the two parties). After receiving this message, the BTS stops
the transmission of the downlink SACCH frame and sends the deactivate SACCH

acknowledgement to the MSC.

After receiving the RELEASE INDICATION message, BSC resets the T3109 and starts the
T3111, and sends RF CHANNLE RELEASE to the BTS (the T3111 is reset at the same time),
requiring for the release of TCH resources. When the BSC receives the RF CHANNLE RELEASE
acknowledgement message from the BTS, it sends a CLEAR COMPLETE message to the MSC,
indicating that the radio link clearance is over and the channel is available for reallocation.
After receiving the CLEAR COMPLETE message, the MSC releases the SCCP connection by
sending RLSD and receiving RLC. The whole MS originating call flow is over.
1.13.5 Exceptional Situations
I. No Establish Indication Message Is Received After Channel Activation
The main causes are:
The MS may send many channel requests even if the BSS works well, which activates many
signaling channels. But the MS only occupies one of them. Other channels are released by
the BSC after the T3101 times out as they cannot receive the establish indication from the
MS. If the Tx_interger is proper, the cause for this problem is that the uplink reception is
normal but the downlink signal cannot be received by the MS. Under such circumstances, the
received level and the received quality of uplink and downlink should be checked. If the MS
is not far away from the BTS but the received level and the received quality are bad, check
the antenna feeder and the TRX in BTS.
Improper configuration of Tx-integer in BSC
The Tx-integer affects the interval of channel request re-sending. Improper Tx-integer only
leads to the activation of many channels by BSS, but no call will be affected.
II. BSC Sending Immediate Assignment Reject
If the BSC sends immediate assignment reject to the MS after receiving the channel required
message, the usual causes are:
No proper signaling channel is available for the MS because of all channels are busy or the
channels are blocked.
BTS sends channel activation negative acknowledge after receiving the channel activation
message.
If the BTS sends lots of channel activation negative acknowledge messages to the BSC, it is
usually because the transmission at Abis interface is not stable, which leads to the
inconsistent channel status of the BSC and BTS, or because errors occur in certain board of
BTS.
III. MSC Sending Disconnect Message Instead of Assignment Request to Terminate the Call
In the call connection process, the immediate assignment is followed by the assignment
procedure. But due to certain reasons, the MSC sends a disconnect message instead of the
assignment request message to the MS and then terminates the call. Under such
circumstances, many complaint phones from users cannot get through. Check the following:
The A interface circuit of MSC
The data consistencies of the A interface between the MSC and BSC, especially the circuit
pool data.
IV. Assignment Failure
After receiving the assignment request, the BSC sends assignment failure message instead of
assignment complete. The usual causes are:
No proper voice channel is available for the MS.
BSC has no proper voice channel for the MS because all the voice channels are busy or the
channels are blocked.
The cause value carried by the assignment failure message is no radio resource.
The MS voice channel access fails.
Under this condition, the assignment failure is reported from the MS.
Due to the special features of the radio transmission, this kind of assignment failure occurs
most frequently and is unsolvable. If the occurrence rate is too high, check the antenna
feeder, the BTS board, and the parameters related to channel access in BSC data
configuration.
The A interface circuit of BSC fails, for example, the CIC in the assignment request is not

available.
The hardware of BSC fails.
The cause value in the assignment failure message sent by BSC is equipment failure.
The transmission at A interface fails.
V. Directed Retry
After receiving the assignment request message from the MSC, if no TCH is available and the
BSC allows directed retry, the BSC implements the handover with the cause value of directed
retry to change the service cell of the MS.
VI. Exceptional Procedure Due to Call Drop
Call drop may occur any time during the call flow, which affects the following procedures.
For example, the call drop occurs when the BSC receives the assignment request message
from the MSC. The assignment procedure may be not complete (the channel may be just
assigned and no assignment command message is sent). Under this condition, BSC may send
clear request message instead of assignment complete message or assignment failure
message to the MSC.
VII. Exceptional Procedure Due to Hangup
Hang up of the calling party or the called party may occur any time during the call flow,
which affects the following procedures. For example, the hangup occurs when the BSC
receives the assignment request from the MSC. Under this condition, the call flow may be
terminated before the BSC sends assignment complete or assignment failure to the MSC. This
assignment procedure neither succeeds (BSC sends assignment complete) nor fails (BSC sends
assignment failure).
VIII. Exceptional procedure because MSC sends clear command
After the A interface connect is established, MSC may send clear command or disconnect
message to the BSC during the call flow, which affects the following procedures. For
example, the hang up occurs when the BSC receives the assignment request from the MSC.
Under this condition, the call flow may be terminated before the BSC sends assignment
complete or assignment failure to the MSC. This assignment procedure neither succeeds (BSC
sends assignment complete) nor fails (BSC sends assignment failure)
If it happens many times, analysis the following two factors:
The cause value carried in the clear command
The cause value is usually the call control if the call is terminated in a normal way.
Otherwise, the cause value may be protocol error, equipment failure, or others.
The interval between the clear command or disconnect message and the last message
The interval between the clear command or disconnect message and the last message
indicates whether the exceptional procedure is triggered by timeout.

1.14 MS Originated Call Flow

1.14.1 Enquiry
After the signaling link for the calling end is established, the Initial Address Message with Information
(IAI) is send from the calling end to the GMSC. The IAI contains the MSISDN of the called party. GMSC
analyzes the identification number of the CCS7 of the HLR and sends this HLR the
SEND_ROUTING_INFORMATION message. After receiving this message, the HLR checks the user record,
and then performs different procedures and responds the GMSC as follows:
Under normal circumstances, the HLR only has the partial information about the identification of the
current VLR, such as the CCS7 address or the universal mark. To get the routing information for the
call, the HLR sends the VLR a PROVIDE ROAMING_ NUMBER message that contains the user IMSI
information, requiring the VLR to provide a MSRN for this call. When the MSC/VLR receives this
message, it selects a roaming number from the idle numbers to temporarily connect it to the IMSI, and

sends the PROVIDE_ROAMING_NUMBER_RESULT message with the MSRN assigned to this call in it to the
HLR. When the HLR receives the MSRN, it transfers the information by sending a
SEND_ROUTING_INFORMATION_RESULT message to the call originating GMSC. Then the GMSC can find
the VLR with the obtained MSRN and sends the IAI to it. After receiving this message, the MSC restores
the IMSI of this user in its memory record with the MSRN and starts the paging for the MS. After the call
is established, this roaming number is released for another user.
If the record of the called party is set as Barring of All Incoming Calls (BAIC) or Barring of Incoming
Calls when roaming is outside the home PLMN country (BIC_roam) according to the message sent by the
VLR and the user is in roaming now, the HLR rejects this call.
If the user record is set as Call Forwarding Unconditional (CFU), the HLR sends the MSRN to the original
GMSC to analyze this number and redefine the routing.
If no VLR number of the user is found and no call forwarding is set, Error message will be sent to the
GMSC.
1.14.2 Paging
After receiving the IAI from the GMSC, the called MSC sends a SEND_INFO_I/C_CALL message to the VLR
and the VLR will analyze the called number and the network resource capacity to check whether this
requirement is acceptable. If certain item is not accepted, it informs the calling end that the call
establishment fails. Under normal circumstances, the VLR sends the MSC a PAGING MAP message that
contains the location area identification (LAI) and the IMSI or TMSI of the called party, informing the
MSC to perform the paging procedure.
When the MSC obtains the LA information of the MS from the VLR, it sends all the BSCs in this LA the
paging message that contains the cell list and the TMSI and IMSI information required for paging. The
IMSI can be used in the paging for the MS through the cell paging channel. In addition, it is also used to
confirm the paging subchannel in the discontinuous reception processing.
BSC sends the PAGING COMMAND to all the cells in the LA. This command message contains the paging
channel group number and the timeslot number (obtained by the calculation of the last three numbers
of the IMSI, the total number of the paging channels, and the total number of the paging timeslots).
When the cell receives this paging command, it sends the PAGING REQUEST message on the paging
channel. The message contains the IMSI or TMSI of the user paged.
If the called MS detects the paging by decoding the paging information, it sends a channel request to
initiate the channel allocation process. After receiving the immediate assignment command from the
network, the MS sends the initial message of PAGING RESPOSE on the channel assigned through the
SABM frame, and then implements the authentication, encryption, TMSI reallocation, and finally begins
the call establishment process.
1.14.3 Call Establishment for the Called Party
After the TMSI reallocation is over, the MSC sends the MS a SETUP message that includes all the details
required such as the service type and the calling number. After receiving this message, the called MS
confirms the information and sends a CALL CONFIRMED message back if the service is available. The
call confirmed message carries the parameters that the MS selects, such as the channel type (full rate
TCH or half rate TCH) and the service type.
After receiving the call confirmed message, the MSC sends the assignment command to the BSC for the
voice channel allocation. After the assignment procedure is over, the called MS sends an ALERTING
message to the network and a ringing prompt occurs to the called MS. when the MSC receives this
message, it sends an Address Complete Message (ACM) to the calling end. After receiving this message,
the calling end makes a ring back tone as the originating user prompter.
The called user hears the ringing and responds, and then sends a CONNECT message to the MSC. After
receiving this message, the MSC connects all the transmission links. The end-to-end transmission is
established.
1.14.4 The Influence of Call Transfer to Routing
In the supplementary services, call transfer has the greatest influence on call routing. The call transfer
is mainly caused by Call Forwarding Unconditional (CFU), Call Forwarding Busy (CFB), Call Forwarding
on mobile subscriber Not Reachable (CFNRc), and Call Forwarding on No Reply (CFNRy). The routing
selection for each function is as follows:
I. CFU

When the GMSC sends the SEND_ROUTING_INFORMATION message to the HLR, if the CFU function is
available, the HLR sends the SEND_ROUTING_INFORMATION_RESULT message with the transfer number
in it back to the GMSC for it to redefine the routing.
II. CFB
When the GMSC finds the VMSC/VLR with the MSRN obtained from the HLR, but the called end is busy
and the CFB function is available, the VMSC/VLR implements the call transfer of the transfer number
and sends it to the third party. If the CFB function is not available, the GNSC handles the call directly,
such as playing the user bush record.
III. CFNRc
The routing selection for this function is based on how the network decides the called party is not
reachable. The processing is different for different criteria.
If the last location registration of the called user fails, and the HLR keeps the record of this situation
and knows the MS is unreachable, it makes the CFNRc decision by itself.
If the HLR does not keep the record of this situation, the call flow continues until the MSC performs the
paging for the user and gets no response from the user in due time. The user is decided not reachable.
The MSC forwards this call. This kind of situation has many causes. One of them is that the user enters
the dead zone or the MS is power-off, but the VMSC has not made the periodic check on the IMSI
attached user yet, so it cannot judge the MS status and the paging fails. Another cause is that the MS is
in frequent location updating on the edge of the LA and cannot respond the paging or the channel
request fails, which leads to paging timeout.
If the MS is in IMSI detach (the MS is switched off or out of the service area for a long time), because
the detach tag is in the VLR instead of the HLR, the call forwarding can only be initiated by the
VMSC/VLR. When the VLR periodically deletes the long-term detached IMSI and informs the HLR, the
HLR need not contact the VLR.
IV. CFNRy
If the paging of the VMSC for the user succeeds and the called end sends the ALERTING message to the
system, but the called user makes no response in due time and the CFNRy function is activated, the
call forwarding procedure is initiated.
V. CW and HOLD
Call Waiting (CW) is a supplementary service. When the MSC receives the IAI from the calling end, if
the called user is in another conversation and the CW function is enabled, the MSC skips the paging
procedure and directly sends a SETUP message to the MS by using the current signaling mode. When the
CW function is enabled, the handover of the two calls can be performed.
When the CFB and the CW are enabled at the same time, the CW is initiated first if another call is
coming. The CFB will be initiated when a third call is coming.
1.14.5 Exceptional Situations
This section only analyzes the common abnormal procedures. For other abnormal procedures, see
"Mobile Originating Call Establishment Procedure."
Upon paging failure, the MSC prompts voice information to the calling party, indicating the called MS is
outside the serving area or cannot be connected. In this case, trace the signaling on interfaces A and
Abis to check whether the paging failure is caused by:
No PAGING COMMAND at A interface
No PAGING COMMAND at Abis interface
No PAGING RESPONSE at Abis interface
No PAGING RESPONSE at A interface
I. No Paging Command at A Interface
Through signaling tracing over interface A, the MSC is detected that it has not sent a PAGING message
to the BSC. In this case, check the data configuration and MS information in the MSC/VLR and HLR on
the NSS side. Additionally, power off the called MS, power it on and make a test call to check whether
the MS is normal.
Checking user data in VLR
When an MS is paged, the MSC judges the current state of the MS by the user data (including MS active
state, registered LA, cell information), and decides whether or how to send the PAGING message.
If the MS state has changed (for example, the MS is switched off, or has entered a different LA) and has
not registered in the network normally or updated user data in VLR, the MS may probably be unable to

be paged.
In that case, the MS only need to initiate a location updating procedure to ensure that the user data in
VLR is correct. The period of periodic location updating is indicated in system information. On MSC
side, there is also a location updating period (See "Location updating Procedure"). The two parameters
of BSC and MSC must satisfy a certain relationship, which requires that MS must initiate a location
updating procedure within the period specified in MSC.
Checking RA- or Cell-Related parameter settings in MSC
If a routing area or cell related parameter is incorrectly set in the MSC, the transmission of the PAGING
message may fail. For example, if a wrong target BSC is selected, the PAGING message that should have
been sent to the local BSC will be sent to another BSC.
II. No Paging Command at Abis Interface
Upon receiving the PAGING message from the MSC, the BSC detects that the MSC has not sent PAGING
COMMAND to the BTS over interface Abis. In this case, check the operations and data configuration in
the BSC
Checking if flow control is enabled
Check if the system load suddenly increases due to centralized transmission of short messages or mass
access bursts.
Checking relevant data configuration
Check if the CGI information in BSC data configuration is consistent with the LAC information in the
PAGING message over A interface. Additionally, if RA- or cell-related parameter is not correctly set in
the MSC, for example, a wrong target BSC is selected, the PAGING COMMAND message cannot be
successfully sent over Abis interface.
Check whether the following parameters in the [System information table] are correctly set:
"BS_AG_BLKS_RES", "CCCH-CONF" and "BS_PA_MFRMS".
III. No Paging Response at Abis Interface
Through signaling tracing over Abis interface, the BSC is detected that it has not received the
Establishment Indication (PAGING RESPONSE) after sending PAGING COMMAND to the BTS. In this case,
check the relevant data configuration and radio signal coverage.
Check if there is PCH or AGCH overload due to centralized short message transmission or mass access
bursts.
Check the called MS or SIM in it.
Check BTS by making test calls in a different cell.
Check data configuration in BSCCheck whether the following parameters in the [System information
table] are correctly configured: "BS_AG_BLKS_RES", "CCCH-CONF", "BS_PA_MFRMS", "Tx-integer," and "MS
MAX retrans". Check the setting for "location updating period" in BSC and that in MSC
Check radio signal coverage
Due to the problem of radio signal coverage, there might be some blind coverage areas. The MS that
has entered a blind coverage area cannot receive the PAGING REQUEST message. In that case, the MS
cannot be paged. Such cases, if any, only exist in partial areas.
IV. No Paging Response at A Interface
Through signaling tracing at Abis interface, the BSC is detected that it has received an Establishment
Indication (PAGING RESPONSE) message from the BTS but this message is not reported over interface A.

1.15 HO
As a key technology in the cellular mobile telecommunication system, handover (HO) can reduce the
call drop rate and the network cross interference. The handover procedure consists of handover
trigger, handover preparation and decision, and handover execution.
HO can be divided into synchronous HO and asynchronous HO based on Timing Advance (TA).
Synchronous HO means the two cells are synchronized with each other and the MS can calculate the
new TA (the HO command indicates whether the HO is synchronous or not). Asynchronous HO requires
the BTS to calculate the new TA. When the MS receives the HO command and requests for the new BTS

access, the new BTS informs the MS of the calculated TA. The MS access to the new channel can also be
divided into four types: synchronous, asynchronous, pre-synchronous, and pseudo-synchronous. The
first three types are required in MS and the last one is optional. The pseudo-synchronous HO can be
performed only when the MS supports this function. In the pseudo-synchronous HO, the handover
command from the BTS of the original service cell contains the RTD value (the TA difference between
the source BTS and the target BTS). The MSC calculates the TA required for the access to the new BTS
based on the RTD value.
The HO process involves MS, BTS, BSC, and MSC. According to the location where the HO happens, the
HO can be divided into intra-cell HO and inter-cell HO. To be more specific, intra-cell HO, intra-BTS
HO, intro-BSC HO, intra-MSC HO, and inter-MSC HO. The function of each unit is: MS measures the
downlink performance and the signal strength; BTS monitors the received signal level and quality of the
uplink and the interference level of the idle traffic channel; BSC handles the measurement report and
makes the HO decision; MSC decides the target cell of the inter-BSC HO.
1.15.1 HO Preparation
I. Measurement Report
The HO decision depends on the measurement report (MR) sent by MS through uplink SACCH to the
network and the MR of the uplink sent by BTS. These two reports are sent to BSC at the same time for
decision. The system information that includes the parameters of the current cell and the neighbor cell
are sent to the MS under the dedicated mode through the downlink SACCH. The MS reports the RXLEV
and quality, TA value, power control, and DTX usage to the network according to the system
information. In addition, the MS also performs the pseudo-synchronization with the neighbor cell
defined by the system for HO and measures the RXLEV from the BCCH. The MS measures all the frames
except the idle frames that are used to synchronize the neighbor cell and decode SCH. The MS reports
the condition of the cell and the six neighbor cells with the strongest RXLEV it measures during the
measurement period to the system for the HO decision.
Measurement period
The SACCH measurement period is different if the MS occupies different channel under the dedicated
mode.
If the SACCH is associated with SDCCH, the measurement period is 470ms, because a complete SACCH
message block occupies two 51 multiframes of SDCCH.
If the SACCH is associated with TCH, the measurement period is 480 ms, because a complete SACCH
message block occupies four 26 multiframes of TCH.
A complete MR consists of four continuous SACCH bursts. On the SDCCH, the four bursts are transmitted
continuously. On the TCH, each 26 multiframe has only one SACCH burst, so a complete MR requires
four 26 multiframes.
Figure 1-1 Measurement period
Whether to use DTX or not, the MR has two values: full measurement value and sub measurement
value. For details, see the DTX description in Chapter 2.
MR processing
BTS handles the uplink MR it makes and the downlink MR it collects from the MS. It obtains the sample
values of the RXLEV, RXQUAL, and TA, and then calculates the arithmetical mean value and the
weighted mean value based on the related parameters. When the time is up, the system decides
whether to perform the level handover, quality handover, or distance handover.
II. Neighbor Cell Monitoring
To establish the HO relation with the neighbor cells, the MS must listen to the standard frequency of
the neighbor cells defined in the system message. The standard frequency carries the synchronous
channel and frequency correction channel. One way to decide the received channel is the standard
frequency channel is to confirm that the frequency carries a FCCH. The MS also decodes the SCH that
carries the TDMA frame number and BSIC. The MS can only analyze the BCCH standard frequency of the
neighbor cell in the idle timeslot of the TCH multiframe. In fact, during the data exchange, the interval
between the end of the reception and the beginning of the transmission (about 1 ms) can be used to
measure the RXLEV and the RXQUAL, but it is not sufficient to measure the level of the neighbor cell.
The interval between the end of the transmission and the beginning of the reception (about 2 ms) is
sufficient to measure the level of the neighbor cell, but not sufficient to find the FCCH. In the 26
muliframe of TCH, there is always an idle frame (about 6 ms) available for MS to decode the FCCH and

SCH. But the FCCH of the neighbor cell may not be found during this timeslot. Therefore, the use of
the arithmetic feature of the two numbers 26 and 51 is required. Because these two numbers have no
common factor, the FCCH can be found during the 11 periods. When SACCH is associated with SDCCH,
although its period is also 51 multiframe, the SDCCH channel assigned to the MS only occupies 1/8 of
the 51 multiframe. Since there are lots of idle timeslots, the MS can synchronize the neighbor cell.
When the MS receives the SCH, the synchronization is established. To translate the message on the
downlink CSCH, the MS must know the training sequence of the CSCH. The training sequence is of eight
types, matching the BCC 0 to BCC 7 of BSIC respectively. The BSIC carried by the SCH can inform the MS
of the training sequence number of its service cell.
BSIC also enables the MS to differentiate the cells using the same BCCH frequency. The two cells with
the same BCCH frequency and BSIC must be far from each other. The MS reports the six neighbor cells
with the strongest signals, but differentiates them according to the BSIC and frequency it obtains to
achieve the pre-synchronization. The MR only contains the sequence number of the frequencies in the
BA list. Therefore, if a cell shares the same frequency and BSIC with the neighbor cell and its signal is
strong enough, error report and decision of MS may occur, leading to HO failure and call drop.
III. Conditions Required for Neighbor Cells to Join in HO Decision Queue
When the BTS receives the report on the neighbor cell from the MS, it checks whether this neighbor
cell is qualified to join in the HO decision queue. The following conditions must be met:
RXLEV(n) > RxLevMinCell(n)+ MAX(0,Pa(n)) + OFFSET (2-4)
Pa(n)=MS_TXPWR_MAX(n) MAX_POWER_OF_MS
RXLEV(n) is the RXLEV of the neighbor cell; RxLevMinCell(N) is the minimal access level of the neighbor
cell; OFFSET is the offset of the minimal access level; MS_TXPWR_MAX(n) is the maximal transmit
power of MS defined by the system; MAX_POWER_OF_MS is the maximal transmit power the MS can
achieve. The unit is dBm.
RxLevMinCell(n) and MS_TXPWR_MAX(n) are defined by the HO cell parameters. Under the dedicated
mode, the system informs the MS by sending the system message through SACCH. The neighbor cell can
be listed in the HO candidate cells only when its RXLEV is qualified according to the formula above.
The defined RxLevMinCell (n) must be higher than the RXLEV_ACCESS_MIN. If it is too low, the
threshold for the candidate cells is reduced, which may lead to HO failure. The purpose to define the
Pa is to ensure the low power MS can access the neighbor cell only when the RXLEV is high enough, thus
improving the quality of conversation.
1.15.2 HO Types
HO must be performed on time under different conditions to ensure the quality of communication.
According to the cause of the HO, it can be divided into Power Budget (PBGT) HO, edge HO, bad quality
(BQ) HO, direct retry, and timing advance (TA) HO.
I. PBGT HO
PBGT HO is based on path loss. PBGT HO algorithm looks for a cell with less path loss to decide whether
HO is necessary. The biggest difference between the PBGT HO and others is that the triggering
condition is path loss but not receiving power.
The formula of PBGT HO is as follows:
PBGT (n) > PGBT_Ho_Margin (n) (2-5)
PBGT(n) = ( BSTX_MAX - RXLEV_DL - PWR_C_D ) - ( BSTX_MAX(n)- RXLEV_NCELL(n) )- ( RXLEV_DL RXLEV_UL - SENSI_CORRECT)- max ( BSTX_MAX(n)- min(MSTX_MAX(n),P) - BSTX_MAX + min
(MSTX_MAX,P) ,0 )
BSTX_MAX: The maximum transmit power of BS in service cell
BSTX_MAX (n): The maximum transmit power of BS in neighbor cell
RXLEV_DL: The downlink received signal level in service cell
RXLEV_UL: The uplink received signal level in service cell
SENSI_CORRECT: The correct factor of MS/BS receiver sensitivity
RXLEV_NCELL (n): the received signal level of MS from neighbor cell n
PWR_C_D: the decrease of the transmission power in BTS power control
P: Max MS Transmission power
MSTX_MAX (n): Max MS transmit power allowed of the neighboring cell n
MSTX_MAX: Max MS transmit power allowed of the service cell
The neighbor cell with the biggest PBGT (n) is selected as the target cell for HO. The PGBT_Ho_Margin

is the defined RXLEV difference value between the service cell and the neighbor cell when the HO is
initiated. If this value is too low, it may lead to ping-pong handover; if it is too high, HO hysteresis may
occur and the HO efficiency is reduced. Since the PGBT_Ho_Margin is defined for the specific neighbor
cell, the traffic load can be adjusted accordingly. For example, when cell A and cell B are adjacent, A is
the high-traffic cell and B is the low-traffic cell, the call distribution can be balanced by reducing the
PGBT_Ho_Margin from A to B and increasing that from B to A. In fact, this way to balance the call
distribution equals the decrease of the coverage area for cell A and the increase of the coverage area
for cell B.
PBGT HO only happens between the peer cells. .
II. Edge HO
The uplink/downlink edge HO margin is defined in the HO parameters. When BSC finds in the MRs from
the MS and BTS that the uplink or downlink RXLEV is lower than the edge HO margin defined, it selects
a proper neighbor cell from the MRs as the target cell to initiate HO, thus avoiding the call drop.
In the edge HO, the RXLEV of the neighbor cell should be higher than that of the service cell by a
certain value. This value is called the edge HO margin. This algorithm is also used to avoid ping-pong
handover. The edge HO margin should be higher than the minimal access level of the MS.
III. BQ HO
The decision mechanism of BQ HO is similar to that of the edge HO. When BSC finds in the MRs from
the MS and BTS that the bit error rate of the uplink or downlink is higher than the BQ HO margin
defined, the BQ HO is initiated. To further differentiate the BQ HO, the interference HO is introduced.
If the RXLEV is higher than the defined RXLEV margin of the interference HO and the RXQUAL is higher
than the quality HO margin, the frequency interference exists. The interference HO will trigger the
intra-cell HO (when the intra-cell HO is available) first to improve the bad conversation quality due to
interference, and then trigger the inter-cell HO. The intra-cell HO is not effective when the frequency
hopping is used. By improving the interference HO margin, the BQ HO will be mainly performed
between cells.
IV. Direct Retry
During the call establishment, the SDCCH is assigned first and then is the TCH. If the service cell has no
idle TCH, the call attempt usually fails because of TCH congestion. To fully utilize the radio resources
and reduce the congestion, the direct retry function is introduced. When the SDCCH is assigned, but no
TCH is available, the assignment request is sent in the form of MR and the call is accessed to the idle
speech channel. After the direct retry function is enabled, the queuing function can be activated to
provide enough time for the system to select the neighbor cell available for direct retry.
V. TA HO
TA HO can be used to control the coverage area of the BTS. When the BSC finds the TA value reported
by the MS is higher than the defined margin, the TA HO is initiated. If the TA margin is relatively low,
the frequent ping-pong handover may be triggered. Therefore, special attention should be paid to the
matching of different kinds of HO.
1.15.3 HO Process Analysis
I. Intra-Cell HO
In the real network, sometimes the interference may occur to certain frequency or a certain TRX fails,
leading to the high RXLEV but low RXQUAL or the remarkably low signal level of TRX. To improve the
conversation quality and avoid the call drop, the intra-cell HO is used.
The intra-cell HO is initiated by the RXLEV margin or RXQUAL quality. During the conversation, BSC
analyzes the MR from the MS and BTS. If the requirement for intra-cell HO margin is satisfied, it sends
a CHANNEL ACTIVE message to BTS to initiate the intra-cell HO. The connection process is similar to the
TCH assignment during the call establishment. Because the TCH is also assigned within the cell, the BTS
can indicate the MS to perform the intra-cell HO through HO command or assignment command. When
the BSC receives the ASSIGNMENT COMPLETE/HANDOVER COMPLETE message from the BTS, it sends
MSC the HO PERFOMED message that contains the HO type. Then the BSC sends a RF CHANNEL RELEASE
message to BTS. After receiving the message, the BTS releases the TCH resource and sends a RF
CHANNEL RELEASE ACK message back.
When the intra-cell HO is enabled, intra-cell HO increases a lot, and the system load also increases.
Therefore, if the traffic load is already heavy, the intra-cell HO function is not recommended.
II. Intra-BSC HO

Intra-BSC HO is performed by BSC and no MSC has to be involved. To inform MSC that the HO is
complete, BSC will send a HO PERFOMED message to MSC.
1) The MS sends MR to BTS1 on SACCH at Um interface, and BTS1 forwards the message to the BSC.
2) BSC receives the MR. If it decides that the MS should be handed over to another cell, it sends
Channel Activation to BTS2 of the target cell to activate the channel.
3) BTS2 receives the CHANNEL ACTIVATE. If the channel type is correct, it turns on the power amplifier
on the specified channel to receive information in the uplink direction, and send CHANNEL ACTIVATE
ACK to the BSC.
4) After receiving the CHANNEL ACTIVATE ACK from BTS2, the BSC sends HANDOVER COMMAND to the MS
through BTS1 and starts T3103. The handover command contains all the feature information of the
transmission on the new channel and the data required for MS access. It also indicates whether this HO
is synchronous or asynchronous.
5) After receiving the HANDOVER COMMAND, the MS decides the type of it. If it is synchronous HO, the
MS sends the target cell four continuous HANDOVER ACCESS messages on the assigned TCH, and then
starts the transmission based on the calculated. For the synchronous HO, the former TA can be used;
for pre-synchronous HO, the TA in the handover command is used (If the TA is not provided in the
handover command, the default value is used); for pseudo-synchronous HO (MS reported whether this
HO is supported or not before), the TA is calculated based on the difference value provided in the
handover command. Please note that the HANDOVER ACCESS is send by the access burst. It is the only
time when the access burst is used on the DCH. It only contains the 8-bit HO reference number
obtained from the handover command. Since this reference number is known to the target cell, the
target cell can check whether the access request is from the expected MS with this number.
The HO reference number is not fully defined in the protocol. During the HO access, if the assigned
TCH is on the BCCH, due to synchronization error and delay or other reasons, the access burst may
offset to the BCCH RACH timeslot. If the 8-bit reference number is the same as a service application
number, the system will regard it as a random access by mistake and assign the SDCCH through AGCH,
leading to a waste of AGCH and SDCCH. But as the access burst contains the BSIC information, only the
HO access cell will be affected.
Since there are more than four HO access bursts, and after the new BSS assigns a channel to the MS, it
will no re-assign this channel to other MS, even if no reference number is used, the network can find
the MS to access and the HO will not be affected.
To further avoid the waste of radio resources, the reference number is assigned a fixed value that is
different from the application number for service type in random access.
6) BTS2 receives the HANDOVER ACCESS from the MS, and send HANDOVER DETECT to the BSC notifying
that the HANDOVER ACCESS message is received.
7) For asynchronous HO, after the BTS2 channel of the target cell is activated, it waits for the MS
access on the assigned DCH (until the T3103 times out). When it detects the handover access from the
MS, the BTS2 sends the HO DETECT message to the BSC and the PHYSICAL INFO that contains the
calculated TA to the MS. During the PHYSICAL INFO transmission, the network initiates T3105. Before
receiving the SABM frame response from the MS, the BTS2 re-enables the T3105 after timeout and
resends the PHYSICAL INFO NY1. For asynchronous HO, after receiving the PHYSICAL INFO, the MS sends
the SABM to the BTS2; for synchronous HO, the MS sends the SABM to the BTS2 immediately after
sending the HANDOVER ACCESS.
8) For asynchronous HO, the MS starts the T3124 when sending the HANDOVER ACCESS message for the
first time and stops the T3124 after receiving the PHYSICAL INFO. For details, see the parameter
description section.
9) After receiving the first SABM, BTS2 sends BSC the EST IND to inform it of the radio link
establishment. When the network receives this message, it sends an ESTABLISHE INDICATION message to
the BSC to show that the data link layer is established. Meanwhile, it also sends the UA response frame
to the MS. after receiving the UA response, the MS regards that the signaling answer mode is
established with this cell.
10) The MS sends HANDOVER COMPLETE to the BTS2, and BTS2 forwards it to the BSC. Then it sends the
target cell a HANDOVER COMPLETE message that only contains the handover complete indication but
no other information. The MS stops considering the possibility to return to the former channel only
when this message is sent. If the MS does not receive the PHYSICAL INFO from the target cell or the UA

response frame, it sends a HANDOVER FAILURE message on the source channel.

11) After receiving the HANDOVER COMPLETE message, the BSC stops the T3103 and sends MSC the
HANDOVER PERFORMED that contains the handover type. Meanwhile, the BSC initiates the local release
for the former channel of BTS1. When the target cell receives the handover complete message from
the MS, it forwards it to the BSC. After receiving this message, the BSC sends the RF CHANNEL RELEASE
message to inform the source cell to release the former TCH. When the source cell receives this report,
it sends a RF CHANNEL RELEASE ACK to indicate the radio channel is released and available for another
assignment.
III. Intra MSC HO
Compared with the intra-BSC HO procedure, the procedure for the inter-BSC HO only has several A
interface signaling added.
1) When the MS has to be handed over to the cell where the BSC2 belongs to, the BSC1 sends a HO
REQUIRED message that contains cell ID of the target cell group and the source cell and the HO cause
to the MSC and starts T7 at the same time.
2) After the MSC receives this message, if it shares the same LAC with the target cell, it searches the
BSC of the target cell (BSC2) and sends the BSC2 a HANDOVER REQUEST message that contains the
information of the target cell and the source cell, transmission mode, encryption mode, classmark, and
the channel type required. When the BSC2 receives this message, it sends MSC a CC message to
indicate that the connection between the MSC and its SCCP is established for transmission of the
information from the A interface.
3) After the new channel is activated, the BSC2 sends the MSC a HO REQUEST ACK to indicate that the
channel is available. This message carries the HO command with the information about the resource
allocation in it to show that the local end is ready for HO.
4) After receiving the HO REQUEST ACK, the MSC sends a HO COMMAND to the BSC1. BSC1 stops the T7
and starts the T8, and forwards the HO COMMAND to the MS and starts T3103, informing the MS to
access the new channel. This command contains the cell ID, channel type, and HO reference.
5) After receiving the HO COMPLETE from the BSC2, MSC sends a CLEAR COMMAND to the BSC1. This
command contains the clear cause (such as HO clear). BSC1 stops T8 and T3103, and releases the
former channel. Meanwhile, it sends a CLEAR COMPLETE message to the MSC.
T3103 is started when BSC sends the HO command and cleared when the BSC receives the HO
COMPLETE (INTRA BSC) or CLEAR COMMAND (INTER BSC). The T3103 should be set less than T8. During
the HO, the BSC provides the time for TCH both in the source cell and the target cell according to the
T3103. When the T3103 is timing, two channels are reserved. The longest HO (INTER MSC) may take
about five seconds, so the T3103 can be set to five seconds. If it is set too long, the system resources
will be wasted.
If the target cell and the source cell are not in the same LA, a location updating will be performed at
the end of each call.
IV. Inter-MSC HO
The procedure for inter-MSC HO is shown in Figure 1-26.
1) When MSCa receives the HANDOVER REQUIRED message from the BSC, if it finds that the LAC of the
preferred target cell is not in the local LAC list, it queries the remote LAC list that contains the routing
address of the neighbor MSC/VLR.
2) When the target MSCb is found, the MSCa sends a PREPARE HANDOVER message that contains the
HANDOVER REQUEST to it.
3) After receiving the PREPARE HANDOVER message, the MSCb sends the VLRb an
ALLOCATE_HO_NUMBER message to request for HO number (HON) assignment. The HON indicates the
routing between MSCa and MSCb.
4) VLRb selects an idle HON and sends it to MSCb through the SEND HO REPORT message.
5) MSCb establishes a SCCP link to the target BSC and sends a HANDOVER REQUEST message to BSCB.
Then the BSC activates the channel of the target cell. After receiving the channel activation response
from the target cell, the BSC sends MSCb a HANDOVER REQUEST ACK message that contains the HO
command.
6) After receiving this message, MSCb sends a PREPARE HANDOVER ACK message that contains the
HANDOVER REQUEST ACK and the HON to the MSCa.

7) MSCa receives this message and sends an IAM to MSCb. The IAM contains the HON assigned by VLRb
for MSCb to identify which speech channel is reserved for the MS. MSCb sends a SEND HO REPORT RESP
message to the VLRb anytime after it receives the IAM.
8) After MSCa receives the ACM from the MSCb, it sends the HO command to the MS. Then the MS will
perform the HO access to the target cell.
9) After receiving the HO access message from the MS, MSCb sends MSCa a PROCESS ACCESS SIGNALLING
message to indicate that the HO is detected.
10) When the target cell receives the HANDOVER COMPLETE message from the MS, it informs the MSCb.
Then the MSCb sends a SEND END SIGNAL REQ message to MSCa to inform it the HO is complete. After
the HO-DETECT or HO-COMPLETE is received, the connection between MSCa and MSCb is established.
MSCb will release the HON.
11) When MSCa receives the HO complete message, it sends a clear command to the former BSC to
release the channel resource. The inter-MSC HO is complete. To avoid the PSTN/ISDN contradiction of
the MSCa and MSCb, MSCb must send an answer signaling when receiving the HO-DETECT/COMPLETE.
12) MSCa controls the call until it is cleared. When MSCa clears the MS call, it also clears the call
control function of MSCa and sends a MAP-SEND-END-SIGNAL message to release the MSCb MAP
resource.
MSCb sends a HO failure indication to the MSCa if the MSCb cannot identify the target cell, the HO to
the target cell is not allowed, the target cell has no radio channel available, or the data error occurs.
The MSCa will perform the HO to the secondary cell or terminate the HO.
V. Subsequent Inter-MSC HO
After the MSCb receives the HO request, it checks this target cell belongs to MSCb and performs the
inter-MSC HO. After the HO is complete, it informs the MSC.
The subsequent HO is the handover of MSCb to other MSC after an inter-MSC HO is complete. The
target MSC can be the former MSCa or the new MSCb. The circuit switch happens in the MSCa for both
situations. After the subsequent HO is complete, the connection between MSCa and MSCb is released.
The procedure for the subsequent HO with circuit switch is as follows:
MSCb is handed over back to MSCa
1) MSCb sends MAP PREPARE SUBSEQUENT HANDOVER request to MSCa. This message contains MSCa
number, target cell ID, and all the information in HO REQUEST.
2) MSCa is the call control MSC. It can search the idle channel immediately without target HO number
routing.
3) After the radio channel is assigned, MSCa sends a MAP PREPARE SUBSEQUENT HANDOVER response
back.
4) If the TCH is busy, BSSa sends a QUEUING INDICATION to MSCb (optional). MSC sends MSCb the MAP
FORWARD ACCESS SIGNALLING request that contains the subsequent TCH assignment result (HO
REQUEST ACK or HO FAILURE). If the radio channel cannot be assigned or the error occurs to the target
cell ID, or the target cell ID does not match the target MSC number according to the HO REQUEST, a
MAP PREPARE SUBSEQUENT HANDOVER response that contains the HO FAILURE information in it is sent
to the MSCb. MSCb keeps the connection to the MS.
5) If the MSCa is successfully assigned, and the MAP PREPARE SUBSEQUENT HANDOVER response is sent
to MSCb. The MSCb requests the handover of the MS to the new cell of the MSCa by sending a HO
command.
6) After receiving the HO complete message, MSCa releases the circuit connection to MSCb.
7) MSCa must send a proper MAP message to terminate the MAP procedure for MSCa and MSCb during
the basic HO. When MSCb receives the MAP SEND END SIGNAL response message, it releases the BSSb
resources.
MSCb is handed over to MSCb'
Note 1: This message can be sent anytime after the IAM is received.
1) MSCb receives the HO request and finds that the target cell does not belong to the MSCb. It sends a
PREPARE SUBS HANDOVER to the MSCa. This message contains the MSCb ID, target cell ID, and all the
information in HO REQUEST. MSCa will initiate a basic HO to MSCb.

2) If the MSC can be found in the MSCa LAC list and remote LAC list (it contains information about other
MSC), after the HON is provided by the VLRb and the MSCb channel is activated,
3) MSCa sends a MAP PREPARE SUBSEQUENT HANDOVER response message to the MSCb. This message
contains the HO REQUEST ACK from the BSSb and the BSSMAP information that may be special.
4) After receiving this message, MSCb sends the HO command to the MS. After the access succeeds, if
the MSCa receives the MAP SEND END SIGNAL REQUEST (it contains the HO COMPLETE information of
the BSSb) from the MSCb, the HO is complete and the connection between MSCa and MSCb is
released. MSCa also sends the MAP SEND END SIGNAL response to MSCb to end their MAP conversation.
MSCb receives this message and releases the radio resources.
5) After the subsequent HO is complete, the MSCb replaces the MSCb. Any subsequent inter-MSC HO is
the same as described above.
The remote LAC list of MSCa must be complete and contain as many MSCs as possible besides the
neighbor MSC. For example, if a user in place A calls another user in place B, the MSC in place A must
contains all the data of the MSCs and cells within the area between A and B. Otherwise, the HO cannot
be performed and the call drops.
1.15.4 Exceptional Situations
The following are some extra exceptional situations on the basis of what has described before.
I. HO Failure Due to CIC Exception
If the CIC allocated in the Handover REQ received by BSC is marked as BLOCK, BSC will respond to MSC
with Handover Failure due to "requested terrestrial resource unavailable".
II. HO Failure Due to MS Access Failure
If the BTS cannot decode Handover Access or Handover Completed correctly when a MS accesses the
new channel, the HO will fail. The MS returns to the old channel, and responds with a Hanover Failure
message.
For the intra-BSC handover, if the BSC has not received the Handover CMP message on the new channel,
or Handover Failure message on the old channel at expiry of timer T3103A, it will consider the call as
dropped and send a Clear REQ message to the MSC on the old channel. Upon receiving the Clear CMD
message from the MSC, the BSC releases the old channel and notifies the target cell to release the new
channel. If timer T3103B1 or T3103B2 times out, the target cell will release the new channel.
For the inter-BSC handover, if BSC1 has not received the Handover CMP message at expiry of timer
T3103B2, it will send a Clear REQ message to the MSC to release the call. If BSC2 has not received the
Handover DET or Handover CMP message, it will send a Clear REQ message to the MSC for the same
purpose.

1.16 Call Re-Establishment

1.16.1 Introduction
The re-establishment procedure allows MS to resume a connection in progress after a radio link failure,
possibly in a new cell or in a new location area (re-establishment in a new location area initiates no
location updating).
Whether call re-establishment is allowed depends on the calling status, the cell's allowance of call reestablishment, and activated MM connection (MM is in status 6 "MM connection activated" or status 20 "
Waiting for additional MM connection" Call re-establishment can only be initiated by MS. GSM protocol
does not specify the implementation mode for the short message service and the independent call
supplementary service. In the other end, no voice is heard during the call re-establishment.
During the radio transmission, a connection may be broken suddenly because of the great transmission
loss due to obstructions such as bridges, buildings, or tunnels. When the call re-establishment is used,
the MS can maintain the conversation by using another cell in a short time, thus improving the network
quality. Call re-establishment can be regarded as the HO initiated by MS to save the interrupted call in
the current cell.
Call re-establishment is of two types according to the entity that has the radio link failure first.
I. Radio Link Failure Occurs to MS First

The MS sends a call re-establishment request in the selected cell (source cell or target cell). The
former channel resource is released after the BTS timer times out.
II. Radio Link Timeout Occurs to BSS First
After the radio link timer in BTS times out, the BTS sends a radio link failure message to the BSC and
BSC activates the SACCH. According to the protocol, the network must handle the context for a while
after detecting the lower layer faults for the successful call re-establishment. The implementation
mode and duration are decided by the equipment provider. After detecting the radio link failure, the
MS selects a neighbor cell with the highest RXLEV within five seconds and sends the channel request in
the selected cell. This cell should not be barred and the C1 is over 0. In addition, this cell must permit
the call re-establishment. If all the neighbor cells are not qualified, the call re-establishment is
abandoned.
During the call re-establishment, the MS cannot return into the idle mode. If the MS selects a cell in
different LA as the target cell for call re-establishment, it cannot perform location updating until the
call ends.
Under normal circumstances, the call re-establishment procedure lasts about 4 to 20 seconds. Most
users have hung up the phone before the procedure is over. Therefore, the call re-establishment cannot
achieve its goal but wastes a lot of radio resources. For the areas with limited channel resources, the
activation of this function is not recommended.
1.16.2 Call Re-Establishment Procedure
1) After the MM connection failure indication is reported to the CM entity, if the MS receives at least
one request for MM connection re-establishment from CM, it will initiate the call re-establishment
procedure. If several CM entities request for re-establishment, only one re-establishment procedure
will be initiated.
2) After the CM sends the request for the re-establishment of MM connection, MM sublayer sends a
request for the establishment of RR connection and enters the WAIT FOR REESTABLISH state. This
request includes an establishment cause and a CM re-establishment request. When the RR sublayer
indicates a RR connection is established (the CM re-establishment request message has been sent
through the Um interface), the MM sublayer starts T3230 and indicates to all the CM entities that the
MM connection is under construction. The MM sublayer stays in WAIT FOR REESTABLISH state.
The CM Re-establishment Request message contains the MS identity (IMSI or TMSI), Classmark 2, and
encrypted sequence number.
Whether the CM entity can request for re-establishment depends on protocol discriminator (PD).
3) After receiving the CM re-establishment request, the network analyzes the request type and starts
the MM program or RR program. The network can start the classmark enquiry program to obtain more
information about the MS encryption ability. The network can also decide to perform the
authentication procedure or ciphering mode setting procedure.
4) When the RR sublayer indicates the ciphering mode setting procedure is over or the CM SERVICE
ACCEPT message is received, the MM connection is re-established. The T3230 stops and informs all the
CM entities related to the re-establishment to enter the MM CONNECTION ACTIVE state.
5) If the network cannot connect the re-establishment request to the current MS call, it sends the CM
SERVICE REJECT with the reject cause to the MS.
The reject cause (value) includes unidentifiable call (#38), unidentifiable IMSI (# 4), unauthorized ME (#
6), network failure (#17), congestion (#22), unsupported service (#32), and temporary service failure
(#34)
6) After receiving the CM SERVICE REJECT, the MS stops T3230 and releases all MM connections and RR
connections. If the reject cause if #4, the MS deletes the TMSI, LAI, and CKSN in SIM card, and changes
the status from updating into no updating, and then enters the WAIT FOR NETWORK COMMAND
state. The location updating will be initiated after the RR release.
If the reject cause is #6, the MS deletes the TMSI, LAI, and CKSN in SIM card, and changes the status
from "updating" into roaming inhibit. The SIM is regarded invalid until the MS is switched off or the
SIM card is pulled out.
1.16.3 Exceptional Situations
I. Re-Establishment Prohibition or Failure
When MM connection is established, the MM layer may send an indication to the CC layer. If the MM

layer is disconnected, the connection may be re-established through CC request.

If the re-establishment is not allowed, and the call is initiated within the establishment or clearing
period, the CC layer shall release MM connections.
If re-establishment is unsuccessful, MM connections shall be released, and a release indication shall be
sent to the CC layer.
II. RR Connection Failure
If random access failure or RR CONNECTION FAILURE is detected by the MS, the MS will stop timer
T3230, abort the call re-establishment procedure, and release all MM connections.
If RR CONNECTION FAILURE is detected by the MSC, the MSC will abort the call re-establishment
procedure and release all MM connections.
III. T3230 Time-out
If the T3230 times out, the MS will stop call re-establishment and release MM and RR connections.
1.16.4 SM Procedure
Short messages can be transmitted either on SDCCH or SACCH. A short message procedure can be
classified into short message calling procedure and called procedure. For details, see GSM03.40
protocol.
1.16.5 Short Message Procedure on SDCCH When MS is calling
I. Signaling Procedure
II. Procedure Description
The random access, immediate assignment, authentication, and encryption procedures of short
message procedure on SDCCH when MS is calling are the same as general procedures. After encryption,
the MS sends SABM again, notifying the network side that this user needs short message service (SMS).
Then, BSC provides a transparent-transmission channel for MS to exchange short message information
with MSC. In this procedure, the MSCs of some manufacturers are capable to send ASS REQ to BSC,
requesting it to assign channel for short message transmission. The time for sending ASS REQ is the
same as that for a common call. BSC can provide SMS either by allocating other channels or by using
the original SDCCH.
Point to Point short messages protocol is divided into connection management layer (CM), relay layer
(RL), transport layer (TL) and application layer (AL).
CP_DATA and CP_ACK are the messages on CM layer, CP_DATA is used to transmit the content of RL and
AL message, and CP_ACK is the acknowledgement message of CP_DATA.
The release procedure after message is sent is the same as general ones.
1.16.6 Short Message Procedure on SDCCH When MS is called
I. Signaling Procedure
II. Procedure Description
The paging response and immediate assignment procedures of short message procedure on SDCCH when
MS is called are the same as general procedures. For the short message procedure when MS is called,
after encryption, the BSC sends EST REQ to MS to establish short message connection. When EST CNF is
received from MS, the connection is successfully established. BSC transparently transmits the short
message till the end of the transmission.
The release procedure after message is sent is the same as general ones.
1.16.7 Short Message Procedure on SACCH When MS is calling
I. Signaling Procedure
II. Procedure Description
The MS sends CM SERV REQ through FACCH. The MSC responds with the CM SERV ACC message and
establishes CC layer connection. Then, it establishes RR layer connection on SACCH, and sends the
short message.
1.16.8 Short Message Procedure on SACCH when MS is called
I. Signaling Procedure
II. Procedure Description
The BSC receives the CP DATA message from MSC, and establishes an RR layer connection for SMS. Upon
reception of CP ACK from MS, MSC sends the short message.

1.17 CBS
Cell Broadcast Service (CBS) is similar to paging station broadcast information. It means the
mobile network operator broadcasts the public information to the mobile users within a
certain area. The information that the users can read is called CBS message. It is generated
by the Cell Broadcast Entity (CBE) and sent to the Cell Broadcast Center (CBC) for processing.
After the processing, it is forwarded to the BSC and broadcast to the users through CBCH.
The MS can only receive the CBS message in idle mode. Unlike the Point to Point Short
Message service, the CBS message is broadcast without the acknowledgement of the user
terminal.
CBS includes:
- Common public information service, such as weather, news, stock market, exchange rate,
and lottery.
- Special public information service, such as people search, traffic navigation, and call
charge prompt.
- Advertising service, such as information about stores, restaurants, and theaters.
1.17.1 CBS Mechanism
Operators or information providers can define the cell broadcast area through CBE. The
minimal area is a cell and the maximal area can be all the cells of the BSCs that the CBC
connects with. Features such as intervals, duration, and priority levels can also be specified
to meet different requirements. The field length of the CBS message sent to BSC from CBC
must be 82 bytes. If the length is shorter than 82 bytes, fill codes are added to it. If the
length exceeds 82 bytes, the message is broken to a maximum of 15 pages. If the sending
fails, the message may be sent again and the message with high priority level is sent first.
The CBS information is sent to the proper cells through four continuous SMS BROADCAST
REQUEST messages or one SMS BROADCAST COMMAND message. Each CBS message contains
82-byte user information and 6-byte header. The CBS message can be sent to BTS in the form
of SMS BROADCAST REQUEST or SMS BROADCAST COMMAND. For details, see 1.17.2
BTS can send the CBCH Load Indication message to BSC and the system will speed up or delay
the message sending according to this message. Although the BSC considers the CBCH
capacity when sending the message and the BTS can indicate the status of the current CBCH,
when the CBCH LOAD INDICATION mode is enabled, the BTS can send CBCH LOAD INDICATION
to request for immediate broadcast of the m(115) SMSCB timeslot message when the CHCB
is idle. After the BSC sends the m timeslot message, it sends messages according to its own
schedule. If the message volume that the BTS requests exceeds the volume that the BSC can
provide, the BSC only sends the messages within its volume limit. When the CBCH LOAD
INDICATION mode is enabled, the BTS can send CBCH LOAD INDICATION to stop the sending of
the m(115) timeslot message if overload occurs. Then the BSC will continue the sending
according to its own schedule.
CBCH LOAD INDICATION is only used in DRX mode.
The CBCH is of two types: basic CBCH and extended CBCH. They are four continuous
multiframes. The TB of basic CBCH is 0, 1, 2, or 3; The TB of extended CBCH is 4, 5, 6, or 7.
TB = (FN DIV 51) mod (8).
For the basic CBCH, the CBS message head is sent on the multiframe with TB being 0; for the
extended CBCH, it is sent on the multiframe with TB being 4. The system message on BCCH
indicates whether the CBS is available or not. When SMSCB is used, the BS_AG_BLKS_RES is
set as 1 or above. When the CBCH is mapped to the CCCH+SDCCH/4, the number of
BS_AG_BLKS_RES will not be limited by SMSCB.
MS recomposes the CBS message and displays it for the user.
MS obtains the CBS message from the CBCH. BTS informs MS of the short message information
during the schedule in the form of bitmap by sending schedule message. There are three
reception modes for MS on CBCH:
- Non-DRX mode. MS reads the first block of all message timeslots. The rest blocks will be
read if the message head indicates that the following timeslots are used. If the MS does not

support other reception mode, or it does not receive the scheduling for the next message
timeslot, Non-DRX mode is used.
- First DRX mode. If MS receives the scheduling for the next message timeslot, but the first
scheduling message of the last scheduling period, or all the information of the last period or
even earlier period is not received, first DRX mode is used.
- Second DRX mode. If MS receives the important information of the last scheduling period
and reads the first scheduling message of the current period, second DRX mode is used.
Whether the network uses DRX to receive the broadcast short message can be set through
the maintenance console in BSC.
1.17.2 BSC-BTS Message Transmission Mode
A CBS message consists of eighty eight 8-bit bytes. These bytes are divided into four message
blocks with each block containing twenty two 8-bit bytes. Each block is added by an 8-bit
block type, and the length of the block is twenty three 8-bit bytes. A CBS message contains
four continuous blocks: first block, second block, third block, and fourth block.
When the SMS BROADCAST REQUEST mode is used, the message is sent to BTS from BSC. The
BSC handles the queuing, repetition, and short message sending. It also considers the CBCH
capacity and takes charge of the SMS segmentation at radio interface. In the SMS BROADCAST
REQUEST message, each SMSCB Information cell carries a complete frame that can be
transmitted on CBCH and the layer 2 information that indicates the radio path. SMSCB
Channel Indicator cell indicates the CHCH used for broadcast. If this cell does not provide the
information, the basic CBCH will be used.
When the SMS BROADCAST COMMAND mode is used, SMS BROADCAST COMMAND message is
sent to BTS from BSC. BSC requires the immediate message sending during the next CBCH
time. The default broadcast mode for BTS can also be set through this message. In the
default broadcast mode, if there is no other message to broadcast, BTS will send the default
message.
In the SMS BROADCAST COMMAND message, the SMSCB message cell contains the information
to be broadcast on CBCH. It has four continuous blocks with a maximum of 88 bytes. BTS
segments the message and establishes the block format. It also adds bytes to the block if
required. SMSCB Channel Indicator cell indicates the CHCH used for broadcast. If this cell
does not provide the information, the basic CBCH will be used.

2 GSM Radio Network Planning

2.1 Overview
The design of radio network planning (RNP) is the basis of the construction of a wireless
mobile network. The design level of network planning decides the future layout of a
network.
During network planning, the documents concerning base station distribution, channel
assignment, and cell data must be outputted. And the major tasks involved are as follows:
1) Analyze carriers requirements on network coverage, capacity and quality.
2) Analyze the coverage and capacity features of the candidate mobile communication
systems and bands, and then analyze the investment feasibility through estimating the
network scale.
3) Decide the network structure and base station type based on further analysis.
First analyze whether to construct a layering network according to user distribution,
propagation conditions, city development plan and existed network conditions, and then
analyze the sites within this area to decide whether to use omni antennas or directional

antennas to meet the requirements on coverage and capacity.

4) Estimate the number of base stations
Before estimating the number of base stations, estimate the coverage distance of base
stations of various types in various coverage areas. The factors deciding the effective
coverage area of a base station include:
- Valid transmit power of the base station
- Working bands to be used (900 MHz or 1800 MHz)
- Antenna type and installation position
- Power budget
- Radio propagation environment
- Carriers indexes on coverage
Then through calculating the coverage distance and dividing the coverage areas, you can
obtain a rough number of base stations for various coverage areas.
5) Plan an ideal base station address according to cellular structures.
According to geographic maps or administrative maps and with the help of on-the-spot
surveys, you can have a full understanding of the areas to be planed, and then mark the area
where the number of users is large as a target address. After that, mark the addresses of
other base stations according to the ideal cellular structure and the result of link budget.
6) Calculate the number of channels of the cells of each base station
- Estimate the traffic of a base station according to its ideal location, and then obtain the
number of carriers and channels needed by each base station by checking Erl table according
to the indexes of call loss rate.
- Decide the frequency reuse mode according to band width, network quality requirement,
and equipment supportability.
- Estimate the maximum base station configuration type according to the frequency
bandwidth and reuse mode provided by the construction carriers. If the system capacity in
some areas cannot be met, you need to add more base stations or cells to the system
according to cell splitting principles and actual conditions. After that, reselect an ideal base
station address on the map and re-estimate the number of channels required by the base
station.
7) Predict the coverage area and decide the project data, namely, perform the preliminary
emulation. The specific tasks are as follows:
- Select the design indexes
Select the minimum received power and the penetration ratio index at the coverage area
edge.
- Select the design parameters, which includes:
Antenna height (above the ground), antenna azimuth angle, antenna gain, antenna tilt angle,
base station height above sea level, base station type, feeder length, antenna feeder system
loss, combining and distribution modes, transmitter output power, receiver sensitivity, base
station diversity reception, and diversity gains.
- Predict the coverage area of each cell according to the propagation models in different
areas, and then give the opinions on adjusting the base station address, antenna direction,
antenna tilt angle, and antenna height in the areas where dead zones may be present and
signals are poor. Finally, provide the project data.
8) Select actual base station address and decide base station type:
Perform filed examination according to the ideal base station addresses, and then record the
possible addresses according to various construction conditions (including power supply,
transmission, electromagnetic background, and land taken over). Finally, recommend a
suitable address based on integrated consideration of the deviation from the ideal base
station address, the effect on future cell splitting, economic benefits, and coverage
prediction.
After the base station address is selected, decide the actual base station type according to
the number of base station channels.
After the base station type is decided, you need to make a scheme for antenna
configuration. For moving a network, if you intend to provide a best combination scheme for

the antenna feeders, you must fully investigate the combination of the antenna feeders of
the original carriers, plan the future expansion of the base station, and design the
combination of the antenna feeders supported by current equipments.
9) Plan frequency and adjacent cell
Decide the frequency and adjacent planning according to the actual base station distribution
and type.
10) Make cell data
To ensure that the network runs stably, you must design the parameters relative to
performance for each cell. These parameters include system information parameters,
handover parameters, power control algorithm parameters, and so on.
- Note:
For the selection of handover bands, the handover algorithms to be enabled, and whether to
use frequency hopping, power control, and DTX, they must be decided in coverage
prediction and frequency planning, because the related parameters will be used in
emulation.
In addition, sections 2.9 and that later introduce the solutions to the planning of dual-band
network and the planning in special occasions.

2.2 Planning Foundation

2.2.1 Coverage and Capacity Target Confirmation
Before planning a network, you must confirm the network coverage and capacity target and relative
specifications from carriers. They are specified as follows:
- Definition of coverage areas
- Specific division of the service quality in coverage areas
- Grade of service (GoS) at Um interface
- Prediction of network capacity and subscriber growth rate
- Available bands and restrictions on using bands
- Restrictions on base station address and the number of carriers
- Penetration loss in cars or indoor environment
- Performance and sensitivity of base stations
- Rules on base station naming and numbering
- Information of the base stations in the existing network
Engineers perform the network planning and guide the subsequent construction work according to the
previous technical specifications. Because any change of these specifications will affect network
construction, you must discuss these specifications with carriers and get their confirmation.
2.2.2 Performance Target Confirmation
Carriers emphasize much on the future network quality. Therefore, network planning engineers must
judge the indexes concerning network performance according to construction difficulty and
experience, and then cooperate with carriers to design a reasonable solution.
Generally, the performance of voice services can be judged according to KPI indexes. The KPI indexes
vary slightly with carriers.
The mean opinion score (MOS) is divided into five levels.
- The call whose quality is above level 3 can access the mobile communication network.
- The call whose quality is above level 4 can access the public network.

2.3 Coverage Analysis

2.3.1 Area Division
I. Types of coverage area
The signal propagation models are applied in accordance with the propagation environments
in areas of different types. The signal propagation models decide the design principles,
network structures, grade of services and frequency reuse modes for the radio networks in
coverage areas. In order to decide the cell coverage area, you can the radio coverage areas
into the following four types:
- Big city
- Middle-sized city
- Small town
- Countryside
Big city
- Dense population
- Developed economy
- Large traffic
- Dense high buildings and mansions distributed in center areas
- Flourishing shopping centers
Middle-sized city
- Relatively dense population
- Relatively developed economy
- Relatively large traffic
- Dense buildings distributed in center areas
- Active and promising shopping centers
Small town
- Relative large population
- Promising economic development
- Moderate traffic
- Relative dense buildings distributed in center areas
- A certain scale of shopping centers but with great potentiality
Countryside
- Scattered population
- Developing economy
- Low traffic
In addition, you must consider the coverage of the areas at the intersections and various
transport arteries, including:
- Express way
- National high way
- Provincial highway
- Railway
- Sea-route
- Roads in mountain areas
Generally, it is recommended to apply omni base stations in the countries plains and the
areas with restricted landforms. In big cities, middle-sized cities, and along expressways, it
is recommended to apply directional base stations.
II. Define the field strength at coverage area edges
When defining the field strength of the uplink edges of a service area, you must consider the
factors:
Mobile station sensitivity -102 dBm
Fast fading protection 4 dB (3 dB for countryside)
Slow fading protection 8 dB (6 dB for countryside)
Noise (environmental noise and interfering noise) protection 5 dB
Remark:

- To ensure the indoor coverage in big and middle-sized cities, you can consider 15dB for the
average penetration loss between buildings and consider adding 5dB to the protection
margin.
- Generally, the propagation loss of GSM 1800MHz signals is 8 dB greater than that of the GSM
900MHz signals in average.
- Radio links have two directions, namely, uplink direction and downlink direction, and the
coverage area is defined by the direction in which the signals are poor, so you must consider
the uplink and downlink balance. Therefore, if you intend to plan an ideal network, you
must make a good power control budget so that the uplink and downlink can be as balance as
possible.
III. Define coverage probability
The definition of coverage probability varies with the coverage areas, and the coverage
probability is gradually improved along with the construction of the network.
Generally, a call must be ensured to access the network at 90% of the places and 99% of the
time within the coverage area.
- For the outdoor environment in big cities, the two ratios must be greater.
- For the areas in countryside, the two ratios can be lower.
- For transport arteries, different standards are applied, and the coverage probability can be
defined in accordance with the types of the arteries.
2.3.2 Radio Environment Survey
Through surveying radio propagation environments, you can get familiar with the overall
landforms, estimate the rough antenna height, and select the proper radio propagation
model, among which the radio propagation model helps you estimate the number of base
station when predicting the coverage. If necessary, you must adjust the propagation model.

2.4 Network Structure Analysis

When considering the layout of base stations, you must deeply analyze network structure. Generally,
according to network layers, a network can be divided into middle-layer, high-layer, and low-layer. The
base stations at the middle-layer bear the greatest traffic in a network
2.4.1 Middle-Layer Station
I. Definition and application
A middle-layer station in big and middle-sized cities is defined as follows:
- The antenna is installed on building tops.
- The antenna height ranges from 25 to 30 meters, which is greater than the average height of the
buildings.
- It covers several blocks.
In small towns and countryside areas, except the high-layer stations are designed for controlling traffic
flow or for landform reasons, most of the base stations are middle-layer stations.
II. Advantages
Compared with high-layer stations, middle-layer stations can utilize frequency resources more
efficiently. Compared with low-layer stations, middle-layer stations can absorb traffic more efficiently.
Therefore, the middle-layer stations bear the greatest traffic in a network.
III. Distance between stations
The average distance between most middle-layer stations range from 0.6 to 5 km except in countryside
areas. In big cities, the distance between some middle-layer stations is shorter than 0.6 km. However,
it is suggested that the distance between middle-layer stations in big cities cannot be shorter than 0.4
km. If this distance is too short, the buildings will produce strong interference against the signals of the
base stations. In this case, to control the coverage area is quite demanding.
IV. Challenges
Because no suitable ground objective is available, to ensure the quality of service of a network is quite
demanding. According to the experience on project construction and maintenance, great challenge is

present in the selection of base station address, station design, project construction, network
maintenance, and network quality.
2.4.2 High-Layer Station
I. Definition and application
A high-layer station in big and middle-sized cities is defined as follows:
- The antenna height ranges from 10 to 50 meters, which is far greater than the average height of the
buildings.
- Its coverage areas contain the areas covered by multiple middle-layer stations.
Because the high-layer stations make poor use of the frequency resources, they are mainly applied to
the traffic networks where people move fast in big and middle-sized cities.
In addition, to control construction cost and meet coverage requirements, you can install some highlayer stations in suburban areas, highroads, small towns, and countryside areas.
II. Functions
The high-layer stations must be as fewer as possible but be as effective as possible. They mainly
provide services to the fast-moving subscribers in cities.
& Note:
The coverage of high buildings is realized by indoor distribution systems.
2.4.3 Low-Layer Station
I. Definition and application
A low-layer station is defined as follows:
- The antenna height is shorter than 20 meters, which is shorter than the average height of the
buildings.
- The antenna can be installed on the outer walls of the lower floors of a building, on the top of lower
roofs, or in the rooms of a building.
Generally, at the early stage of the network construction, signal network design is applied, so most of
the base stations are middle-layer stations. After the basic network is established, you must adjust the
base stations and add new base stations according to traffic and coverage requirements.
For populated commercial areas where the traffic is heavy, you can use low-layer stations, which are
constructed with micro cell layer and distributed antenna system. In this case, not only the
requirements on indoor coverage are met, but also the interference and difficulties of base station
selection caused by short distance between stations are avoided. With the development of the
network, the low-layer stations will develop into the layering network structure.
II. Other considerations
The coverage area of a low-layer station is small, so it can fully use frequency resources but cannot
absorb the traffic efficiently. As a result, ideal traffic cannot be ensured if the base station deviates far
away from the areas where the traffic is heavy.
Therefore, when constructing a low-layer station, you must consider whether the base station is used
to make up coverage or solve the problem of heavy traffic, because the construction purpose is directly
related to the selection of the address and type of the base station.
& Note:
A layering network cost much frequency resource, so it is not recommended for the networks where
the frequency resource is inadequate.

2.5 Traffic Analysis

2.5.1 Traffic Prediction and Cell Splitting
I. Traffic prediction
The network construction requires the consideration of economic feasibility and rationality.
Therefore, a reasonable investment decision must be based on the prediction of the network
capacity of the early and late stage.
When predicting network capacity, you must consider the following factors:
- Population distribution
- Family income
- Subscription ratio of fixed telephone

- Development of national economy

- City construction
- Consumption policy
After predicting the total network capacity, you must predict the density of subscriber
distribution. Generally, base stations are constructed in urban areas, suburban areas, and
transport arteries. Therefore, you can use the percentage of prediction method.
At the early stage of construction, the subscribers in cities account for a larger percentage of
the total predicted subscribers. With the development of the network construction, the
percentage of the subscribers in suburban areas and transport arteries grows. The traffic of
each subscriber is 0.025 Erl in urban areas and 0.020 Erl in suburban areas.
The formula calculating traffic is:
A = (n T) / 3600
Here,
- n is the call times in busy hour
- T is the duration of each call, in the unit of second.
In this way, the number of voice channels needed for a base station can be obtained through
predicting the traffic.
& Note:
When estimating the number of voice channels needed for a base station in the future, you
must consider the effect caused by cell splitting.
In a GSM system, you can use Erl model to calculate the traffic density that the network can
bear. The call loss can be 2% or 5% depending on actual conditions.
Because restrictions on cell coverage area and the width of the available frequencies are
present, you must plan the cell capacity reasonably. If good voice quality is ensured, you
must enhance the channel utilization ratio as much as possible.
In actual networking, if the network quality is ensured at a certain level, two capacity
solutions are available, namely, a few stations with high-level configuration and multiple
stations with low-level configuration. Both the advantages and disadvantages of the two
solutions are apparent, so which one should be used depending on the actual conditions of
an area.
For network construction, you can expand the capacity either through adding base stations
or through expanding the base station capacity. The expansion strategies adopted must be in
accordance with the traffic density in an area. For example, the strategies such as adding
1800 MHz base stations, expanding sector capacity, adding micro cells, or improving indoor
coverage can be used to expand network capacity.
II. Cell splitting
Cell splitting is quite effective for the expansion of network capacity. An omni base station
can split into multiple sectors, and a sector can split into multiple smaller cells. In other
word, you must plan cell radius in accordance with the traffic density of an area.
Cell splitting means more base station and greater cost are needed. Therefore, when
planning a network, you must consider the following factors:
- The rules and diagrams of frequency reuse are repeatable.
- The original base stations can still work.
- The transition cells must be reduced or avoided.
- The cell can split without effect.
Cell splitting is quite important in a network. The followings further describe the cell
splitting based on 1-to-4 splitting.
Cell splitting is used to split a congested cell into multiple smaller cells. Through setting the
new cells whose radiuses are smaller than the original cells and placing them among the
original cells, you can increase the number of channels in a unit area, thus increasing
channel reuse times. In this case, system capacity is expanded.
Through adjusting the project parameters relative to antenna feeders and reducing
transmitter power, you can narrow the coverage area of a cell. Error! Reference source not
found. shows that a cell splits into four smaller cells by half of its radius.

Smaller cells are added without changing the frequency reuse mode. They are split
proportional to the shape of the original cell clusters.
In this case, the coverage of a service area depends on the smaller cells, which are 4 times
outnumber of the original cells. To be more specifically, you can take a circle with the radius
R as an example, the coverage area of the circle with the radius R is 4 times that of a circle
with the radius R/2.
After cell splitting, the number of cell clusters in the coverage area increases. Thus the
number of channels in this coverage area increases and the system capacity is expanded
accordingly.
You can adjust the coverage area of the new cells through reducing the transmit power. For
the transmit power of the new cells whose radiuses are half of that of the original cell, you
can check the power Pr received at the new cell edge and at the original cell edge, and
make them equal. However, you must ensure that the frequency reuse scheme of the new
micro cells is the same as that of the original cell. As for Figure 5-1,
- Pr [at the edge of the original cell] = Pt1R-n, and,
- Pr [at the edge of the new cell] = Pt2 (R/2)-n
Here,
Pt1 and Pt2 are the transmit power of the base stations of the original cell and the new cell,
and n is path fading exponent. If make n = 4, make the received power at the edge of the
new and original cell equal, the following equation can be obtained:
Pt2 = Pt1/16
That is to say, if the micro cells are used to cover the original coverage area and the
requirement of S/I is met, the transmit power must be reduced by 12 dB.
Not all cells need splitting. In fact, it is quite demanding for carriers to find out a perfect cell
splitting scheme. Therefore, many cells of different scales exist in a network simultaneously.
As a result, the minimum distance among intra-frequency cells must be maintained, which
further complicate frequency allocation.
In addition, you must pay attention to the handover because success handover ensure the all
subscribers to enjoy good quality of service regardless of moving speed.
When two layers of cells are present within an area but their coverage scale is different,
according to the formula Pt2 = Pt1/16, neither all new cells can simply apply the original
transmit power, nor all original cells can simply apply the new transmit power.
If all cells apply great transmit power, the channels used by smaller cells cannot be separated
from the intra-frequency cells. If all cells apply lower transmit power, however, some big
cells will be exclusive from the service areas.
For the previous reason, the channels in the original cells can be divided into two groups.
One group meets the reuse requirement of the smaller cells, and the other group meets the
reuse requirement of the bigger cells. The bigger cells are applied to the communication of
fast-moving subscribers, which requires a fewer handover times.
The power of the two channel groups decides the progress of cell splitting. At the early stage
of cell splitting, the channels in the low-power group are fewer. As the requirement grows,
more channels are needed in low-power group. The cell splitting does not stop until all
channels within this area are applied in the low-power group. In this case, all cells in this
area have split into multiple smaller cells, and the radius of each cell is quite small.
& Note:
Commonly, you can restrict cell coverage area through adjusting the project parameters of
the base station.
2.5.2 Voice Channel Allocation
I. Voice channel decision
The base station capacity refers to the number of channels that must be configured for a
base station or a cell. The calculation of the base station capacity is divided into the
calculation of the number of radio voice channels and the calculation of the number of radio
control channels.
According to the information of base stations and cells and the density distribution of
subscribers, you can calculate the total number of the subscribers. Then according to the

radio channel call loss ratio and traffic, you can obtain the number of voice channels that
must be configured by checking Erl B table.
Generally, you can decide the number of voice channels as follows:
1) According to the bandwidth and the reuse mode allowed by current GSM networks within
the areas to be planned, you can obtain the maximum number of carriers that can be
configured for a base station.
2) Each carrier has 8 channels. You can obtain the maximum number of voice channel
numbers that can be configured for a base station by detracting the control channels from
the 8 channels.
3) According to the number of voice channels and call loss ratio (generally 2% dense traffic
areas and 5% for other areas), you can obtain the maximum traffic (Erl number) that the
base station can bear through checking Erl B table.
4) Through dividing the Erl number by the average busy-hour traffic of subscribers, you can
obtain the maximum number of subscribers that the base station can accommodate.
5) According to the data of subscriber density, you can obtain the coverage area of the base
station.
6) After the areas are specified based on the subscriber density, according to the area of an
area and the actual coverage area of the base station, you can calculate the number of
needed base stations.
7) For important areas, you must consider back up stations and the cooperation between
carriers. For example, an important county needs at least two base stations and three
important carriers.
8) For the areas where burst traffic is possible, such as the play ground and seasonal tourism
spots, you must prepare the equipments (such as carriers and micro cells) and frequency
resources for future use.
9) The dynamic factors, such as roaming ratio, subscriber mobility, service development,
industry competition, charging rate change, one-way charge, and economic growth, must be
considered.
10) To configure a base station, you must consider the transmission at the Abis interface so
that the capacity can be met while saving transmission. For example, the application and
concatenation of the Abis interface 15:1 and 12:1 should be considered.
11) For indoor coverage and capacity, you can use micro cells and distributed antenna
systems. For the coverage in countryside areas and highroads, you can use economical micro
base stations. For the transmission in countryside areas and highroads, you can use HDSL
because it is cost effective.
12) Prepare the some carriers, micro cells, and micro base stations for new coverage areas
and future optimization.
13) In some special areas, you can use the base stations consisting of omni and directional
cells, but you must consider the isolation between omni antennas and directional antennas.
For traffic control, you can use the algorithm in terms of network layers.
14) For some highroads which require a little traffic by large coverage, you can use the two
networking modes. They are:
- (A micro base station with single carrier) + (0.5 + 0.5 cell with two set of directional
antennas)
- A micro base station with single carrier + 8-shaped antenna
II. Relationship between carrier number and bearable traffic
Erl traffic model can calculate the traffic that a network can bear. The call loss ratio can be
2% or 5% according to actual conditions. Table 5-7 describes the relationship between the
number of carriers and the traffic that a network can bear according to Erl B table.
According to Erl B table, the larger the number of carriers and the call loss ratio are, the
greater the traffic that each TCH bear, and the greater the TCH utilization ratio is (the
channel utilization ratio is an important indicator of the quality of network planning and
design). If the number of subscribers of a base station is small, you can consider delaying the
construction.
Because restrictions on the coverage area of a cell and the bandwidth of the available

frequencies, you must plan a reasonable capacity for the cell. If good voice quality is
ensured, you must take measures to enhance the channel utilization ratio as much as
possible.
For the construction of the dual-band network, you can use the frequencies with wider
bands to enhance channel utilization ratio, which is helpful for traffic sharing.
In actual applications, when the traffic on each TCH accounts for 80-90% of total given by Erl
B table (the call loss ratio is 2%), the congestion ratio in this cell rise greatly. Therefore, we
generally calculate the traffic that a network can bear by taking the 85% of the traffic given
by Erl B table as a reference.
III. Example
The capacity of a local network needs to be expanded. According to the service
development, population growth and mobile popularity, the subscribers in this area are
expected to reach 100,000 in 2 years.
If only the followings are considered:
- Roaming factor (according to the development trend of traffic statistics) = 10%.
- Mobile factor (the subscriber moves slightly within the local network instead of roaming) =
10%.
- Dynamic factor (with burst traffic considered) = 15%.
The network capacity = 100000 * (1 + 10% + 10% + 15%) = 135,000.
However, because the congestion is present, we generally calculate the traffic that a
network can bear by taking the 85% of the traffic given by Erl B table as a reference. As a
result, the network capacity must be designed as follows:
The network capacity = 135, 000/85% = 158,800, about 160,000.
2.5.3 Control Channel Allocation
I. SDCCH allocation
Stand-alone dedicated channel (SDCCH) is an important channel in a GSM network. Mobile
station activities, such as location update, attach and detach, call setup and short message,
are performed on SDCCH. The SDCCH is used to transmit signaling and data.
It is difficult to induce a traffic model for the SDCCH; especially it even becomes impossible
after the large-scale application of layering networks and short messages. Moreover, the
equipments of some carriers support SDCCH dynamic allocation function. As a result, the
traffic model for SDCCH must be adjusted according to actual conditions.
The advantages of the SDCCH dynamic function are as follows:
- Adjusting SDCCH capacity dynamically
- Reducing SDCCH congestion ratio
- Reducing the effect of initial SDCCH configuration against system performance
- Making SDCCH and TCH configuration more adaptive to the characteristics of cell traffic
- Optimizing the performance of the systems under the same carrier configuration.
In conclusion, the SDCCH dynamic allocation function is divided into two types, namely,
- Dynamic allocation from SDCCH to TCH
- Dynamic recovery from SDCCH to TCH
II. CCCH allocation
Common control channels (CCCH) contain access grant channel (AGCH), paging channel (PCH)
and random access channel (RACH). The function of a CCCH is sending access grant message
(immediate assignment message) and paging message.
All traffic channels in each cell share the CCCH. The CCC can share a physical channel (a
timeslot) with SDCCH, or it can solely occupy a physical channel. The parameters relative to
the CCCH include CCCH Configure, BS AG BLKS PES, and BS PA MFRMS.
Here,
- CCCH Configure designates the type of CCCH configuration, namely, whether the CCCH
shares one physical channel with the SDCCH. If there are 1 or 2 TRX in a cell, it is
recommended that the CCCH occupies a physical channel and share it with the SDCCH. If
there are 3 or 4 TRXs, it is recommended that the CCCH solely occupies a physical channel. If
there are more than 4 TRX, it is recommended to calculate the capacity of the paging
channels in the CCCH according to actual conditions first, and then you can perform the

configuration.
- BS AG BLKS PES indicates that the number of CCCH message blocks reserved to the AGCH.
After CCCH configuration is done, this parameter, in fact, decides allocates the ratio of AGCH
and PCH in CCCH. Some carriers can set sending priority for the access grant message and
paging message. When the former message set to be prior to the later one, the BS AG BLKS
PES can be set to 0.
- BS PA MFRMS indicates the number of multi-frames that can be taken as a cycle of paging
sub-channels. In fact, this parameter decides the number of paging sub-channels that a cell
can be divided into.
& Note:
In CCCH configuration, the location area planning, paging modes and system flow control
must be considered.

6 Base Station Number Decision

After traffic and coverage analysis, according to the selected base station equipments and
parameters, you can obtain the coverage areas of various base stations through link budget.
The coverage area helps you calculate the number of base stations required by each area.
Then you decide the base station configuration according to traffic distribution. Finally, you
must perform emulation using relative planning software so that coverage, capacity, carrierto-interference ratio can be assured and interference can be avoided.
2.6.1 Characteristics of 3-sector base stations in urban areas
Cellular communication is named because the coverage areas of base stations are extruded
through small cellular-shaped blocks. In urban areas, for the purpose of capacity expansion
and radio frequency optimization, mainly 3-sector base stations are used. This section
explains some basic concepts of a 3-sector base station.
This is a standard 3-sector cellular layout. Thedistance between two 3-sector base stations is
R + r, here R = 2r. However, R is mainly used in cell radius estimation because the
direction along R is the direction of the major lobe of the directional antenna. In the
design for cellular layout, however, r indicates the cell radius.
In a cellular cell, if the included angle between a direction and the direction of the major
lobe of the antenna, the coverage distance along this direction is r = R/2, and the path loss
along this direction is about 10dB less than that along the direction of the major lobe of the
antenna (for the deduction, it is introduced in the following), namely, the equivalent
isotropic radiated power (EIRP) along this direction can be about 10dB less than that along
the major lobe.
According to this feature, in the cellular layout of this kind, you can adopt the directional
antenna whose azimuth beam width ranges from 60 to 65 degrees because their horizontal
lobe gain diagram also meets this feature.
If R is the cell radius, the cell area is S = 0.6495 R R. Sometimes the r is used as cell
radius, so the cell area is S = 2 5981rr. Therefore, when calculating the cell area, you
must make clear whether r or R is used.
The followings deduce the EIRP required along R direction and r direction.
As shown in Figure 5-3, the coverage distance along r direction is half of that along R
direction, namely, r = R/2. To keep even coverage, you must make the field intensity at the
edges of the cell equal, namely, RxlvelB = RxlevelC.
Suppose that the EIPR transmitted from cell A is EIRPR and EIRPr along R direction and r
direction respectively, and the city HATA mode is used for path loss, the path loss from point
A and B is expressed as equation (1) :
EIRPR RXLEVB = 69.55 + 21.66lgf - 13.82lgh1 + (44.9 - 6.55lgh1) lgR (1)

And the path loss from pint A to point C is expressed as equation (2):
EIRPr- RXLEVc = 69.55 + 21.66lgf - 13.82lgh1 = (44.9 - 6.55lgh1) lgr (2)
Subtract (2) from (1), the equation (3) is expressed as follows:
EIRPR - EIRPr =(44.9 - 6.55lgh1)(lgR lgr) =(44.9 - 6.55lgh1) lg (R/r) (3)
Introduce R = 2r, the equation (4) is obtained as follows:
EIRPR - EIRPr = 0.3 (44.9 - 6.55lgh1) (4)
When the antenna height h1 increases from 5m to 100m, the values of (EIRPR - EIRPr)
decrease from 12 to 9.5, which can be roughly treated as 10dB.
5.1.2 References for Design of Base Station Parameters
When estimating the number of base stations, you must perform uplink and downlink
budget. Based on the coverage division and propagation environment survey, you can obtain
some project parameters and apply them to link budget.
2.6.3 Uplink and Downlink Balance
After base station parameters are specified, you can perform link budget to estimate the
coverage area of the base station. In addition, you must consider the sensitivity of the base
station equipments at this time.
In a mobile communication system, radio links are divided into two directions, namely,
uplink and downlink. For an excellent system, you must perform a good power budget so
that the balance is present between uplink signals and downlink signals. Otherwise, the
conversation quality is good for one party but bad for the other party at the edges of the
cell. If uplink signals are too bad, the mobile station cannot start a call even if signals are
present.
However, the because the fading for uplink channels and downlink channels is not totally the
same and the other factors such as the difference of the performances of receivers are
present, the calculated uplink and downlink are not absolute, but the there a fluctuation of
2 to 3 dB.
The measurement report on uplinks and downlinks at the Abis interface can tell whether the
uplink and downlink reach a balance. In addition, dialing tests in actual network can also tell
whether the balance between uplinks and downlinks are reached. If the conversation quality
on downlinks uplinks becomes poor simultaneously, it means that the downlinks and uplinks
are balance.
& Note:
Some carriers provide the traffic statistics on uplink and downlink measurement, which can
also tell whether the balance between uplinks and downlinks are reached.
I. Link budget model
When calculating uplink and downlink balance, you must consider the functions of the tower
amplifier first. In a base station receiving system, the thermal movement of the active parts
and radio frequency (RF) conductors cause thermal noise, which reduces the signal-to-noise
ratio of the receiving system. In this case, the receiving sensitivity of the base station is
restricted and the conversation quality is reduced. To improve the receiving performance of
the base station, you can add a low-noise amplifier under the receiving antenna. And this is
the principle of the tower amplifier.
The contributions of the tower amplifier to uplinks and downlinks are judged according to
the performance of its low-noise amplifier and gain. In fact, it is the tower amplifier that
reduces the noise coefficient of the base station receiving system. The power amplifier can
improve the coefficients for the uplink receiving system (start from the output end of the
receiving antenna). However, if the functions of the tower amplifier are quantified by this,
the uplink improved value can be represented by the NFDelta (it is the reduced value of the
noise coefficient of the receiving system) after a tower amplifier is added to the system.
(1) No tower amplifier
When there is no tower amplifier, the sensitivity of the equipments at the duplexer input
interface at the top of the base station cabinet are taken as a reference.
For downlink signals, if,
Mobile station receiver output power = Poutm
Base station diversity received gain = Gdb

Base station receiving level = Pinb

Base station side noise deterioration = Pbn
Antenna receiving gain = antenna transmitting gain (according to reciprocity theorem)
The following equation can be obtained:
Pinb + Mf = Poutm + Gam Ld + Gab + Gdb Lfb Pbn
Generally, Pmn is almost equal to Pbn, so the following equation can be obtained:
Poutb = Poutm + Gdb + (Pinm Pinb) + Lcb
(2) With tower amplifier
If a tower amplifier is present, the improved value of the noise coefficients of the uplink
receiving system can be represented by NFDelta, so the equation Poutb = Poutm + Gdb +
(Pinm Pinb) + Lcb can be developed into the following equation:
Poutb = Poutm + Gdb + (Pinm - Pinb) + Lcb + NFDelta
The two equations, Poutb = Poutm + Gdb + (Pinm Pinb) + Lcb and Poutb = Poutm + Gdb +
(Pinm - Pinb) + Lcb + NFDelta are used to calculate base station transmit power when the
uplinks and downlinks are balance. Here,
Pinb is the base station receiving sensitivity
Pinm is the mobile station receiving sensitivity
Gdb (antenna diversity receiving gain) is 3.5dB
According to the requirements in protocols GSM05.05, the mobile station transmit power and
the reference receiving sensitivity of the mobile station and base station are specified in
Table 5-10. At present, however, the sensitivities in actual systems are greater than the
reference values listed in the following table.
II. Bass station sensitivity
This section further introduces the base station sensitivity and the functions of the tower
amplifier.
Receiver sensitivity refers to the minimum signal level needed to by the input end of the
receiver when the certain bit error rate (BER) is met. The receiver sensitivity detects the
performances of the following components:
Receiver analog RF circuit
Intermediate frequency circuit and demodulation
Decoder circuit
Three parameters are used to measure the receiver bit error performance. They are frame
expurgation rate (FER), residual bit error rate (RBER), and bit error rate (BER). When a fault
is detected in a frame, this frame is defined as deleted one.
Here,
FER indicates the ratio of the deleted frames to the total received frames. For full rate voice
channels, the FER is present when the 3-bit cyclic redundancy check (CRC) detects errors or
bad error indication (BFI) is caused. For signaling channels, the FER is present when the fire
code (FIRE) or other packet codes detect errors. The FER is not defined in data services.
FBER indicates the BER that are not announced as deleted frames, namely, it is the ratio of
the bit errors in the frame detected as good to the total number of bits transmitted in
good frames.
BER indicates the ratio of the received error bits to all transmitted bits.
Because BER occurs at random, the statistical measurement is mainly applied to measure
receiver error rate. That is, sample multiple measuring points on each channel and when the
number of measuring points is certain, if the BER of each measurement is within the
required limit, the BER of this channel meets the BER as required.
However, the number of sampled measured points and the limit value of the BER must meet
the following conditions:
For each independent sampled measuring point, the times for it to pass a bad unit must be
as fewer as possible, that is, the probability must be smaller than 2%.
For each independent sampled measuring point, the times for it to pass a good unit must
be as more as possible, that is, the probability must be greater than 99.7%.
The measurement has vivid statistical features.
The measuring time must be reduced to the minimum.

As a result, you can measure the receiver sensitivity through measuring whether the
receiver BER has reached the requirement while entering sensitivity level to the receiver.
Enter the reference sensitivity level to the receiver in various propagation environments.
For the data produced after receiver demodulation and channel decoding, the indexes for
FER, RBER.
The requirements on BCCH, AGCH, PCH, and SACCH are the same as that on SDCCH.
The value of a in this table depends on the channels. It is 1 for base stations, and 1 to 1.6
for mobile stations.
III. Contributions of tower amplifier to base staiton sensitivity
In terms of technical principles, the tower amplifier reduces the noise coefficients of the
base station receiving system, which is helpful for improving the sensitivity of the base
station receiving system.
In an actual system, to improve the receiving performance of the base station, you can add a
low-noise amplifier near the feeder of the receiving antenna.
In a mobile communication system, the receiver sensitivity = noise spectrum intensity
(dBm/Hz) + bandwidth (dBHz) + noise coefficient (dB) + C/I (dB).
Here the noise spectrum intensity, bandwidth, and noise coefficient are system thermal
noise. C/I is the signal-to-noise ratio required at the Um interface. In a narrow band system,
C/I indicates the modulation performance required by the receiver baseband, and it is a
positive number.
In a spreading communication system, because spread spectrum gain is present, the value of
C/I is far beyond the requirement of the modulation performance of the receiver baseband,
and it is a negative number.
When there are n* cascaded receivers, the equivalent noise coefficient is as follows:
Here,
Gn indicates the receivers gain at each level (including the loss at each level).
Fn indicates the noise coefficient of the receivers at each level.
The noise coefficient of the passive device is equal to its loss, and the gain of the passive
device is the reciprocal of the loss.
According to the previous equation, the noise coefficient of the cascading system is
determined by the receivers at the first level.
It must be pointed out that the linear values of the parameters must be applied in the
previous equation, so the F is a linear value, which must be converted into a logarithm.
Moreover, according to this equation, the noise the cascaded receivers are determined by
the noise coefficient (F1) of the receivers at the first level.
However, when the tower amplifier stops working, because the loss is present on duplexer
and bypass connectors, about 2dB of redundant loss is introduced on reverse link.
According to the equation , the following two assumptions conclude the regularity of the
effect of tower amplifier on the base station system.
(1) Assumption 1
Hereunder is a series of assumptions:
F1 = 2.5 dB (1.7783), noise coefficient of the tower amplifier
F2 = 4.5 dB (2.8184), noise coefficient of the base station
G = 2 (15.849) dB, tower amplifier gain
Loss of the feeder and other passive devices = 3 dB (2)
Gain of the feeder and other passive devices G0 = 3 dB (1/2)
Noise coefficient of the feeder and other passive devices F0 = 1/G0
When the tower amplifier is not added, the noise coefficient of the base station receiving
system with the antenna output end as reference point is as follows:
F = F0 + (F21)/G0 = 10*log (2 + (2.81841)/0.5) =7.5dB
When the tower amplifier is added, the noise coefficient of the base station receiving system
with the antenna output end as reference point is as follows:
F = F1 + (F0 1)/G + (F2 1)/(G*G0) = 10*log(1.7783 + (2 1)/15.849 + (2.8184 1)/(15.849
0.5) = 3.2dB

At this time, the added tower amplifier improves the noise coefficient, and FDelta is 4.3dB,
that is, the uplink is improved by 4.3 dB.
(2) Assumption 2
Hereunder is a series of assumptions:
F1 = 2.2 dB (1.6596), noise coefficient of the tower amplifier
F2 =2.3 dB (1.6982), noise coefficient of the base station
G = 12 (15.849) dB, tower amplifier gain
Loss of the feeder and other passive devices = 3 dB (2)
Gain of the feeder and other passive devices G0 = 3 dB (1/2)
Noise coefficient of the feeder and other passive devices F0 = 1/G0
When the tower amplifier is not added, the noise coefficient of the base station receiving
system with the antenna output end as reference point is as follows:
F = F0 + (F2 1)/G0 = 10*log (2 + (1.6982 1)/0.5) = 5.3dB
When the tower amplifier is added, the noise coefficient of the base station receiving system
with the antenna output end as reference point is as follows:
F = F1 + (F0 1)/G + (F2 1)/(G*G0) = 10*log(1.6596+(2 1)/15.849 + (1.6982 1)/(15.849
0.5)) = 2.6dB
At this time, the added tower amplifier improves the noise coefficient, and FDelta is 2.7 dB,
that is, the uplink is improved by 2.7 dB.
According to the previous calculation, the following conclusions can be obtained:
The tower amplifier improves the noise coefficient of the base station receiving system, thus
improving the receiving sensitivity of the base station.
The tower amplifier improves uplink signals effectively, which is also helpful for improving
the receiving sensitivity of the base station.
The gain of the antenna amplifier reduces the effect of the components installed behind the
tower amplifier against noise coefficient.
When the feeder is long and the loss of the feeder is great, if the tower amplifier is added,
the noise coefficient of the base station receiving system and the uplink signals will be
greatly improved.
The smaller the noise coefficient of the tower amplifier is, if the tower amplifier is added,
the greater the noise coefficient of the base station receiving system is improved. However,
if the noise coefficient of the tower amplifier is too great, it may cause the noise coefficient
of the base station receiving system to deteriorate.
When the receiving sensitivity of the base station is great and the feeder is short, the tower
amplifier makes a little improvement on the noise coefficient of the base station.
If the tower amplifier improves the base station sensitivity, the base station is more sensitive
to outside interference.
2.6.4 Cell Coverage Estimation
In actual project planning, the effective coverage area of a base station largely depends on
the following factors:
Effective base station transmit power
Working band (900MHz or 1800MHz) to be used
Antenna type and location
Power budget
Radio propagation environment
Carriers; coverage requirements
Based on the indexes of QoS for the mobile network and the actual applications, this section
introduces the coverage area of the base station in different environments theoretically.
If the following assumptions are present:
The antenna height of GSM 900MHz and GSM 1800MHz base stations are 30 meters.
The sensitivities of the GSM900 MHz 2W (33 dBm) mobile station and GSM 1800MHz 1W (30
dBm) mobile station are -102 dBm and -100 dBm respectively.
The mobile station height is 1.5 meters and the gain is 0 dB.
When the combiner and divider unit (CDU) is used, the sensitivities of the 900MHz base
station and 1800MHz base station are -110dBm and -108dBm respectively.

The CDU loss is 5.5dB, and the SCU loss is 6.8dB.

The gain of the 65-degree directional antenna is 13dBd for the 900 MHz mobile station and
16dBd for the 1800MHz mobile station.
The feeder is 50m in length. For 900MHz signals, the feeder loss is 4.03dBm/100m. For
1800MHz signals, the feeder loss is 5.87dB/100m.
In general cities, select Okumura propagation model.
No tower amplifier and the downlinks are restricted according to the calculation of the
uplink and downlink balance.
According to the previous assumptions, the calculated results are as follows:
(1) Outdoor coverage radius of the 900 MHz base station in urban areas
The minimum received level of the mobile station dBm. The coverage radius is calculated
according to the maximum TRX transmit power. The maximum TRX transmit power for the
900 MHz base station W (46 dBm).
The EIRP of the base station antenna is:
(dBm)
Here,
LCOM indicates the combiner loss
Lbf indicates the feeder loss
Gab indicates the antenna gain of the base station
And the allowed maximum propagation loss is:
(dB)
According to the Okumura propagation model introduces earlier,
Here,
indicates the antenna height of the base station.
indicates the antenna height of the mobile station.
f = 900 MHz.
(dB)
According to the previous known number, the outdoor coverage radius of the 900 MHz base
station in urban areas can be obtained, that is, d = 2.8km.
(2) Coverage radius of the 900 MHz base station in urban buildings
The minimum received level of the mobile station (dBm).
(dB)
Therefore, the coverage radius of the 900 MHz base station in urban buildings can be
obtained, that is, d = 0.75km.
If the previous assumptions are present, this indicates that the 900 MHz base station can
cover the outdoor areas 2.8 km away, but for the subscribers on the first floor of the
buildings 750 m away, the quality of the received signals is not satisfying.
(3) Coverage radius of the 900 MHz base station in suburban areas
The minimum received level of the mobile station (dBm).
(dB)
The Okumura propagation model in suburban areas must be modified as follows:
Therefore, the coverage radius of the 900 MHz base station in urban areas can be obtained,
that is, d = 5.4km, so it is obvious that the coverage radius of the base station with the same
configuration is larger in suburban areas that in urban areas.
(4) Outdoor coverage radius of the 1800 MHz base station in urban areas
The minimum received level of the mobile station (dBm). Because the maximum transmit
power of the 1800 MHz TRX is 40W (46dBm), the coverage radius is calculated based on this
maximum transit power.
(dBm)
(dB)
For the 1800 MHz base station, the Okumura propagation model is:
In addition, f = 1800 MHz and (dB).
According to the previous known number, the outdoor coverage radius of the 1800 MHz base
station in urban areas can be obtained, that is, d = 1.7km.
(5) Coverage radius of the 1800 MHz base stations in urban buildings

The minimum received level of the mobile station (dBm).

(dB)
If the previous assumptions are present, this indicates that the 1800 MHz base station can
cover the outdoor areas 1.7km away, but for the subscribers on the first floor of the
buildings 500m away, the quality of the received signals is not satisfying.
2.6.5 Base Station Address Planning
I. Overview
When planning base station addresses, first you must estimate the number of the base
stations needed in various coverage areas according to the coverage distance and the
divisions of the coverage areas. For the convenience of prediction and emulation, you must
plan an initial layout the base station addresses with the help of maps and the estimated
results.
II. Planning methods
The base station address can be planned based on standard girds, or it can be planned from a
specific area.
(1) Plan base station address based on standard grids
First you set the base stations in the coverage areas according to the distance of the
standard grids, and then adjust the address layout and project parameters according to the
estimated coverage results to meet the coverage requirement. After that, continue the
planning according to the following instructions:
If a satisfying address layout is obtained, you must analyze the capacity of the base stations
to be planned according to this layout, and determine the reasonable number of base
stations. When designing the capacity, you must calculate the number of TRXs needs to be
configured for each base station, and then analyze and adjust the configuration of the base
station according to the number of the configured TRXs.
The adjustment of the configuration of the base station is determined by subscriber
distribution. If the number of base stations in some areas does not meet capacity
requirement, another base stations must be added.
(2) Plan base station address based on a specific area
According to this method, you are required to start the planning from the areas where the
subscribers are most densely distributed or the planning work is quite hard to be performed.
As a result, you must fully survey the subscriber distribution, landforms, and ground
objectives within the coverage area to position the key coverage area where the center base
stations should be planned. And these center base stations function as ensuring the coverage
and capacity in important areas.
After the layout of these center base stations is determined, you can plan other base station
addresses according to coverage and capacity target. And this is how the final layout of the
base station addresses come from. After the overall solution is determined, the subsequent
steps are performed according to the first planning method.
& Note:
The difference of the traffic intensity and the abnormality of the landforms and ground
objectives result in irregularity of the radio coverage. Therefore, the distance between base
stations varies. Generally, this distance is smaller in the areas where traffic intensity is
great. In some hot areas, you can ensure the system capacity by using micro cells and
distributed antennas to provide multi-layer coverage.
For restrictions from frequency resources are present, you must consider avoiding
interference while ensuring system capacity.
There is no standard available for the layout of the base station addresses. A good planning
solution is selected based on the integrated performance of the network.
2.6.6 Coverage Prediction
The coverage prediction is to predict the coverage of the network to be constructed
according to the selected base station addresses, designed base station types, suitable
electronic maps, and network planning tools to judge whether the coverage meet the

requirements of the subscribers.

The coverage of a base station is determined by the following factors:
Indexes of QoS
Output power of transmitters
Available sensitivity of receivers
Direction and gain of antennas
Working bands
Propagation environment (such as landforms, city constructions)
Application of diversity reception
If the predicted results of the network coverage fail to meet the requirements, you can take
the following adjusting measures:
When there are subscribers distributing beyond the cell coverage area, but it is not
economical for you to install a base station, you can use a repeater to ensure the
requirement of those subscriber.
When the signals are weak or blind zones are present within the coverage area, you can
consider whether to use micro cells according to actual conditions.
If a large blank area is present between neighbor cells, you can increase the antenna height
and add base stations according to the principles of cell splitting.
When the cell coverage area fails to meet the co-channel interference index, you can adjust
the frequency configuration of the cell, adjust base station addresses, or adjust design of the
parameters, such as antenna specification, antenna height, azimuth angle, tilt angle, and
transmit power.
& Note:
When taking these adjusting measures, you must consider the mutual effect between base
stations.

2.7 Design of Base Station Address

2.7.1 Address design
Generally, in GSM radio network planning, the base station address is designed according to the
following requirements:
The address must serve to the reasonable cell structure.
Based on the comprehensive analysis of the electronic maps and paper maps, you can select several
candidate addresses from the perspective of coverage, anti-interference, and traffic balance.
In actual conditions, carriers are required to discuss the selected addresses with owners. Generally, the
addresses must be located within the area 1/4 radius of the cellular base station.
During the early construction stage when only a few base stations are installed, the base stations must
be located in the center of the areas where subscribers are densely populated.
For the selection of the base station addresses, the priority must be given to the important areas, such
as government offices, airports, train stations, news center, and great hotels so that good conversation
quality can be assured. Furthermore, overlapped coverage must be avoided in these areas.
For other coverage areas, the base station addresses are designed according to standard cellular
structures. For the suburban areas, highroads, and countryside areas, the design of base station
addresses has little relation with cellular structures.
Without affecting the layout of base stations, you can select the telecommunication buildings and post
offices as the base station addresses so that the facilities, such as the equipment room, power supplier,
and iron tower can be fully utilized.

The direction of antenna major lobe must be in accordance with the area where the traffic intensity is
great. In this case, the signal strength of the area can be enhanced, so does the conversation quality.
Meanwhile, the direction of the antenna major lobe must be deviated from intra-frequency cells so
that the interference can be controlled efficiently.
In urban areas, it is recommended that the overlapped depth of the antennas in adjacent sectors
cannot excel 10%. In suburban areas and small towns, the overlapped depth between coverage areas
cannot be too great, and the included angle between sectors must be equal to or higher than 90.
In addition, for actual design, you must consider the mapping relationship between carrier number and
cells. Generally, more carriers are configured for the cells with high intensity.
The azimuth angle must be designed according to not only the traffic distribution in the areas around
the base stations, but also the performance of the overall network.
Generally, it is recommended to adopt the same azimuth angle for the 3-sector base stations in urban
areas so that the complicated network planning can be avoided after cell splitting in the future.
Moreover, the antenna major lobe cannot directly point to the straight streets in populated urban
areas, because it can cause cross-coverage.
In the areas connecting urban and suburban areas, and along transport arteries, you must adjust the
azimuth angle according to coverage target.
Generally, the base station address is not considered on the high mountains in urban and suburban
areas. To be more specifically, the high mountains are those over 200 to 300 meters higher than above
the sea-level). Otherwise, not only strong interference and weak signals may be present within the
coverage area, but also the base stations are hard to be installed and maintained on high mountains.
New base stations must be installed at the spots where the traffic is convenient, the power supply is
available, and the environment is secure. In contrast, new base stations must not be installed at the
spots near the radio transmit stations with high power, radar stations, and other equipments which
produces great interference, because the interference-field intensity cannot be greater than that
defined by the base station.
The base station addresses must be far away from forests or woods to keep the receiving signals from
fading.
The transmission between base station controllers must be considered in the design of the base station
address.
When selecting a base station address from high buildings in urban areas, you can divide the network
into several layers with the help of the building height. The antenna height of major base stations must
be a little higher than the average height of buildings. Generally, the antenna height of the base
stations in populated urban areas ranges from 25 to 30 meters. In suburban areas (or the antenna
points to suburban areas), the antenna height ranges from 40 to 50 meters.
Along highroads or in mountain areas, the base station address is selected based on full survey of the
landforms. For example, the address can be determined in an open area or at the turns of the
highroads.
When selecting a base station address from the cities characterized by mountains and hills and from
the areas where high buildings are constructed with metals, you must consider the effect of time
dispersion. In this case, the base station address must near reflected objectives. When the base station
is far away from reflected objectives, you must adjust the directional antenna to the reverse direction
of the reflected objectives.
Caution:
Time dispersion mainly refers to the intra-frequency interference arising from the time difference
between the master signal and other multipath signal arriving at the receiver in terms of space
transmission. According to the requirements in GSM protocols, the equalizer of the receiver must carry
the time window with 16s (equivalent to 4.8 km). The multipath signal with time difference greater
than 16 s is regarded as intra-interference signal. In this case, you must consider whether the level
difference between the master signal and multipath signal meet the carrier-to-interference ratio (C/I),
namely, the master signal is 12 dB greater than the multipath signal at least.
2.7.2 Project Parameter Decision
After finishing designing a base station address, you must decide the project parameters needed for
the base station installation. These parameters include:

Latitude and longitude of the location of base station antenna

Antenna height
Directions of the antenna
Antenna gain
Azimuth angle
Tilt angle
Feeder specifications
Transmit power for each cell of the base station
And the previous parameters are decided through field survey.
Before beginning field survey, you must familiarize yourself with the overall project and collect the
materials and tools relative to the project. They are:
All types of project documents
Background information
Information about the existing network
Local map
Configuration lists required in contracts
Relative tools (including digital camera, GPS, compass, ruler, and laptop computer)
& Note:
Make sure that all the materials and tools are usable before setting out.
The following items must be emphasized before field survey:
The GPS must be placed in an open land to position the latitude and longitude of a base station
Make a detailed record of the surroundings around the base station, such as the distribution of the
buildings, facilities with strong interference, and the equipments sharing the same base station
address.
It is better to record the previous information with a camera.
Prevent the compass from magnetizing, because the magnetization will cause great deviation during
the measurement.
Field survey determines the layout of the base station addresses ultimately. The field survey for the
base station includes optical measurement, spectrum measurement, and base station address survey.
They are specified as follows:
Optical measurement
Measure if a barrier that may reflect electrical waves around the base station, such as high buildings.
Spectrum measurement
Check if the electromagnetic environments around the base stations are normal at present or in recent
days.
Base station address survey
Check the installation conditions of antenna and equipments, power supply, and natural environment.
The following sections introduce the design for antenna installation.
I. Environment for antenna installation
The environment for antenna installation can be divided into the environment near the antenna and
the base station. For the environment near the antenna, you must consider the isolation between
antennas and the effect of iron tower and buildings against the antenna. For the environment near the
base station, you must consider the effect the high buildings within 500 meters against the base
station. However, if the height of the buildings is properly used, you can obtain the intended coverage
area.
If a directional antenna is installed on the wall, the radiation direction of the antenna is perfectly
perpendicular to the wall. If its azimuth angle must be adjusted, the included angle between the
radiation direction and the wall is required to be greater than 75. In this case, if the front-to-back
ratio of the antenna is greater than 20 dB, the effect of the signals reflected by the wall in reverse
direction against the signals in the radiation direction is quite slight.
When installing an antenna, you must consider whether large shadows will be present within the
coverage area of the antenna. The shadows are produced mainly because the base station is
surrounded by some huge barriers, such as high buildings and great mountains. Therefore, the antenna
must be installed in the areas with no such barriers.

When a directional antenna is installed on building roofs, you must prevent the building edges from
barring the radiation of antenna beams. Therefore, to reduce or ease the shadow, you can install the
antenna near building edges.
Because the building roofs are diversified and complicated, if an antenna must be installed far away
from building edges, the antenna must be installed higher than the roof. In this case, the wind load of
the antenna must be considered.
II. Antenna isolation in GSM system
To avoid inter-modulation interference, you must leave certain isolation between the receiver and
transmitter of the GSM base station, namely, Tx - Rx: 30 dB and Tx -Tx: 30 dB. They are applicable to
the situation that a GSM 900MHz base station and a GSM 1800MHz base station share the same address.
The antenna isolation depends on the radiation diagram, space distance, and gain of the antenna.
Generally, the attenuation introduced by the voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR) is not considered. The
antenna isolation is calculated as follows:
For vertical arrangement, Lv = 28 + 40lg (k/) (dB)
For horizontal arrangement, Lv =22 + 20lg (d/) (G1+G2) (S1 + S2) (dB)
Here,
Lv indicates the required isolation.
indicates the length of carrier waves.
k indicates the vertical isolation distance.
d indicates the horizontal isolation distance.
G1 indicates the gains of the transmitter antenna in the maximum radiation direction, in the unit of
dBi.
G2 indicates the gains of the receiver antenna in the maximum radiation direction, in the unit of dBi.
S1 indicates the levels of the side lobes of the transmitter antenna in the 90 direction, in the unit of
dBp, and it is a negative value relative to the main beam.
S2 indicates the levels of the side lobes of the receiver antenna in the 90 direction, in the unit of dBp,
and it is a negative value relative to the main beam.
The followings introduce the requirements on the antenna mount in GSM 900MHz and GSM 1800MHz.
(1) Directional antenna
In one system, the following requirements must be met in terms of isolation:
The horizontal distance between two antennas in the same sector must be equal to or greater than
0.4m.
The horizontal distance between two antennas in different sectors must be equal to or greater than
0.5m.
In different systems, the following requirements must be met when two antennas are in the same
sector and direction:
The horizontal distance between the two antennas must be equal to or greater than 1m.
The vertical distance between the two antennas must be equal to or greater than 0.5m.
The distance between the bottom of the antennas and the enclosing wall of building roof must be
equal to or greater than 0.5m.
The included angle between the line connecting the bottom of the antenna to the antenna-facing roof
and the horizontal direction must be greater than 15.
The bands of the two systems are close to each other, the interference against each other will easily
occur. Mostly, the transmission of CDMA2000 1X base station will interfere with the reception of GSM
900MHz base station.
The disclosure signals of the CDMA band falling into the channels of the GSM base station receivers will
enhance the noise level of the GSM receivers. In this case, the GSM uplinks become weak, which will
reduce the coverage area of the base station and worsen the quality of the network.
If there is not enough isolation between base stations or the transmitting filter interfering base stations
does not provide enough out-of-band attenuation, the signals falling into the band of the interfered
base station receiver may strong, which will increase the noise level of the receiver.
The deterioration of the system performance is closely related to the strength of interference signals,
and the strength of interference signals is determined by the factors, such as the performance of the
transmitting elements of the interfering base stations, the performance of the receiving elements of

the interfered base stations, the distance between bands, and the distance between antennas.
The signal from the amplifier of the interfering base station is first sent to the transmitting filter, and
then it attenuate due to the isolation between the two base stations. Finally, it is received by the
receiver of the interfered base station. The power of the spurious interference arriving at the antenna
end of the interfered base station can be expressed by the following equation:
Here,
Ib indicates the interference level received at the antenna receiving end of the interfered base station,
in the unit of dBm.
PTX-AMP indicates the output power at the amplifier of the interfering base station, in the unit of
dBm.
Pattenuation indicates the out-of-band suppression attenuation at the transmitting filer.
Iisolation indicates the isolation between the antennas of the two base stations, in the unit of dB.
WBinterfered indicates the bandwidth of the signals at the interfered base station.
WBinterfering indicates the measurable bandwidth of the interfering signals, or it can be understood as
the bandwidth defined by spurious radiation.
Regulate the previous equation and the following equation can be obtained:
Suppose the transmit channel number of CDMA2000 1X is the last one on its working band, that is,
878.49MHz, the spurious signal level on the band of 890-915MHz must be equal to or lower than
-13dBm/100kHz. If you intend to put this assumption into practice, you can filter and combine each
transmitted channel number by using band-limited filter with a bandwidth of only 1.23MHz. The bandlimited filter of this type has great out-of-band attenuation, which can reach 56 dB at 890 MHz and 80
dB at 909 MHz. Here you must consider the worst situation, that is, the frequencies at the highest end
of the CDMA system interfere with the frequencies at the lowest end of the GSM system.
In this case, Iisolation = (-13dBm/100kHz) - 56 - Ib + 10lg (200kHz/100kHz)
Here Ib indicates the highest interference level (dBm) allowed by the receiving end of the interfered
base station. If the receiving sensitivity of the interfered base station is ensured, the outside
interference level are required to be 10 dB lower than the back noise of the receiver. In this case, the
sensitivity affected only accounts to about 0.5 dB.
The back noise of the GSM receiver is the sum of the noise intensity, bandwidth, and noise coefficient.
If the noise coefficient is 8 dB, the back noise is -174+noise coefficient+10lg (200000) = -174+8+53 =
-113 (dBm). Therefore, the maximum spurious interference allowed is -113-10 = -123 (dBm/200kHz).
As a result, the spurious interferences from other systems falling at the GSM receivers are required to
be smaller than -123 (dBm/200kHz); otherwise, the spurious interferences will seriously affect the GSM
system.
Therefore, Iisolation = (-13dBm/100kHz) 56 - Ib + 10lg (200kHz/100kHz) = -13- 56- (-123dBm/200kHz)
+ 10lg (200kHz/100kHz) = 57 dBm/200kHz.
That is, according to the assumption, the isolation between a CDMA antenna and GSM 900MHz antenna
must be at least 57dB regardless whether they share the address or not.
Many ways can be used to reduce the interference. For example, you can adopt the following ways:
Design enough distance between antennas
Filter the out-of-band interference of the transmitter
Add different equipments to the filter, such as receiver, duplexer, and divider.
According to the requirements in TIA/EIA-97 protocols, the spurious interference from the CDMA
antenna interface falling within the GSM 900MHz receiving bands must be less than -13 dBm/100kHz.
Therefore, the problems, such as mutual interference and co-address construction must be considered
in the initial design.
To be specific, you can filter and combine each transmitted channel number using a limited-band filter
with the bandwidth of only 1.23 MHz. The band-limited filter of this type has great out-of-band
attenuation, thus the space distance between the antennas of the CDMA system and GSM system must
be shortened.
In addition, to minimize the interference, you must keep suitable isolation between the antennas of
the CDMA system and GSM system.
The antenna isolation is calculated according to the following two formulas, which has been introduced
earlier:
For vertical arrangement, Lv = 28 + 40lg (k/) (dB)

For horizontal arrangement, Lv =22 + 20lg (d/) (G1+G2) (S1 + S2) (dB)
According to the two formulas, the requirements on the isolation between the antennas of CDMA
system and GSM 900 MHz system are specified in the following three circumstances.
The antennas of the CDAM system and GSM 900MHz system do not share the same address, with the
antennas horizontally opposite to each other, or the antennas of the two systems share the same
address, with the antenna type of omni antenna.
Suppose the effective gains of the antennas of the two systems in the maximum radiation direction are
10 dBi (with the feeder loss considered), and the interference signals are 890MHz, according to
previous analysis, the isolation between the CDMA system and GSM system is required at least 57dB.
Therefore, the following equation can be obtained according to the previous formula:
57 = 22 + 20lg (Dh/) (10 + 10)
The antennas of the CDMA and GSM 900 MHz system share the same address (the antennas are installed
on the same platform and horizontally separated), with the antenna type of directional antenna.
Suppose that the two antennas are horizontally placed, and their tilt angle is 65, and that the
effective gains of the two antennas in the radiation direction are 15dBi.
And if the side lobe of the 65antenna is -18dB in the horizontal plane, the effective gain of the
antenna in this direction is (15 18) dBi = -3 dBi.
Therefore, 57=222+0lg (Dh/) - {(15+15) + [(-18) + (-18)]}.
According to the previous equation, the horizontal distance between the two antennas are d = 9.5m.
The antennas of the CDMA and GSM 900 MHz antennas share the same address (the antennas are not
installed on the same platforms of the iron tower and vertically separated), with the antenna types of
directional antenna and omni antenna.
In this case, the equation 57=28 + 40 lg (k/) is present.
According to this equation, the vertical distance between the two antennas is d = 1.8m.
& Note:
The previous descriptions are just theoretical detections. In actual networking, other types of antennas
may be installed at the same address. In this case, some equipment indexes must be considered,
among which the important ones are spurious radiation, the interference power of the interfering
signals to interfered signals, and the antenna isolation.
IV. Installation distance between antennas
Diversity technology is the most anti-fading effective. When two signals are irrelevant to each other,
the horizontal distance between the diversity antennas must be 0.11 times that of the valid antenna
height. The higher place the antenna is installed, the larger the horizontal distance between diversity
antennas is. When the distance between diversity antennas is equal to or greater than 6m, however,
the antenna is hard to be installed on an iron tower.
In addition, the distance required by vertical diversity antennas is 5 to 6 times that of the horizontal
diversity antennas when the same coverage is ensured. Therefore, the vertical diversity antenna is
seldom used in actual projects, but antennas are often vertically installed to meet isolation
requirement, especially omni antennas are vertically installed.
In addition, for highroad coverage, the line connecting two receiving antennas must be perpendicular
to the highroad. If space diversity is used, the diversity distance is the perpendicular. Isolation
requirement: Tx-Tx, Tx - Rx: 30 dB
The installation for GSM 900MHz and GSM 1800MHz antennas is flexible, but no matter what
specifications are used, they must meet the requirements on isolation and distance. In addition, in
actual projects, barriers are present between antennas. For example, a tower is always present
between two omni antennas, so you must shorten the horizontal distance between them.
V. Design of base station parameters in residential areas
A large number of residential areas are distributed in urban areas, so this section introduces the design
of base station parameters in these areas.
(1) Features of residential areas
Building intensity
Great-intensity residential areas: the distance between buildings is within 10 meters.

Middle-intensity residential areas: the distance between buildings ranges from 10 to 20 meters.
Low-intensity residential areas: the distance between buildings is larger than 20 meters.
Construction material
The walls of the residential areas are constructed with concretes.
The walls of the residential areas are constructed with bricks and concretes.
The walls of the residential areas are constructed with hollow blocks.
Notes:
The thickness of the buildings varies with the regions and climates. Three specifications are available,
namely, 24m, 47m, and 49m. Generally, the walls are thicker in southern parts and thinner in northern
parts.
(2) Antenna installation in residential areas
The address where the antenna should be installed in residential areas is hard to be determined.
Generally, when adopting micro cells, you can install the antenna within a residential area near to the
target coverage area.
In this case, the antenna can be installed in the following spots:
On outer walls (not roofs) of a building
On pillars
Install a micro cell in underground garages
If the antenna is installed at a wall corner, the major lobe of the antenna can radiate the space
between buildings. Generally, the major lobe of the antenna cannot face the walls of the buildings
nearby directly.
If frequencies are reusable among these micro cells, the directions of antennas must be consistent with
each other. In addition, you can also use the cell splitter to enable a cell to coverage the areas in two
directions. In this case, however, the frequency utilization ratio may decrease and extra power splitter
will introduce loss of 3 dB.
For the residential areas with regular arrangement, the directional antennas whose horizontal beam
width is 90 to 120 and vertical beam width is greater than 30 are recommended.
Under certain conditions, the micro cell antenna can be installed on the pillars within a residential
area.
For the residential areas with irregular arrangement, the antenna can be installed on the walls of a
building, so the reflected waves can coverage the walls of opposite buildings. In this case, the antennas
whose horizontal beam width is greater than 120and vertical beam width is greater than 30are
recommended.
(3) Antenna selection
When the walls of a building is selected as an installed position, you can use the build-in antenna of
the micro cell directly, or other antennas with small size. According to coverage features of residential
areas, when selecting the specifications for the micro cell antennas to be used, you must consider the
following factors:
Antenna gain
Horizontal beam width
Vertical beam width
Polarization mode
Visual effect (antenna size, shape, and weight)
The antenna gain is recommended less than 9 dBi for micro cell antennas. Because the coverage area
of a micro cell antenna is small and the installed position is near to the coverage area, the antenna
gain can be adjusted to a smaller value, especially if the gain of an antenna is greater than 10dBi, its
size is large, which may cause opposition from residents.
The selection of the horizontal and vertical beam width for an antenna is related to radio environment.
If a micro cell antenna is installed on a wall, the antenna height is lower than the average height of
surrounded buildings. In this case, if both the indoor coverage of lower floors and higher floors can be
assured, you must select the antennas with greater vertical beam width. According to the height of
buildings, you can select the directional antennas whose vertical beam width ranges from 35to 80.
The selection of the horizontal beam width of the micro cell antenna and the installed position of the
antenna are related to coverage target. In this case, you can select the directional antennas whose

beam width ranges from 60 to 150, or you can choose omni antennas or bi-directional antennas (8shaped antennas).
Both vertical polarization antennas and dual polarization antennas can be selected for a micro cell. The
coverage area of a micro cell in urban areas is small, so the diversity reception is unnecessary. In this
case, a vertical polarization antenna can meet the coverage requirements in residential areas. As for
the dual polarization antenna, however, it is expensive and large in size, so it is not recommended.
The visual effect must be emphasized for the micro cell antennas installed in residential areas. They
must be small and moderate. In addition, they must be light for installation convenience. If the
contract between the color of the antenna and that of the surrounded buildings is great, you must
color the antenna with the same color of the buildings.
In some cases, you should consider adopting dual-band antennas. When selecting a small-sized
antenna, you should consider whether its maximum output power can bear the micro cell output
power. When adopting short jumpers instead of 7/8 feeders, you should consider whether the antenna
connector (N-shaped male/female, 7/16 DIN header) matches the jumper connector.

2.8 Location Area Design

2.8.1 Definition of Location Area
In GSM protocols, a mobile communication network is divided into multiple service areas according to
the codes of location areas. Thus the network pages a mobile subscriber through paging its location
area.
Location area is the basic unit of paging areas in a GSM system. That is, the paging message of a
subscriber is sent in all cells of a location area. A location area contains one or more BSCs, but it
belongs to one MSC only.
Figure 5-13 shows the division of service areas.
Figure 5-1 Division of service areas
2.8.2 Division of location areas
The coverage area of each GSM PLMN is divided into multiple location areas, in which an MS is
positioned. The size of a location area, namely, the area covered by a location area code (LAC), plays a
key role in a GSM system. Therefore, this section mainly introduces the principle for planning location
areas.
I. Dividing the location area according to the distribution and behaviour of mobile subscribers
The distribution of location areas in cities and suburbs is different. Generally, suburban areas or
counties occupy independent location areas. In cities, the distribution of location areas is similar to a
concentric circle. (The areas in the internal circle can be divided into several location areas due to the
requirements on capacity. The concentric circle can be divided into several fragments.)
In addition, if two or more location areas are present simultaneously in a big city of great traffic, the
landforms, such as mountains and rivers within this city can be used as edges of the location areas. In
this case, the overlapped depth between the cells of the two location areas can be reduced. If no such
landforms available within this city, the areas (such as streets and shopping centers) with great traffic
cannot be used as edges of the location areas.
Generally, the edge of a location area is oblique instead of parallel or perpendicular to streets. In the
intersected areas of urban areas and suburban areas, to avoid frequent location update, you must
design the edges of location areas near the outer base stations instead of the base stations just

installed at the intersections.

II. Calculating coverage area and capacity of a location area
If the coverage area of a location area is too small, the mobile station will perform frequent location
update. In this case, the signaling flow in the system will increase. If the coverage of a location area is
too larger, however, the network will send a paging message in multiple cells until the mobile station is
paged. In this case, the PCH will be overloaded and the signaling flow at the Abis interface will
increase.
The calculation of location areas varies with the paging strategies designed by different carriers.
During early network construction stage, the traffic is not great, so a location area can accommodate
more TRXs. However, it is still necessary for you to monitor the PCH load and traffic growth. When the
traffic grows great, you can enhance the PCH capacity by adding a BCCH to the system, but the number
of voice channels can be added is reduced by one accordingly.
Generally, the capacity of a location area is calculated as follows:
The number of paging blocks sent in each second the number of paging messages sent in each paging
block = the maximum paging times in each second. As a result, the number of paging times in each
hour, the traffic allowed in each location area, and the number of carriers supported in each location
area can be deducted.
The followings introduce the items present in the previous paragraph respectively.
(1) The number of paging blocks sent in each second
1 frame = 4.61ms, 1 multiframe = 51 frames = 0.2354s; suppose the number of access grant blocks is
AGB, the number of blocks, the number of paging blocks sent in each second is calculated by the
following formulas:
For non-combined BCCH, the number of paging blocks sent in each second = (9 AGB)/0.2345 (paging
block/second).
For combined BCCH, the number of paging blocks sent in each second = (3 AGB)/0.2345 (paging
block/second).
For non-combined BCCH, the AGB is 2 according to Huawei BSC. Therefore, the number of paging blocks
sent in each second is 29.7 (paging block/second); when AGB is 0, it is 38.2 (paging block/second).
For combined-BCCH, the AGB is 1, so the number of paging blocks sent in each second is 8.5 (paging
blocks/second); when the AGB is 0, it is 12.7 (paging block/second).
According to the previous analysis, the larger the number of AGB, the smaller the number of the paging
blocks sent in each second and the smaller the paging capacity is. Moreover, the paging capacity of the
combined BCCH is far less than that of the non-combined BCCH.
& Note:
Generally, a combined-BCCH cell and a non-combined-BCCH cell are not configured simultaneously
within a LAC, and the number of AGB must be consistent with a location area; otherwise the paging
capacity of the location area will decrease (now the paging capacity of the cell with the least paging
capacity is the paging capacity of the location area).
However, if the capacity of a location area is small and the LAC resource is scarce, you can configure
the combined-BCCH cell and non-combined-BCCH cell within a LAC to enlarge the number of traffic
channels for O1 and S111 base stations.
(2) The number of paging messages sent in each paging block (X)
According to section 9.1.22 of GSM0408 protocols, each paging block has 23 bytes, and can send 2 IMSI
pages, or 2 TMSI and 1 IMSI pages, or 4 TMSI pages.
According to the paging strategies of Huawei MSC, if the IMSI paging mechanism is adopted, the number
of paging messages sent in each paging blocks is 2 (paging times/paging block); if the TMSI paging
mechanism is adopted, it is 4 (paging times/paging block)
(3) The maximum paging times in each second (P)
The maximum paging times in each second is calculated by the following two formulas:
For non-combined BCCH, P = (9 AGB)/0.2345 (paging block/second) (paging times/paging block).
For combined BCCH, P = (3 AGB)/0.2345 (paging block/second) (paging times/paging blocks).
If the IMSI paging mechanism is adopted, for non-combined BCCH, when AGB = 2, P = 59.47 (paging
times/second); when AGB = 0, P = 76.47 (paging times/second). For combined-BCCH, when AGB = 1, P =
16.99 (paging times/second); when AGB = 0, P = 25.49 (paging times/second).

If the TMSI paging mechanism is adopted, for combined BCCH, when AGB = 2, P = 118.95 (paging
times/second); when AGB = 0, P = 152.93 (paging times/second). For combined BCCH, when AGB = 1, P
= 33.98 (paging times/second); when AGB = 0, P = 50.98 (paging times/second).
According to the previous analysis, the paging capacity under IMSI paging mechanism is half of that
under TMSI paging mechanism.
(4) The traffic allowed in each location area (T)
When designing the capacity for a location area, you must be attention that the paging capacity of a
location area cannot break its limit. For network expansion, you can collect the times of the busy-hour
paging orders delivered by BSC from OMC, and then convert the times into the number of paging orders
sent in each second.
If no traffic measurement data is available, such as in the case of new network construction, you can
calculate the traffic allowed in each location area by assuming a traffic model.
For example, if the average conversation duration is 60s and the ratio of the times for the mobile
station to be successfully paged to the times of total pages is 30%, the 60s of conversation duration
matches 1/60 calls (in the unit of second. Erl), and 30% of calls is generated by the called parties.
Therefore, the successful calls of the 30% mobile stations are 0.05 times (that is, 1/60*30% = 0.005), in
the unit of second. Erl.
If the 75% of the mobile stations respond to the first page and 25% respond to the second page, the
mobile stations responding to the third page can be neglected. (It is just an assumption, which may be
different from actual conditions.). Therefore, 1.25 pages are needed if a mobile station is successfully
called each time (25% of the pages must be resent). In this case, the following equation is present:
Y = 0.005*(1+25%) = 0.00625 paging times/(second. Erl)
Suppose the congestion on paging channels will occur when the paging capacity is 50% greater than
maximum theoretical paging capacity, the original paging messages are still present even the paging
queue is full in the BTS. In this case, the paging capacity in one second is P*50%.
Therefore, the traffic allowed in each location area can be calculated according to the formula T =
P*50%/Y.
(5) The number of carriers supported by each location area (NTRX)
Each TRX had 7.2 TCHs in average, so the maximum traffic of each TRX in each hour is 7.2.
Therefore, the number of carriers supported in each location area can be calculated according to NTRX
= T/7.2 and the specific values are listed in
All the previous assumptions do not include the effect of the point-to-point short messages against on
paging capacity. If the conversation times of a subscriber are equal to the number of the short
messages to be sent, and if the sent ratio and received ratio are consistent with each other, the paging
times/second. Erl will double in busy hour and the capacity of the location area will reduce by half.
Therefore, some common short messages must be sent on CBCH.
2.8.3 Others
This section introduces some other information about location area design.
The capacity of a location area is closely related to paging mechanism, and is directly related to the
combinations of AGB and BCCH. When the combinations of AGB and BCCH are inconsistent with each
other in a location area, the capacity of the location area is determined by the cell with the smallest
capacity. Therefore, the combinations of AGB and BCCH must be designed to be consistent in location
area planning.
If the number of point-to-point messages grows large immediately, the number of paging messages will
increase, but the number of supported subscribers will decrease. In this case, you must control and
protect the flows in the system.
Because the traffic density varies with location areas, it is recommended that the combined-BCCH
cells, non-combined-BCCH cells, and multi-BCCH cells form a location area respectively. When a cell
with BCCH/SDCCH combination, the location area can be as large as possible when the paging capacity
of the BTS does not reach the limit. However, because all paging messages will be broadcasted in all
cells within a location area, the cell with BCCH/SDCCH combination is the bottleneck of the location
area.

The LAC is a kind of number resource. Therefore, you must cooperate with carries to plan location
areas.

2.9 Dual-Band Network Design

2.9.1 Necessity for Constructing Dual-Band Network
The earlier GSM mobile communication network is constructed on the 900 MHz band. With
rapid growth of subscribers, the network capacity also grows rapidly. Therefore, the lack of
frequency resources and radio channels is a major concern for mobile telecommunications.
Many methods can be used to expand the capacity of a GSM system, including:
Adding macro cell base stations to the system
Reducing distance between base stations
Adopting aggressive frequency reuse technologies (such as MRP and 13)
Adding micro cells to the system
Applying half rate to the system
However, all these methods cannot thoroughly solve the problems concerning network
capacity. As a result, the GSM 1800MHz network is introduced (uplink: 18051880 MHz;
downlink: 17101785 MHz). And the network integrating GSM 900MHz and GSM 1800MHz can
meet the growth of network capacity.
The application of GSM 1800MHz can bring the following advantages:
It does not occupy the bands of GSM 900MHz and has a communication bandwidth of 75M.
Therefore, it breaks the bottleneck of GSM 900MHz in terms of frequency resources.
The system networking, project implementation, network planning, and network
maintenance of a GSM 1800MHz network are almost the same with that of a GSM 900MHz
network.
The GSM 1800MHz and GSM 900 MHz can share a base station, so a GSM 1800MHz network
can be finished in a short time, which is quite helpful for network expansion.
Dual-band mobile phones now accounts for a major part of the total, so a GSM 1800MHz
network can provide services to the dual-band subscribers. In this case, the capacity
pressure on GSM 900MHz can be greatly eased.
2.9.2 GSM 1800MHz Coverage Solutions
I. Propagaiton features of GSM 1800MHz
The propagation features of the electromagnetic waves of 900 MHz and 1800 MHz are
different in the following aspects:
The propagation loss in free space
The propagation loss of the 1800 MHz signals is 6 dB greater than that of the 900 MHz signals
in free space.
Penetration loss
The penetration loss of the 900 MHz signals is greater than that of the 1800 MHz signals, but
their difference is slight.
Diffraction loss
The longer the waves, the smaller the diffraction loss is. The diffraction ability of the 1800
MHz signals is poorer than that of the 900 MHz signals.
II. Dual-Band Networking Mode
There are three dual-band networking modes, namely, independent MSC networking, co-

MSC/independent BSC networking, and co-BSC networking, among which the former two are
called independent networking, and the later is called hybrid networking.
III. Coverage requirements on GSM 1800 MHz
Outdoor coverage
The outdoor coverage can be easily realized when the distance between base stations are
not large. In necessary cases, you can add a GSM 1800MHz base station at the address of the
original GSM base station. And in some places, you should consider add a new base station.
Indoor coverage
To ensure that the indoor coverage of GSM 1800MHz is good, you must control the distance
between the base stations installed in urban areas within 1000 meters. In China, however,
the buildings in most cities are constructed by concretes and metals, so the penetration loss
is great. As result, the distance between base stations in urban areas of China ranges from
500 to 800 meters.
IV. Coverage mode of GSM 1800MHz
(1) Scattered coverage in hotspot areas
At the early network construction stage, the GSM 1800MHz base stations are scattered in
hotspot areas. When the capacity configured for a GSM 1800 MHz base station is small, you
must solve the problems, such as SDCCH congestion, TCH congestion, and frequent update
between GSM 1800MHz and GSM 900MHz. The cost in early construction stage is small.
Scattered coverage of GSM 1800MHz in hotspot areas
The coverage of the dual-band network of this mode is based on the original GSM 900MHz
network. The GSM 1800MHz base station is constructed in some hotspot areas, so the
seamless coverage of GSM 1800MHz is not available in this case.
If a dual-band mobile phone starts conversation in an area covered by GSM 1800MHz, after
leaving this coverage area, it hands over to the GSM 900MHz cell where it originally was. And
the handover of this type is called the inter-band handover caused by coverage.
If a dual-band mobile phone starts the conversation in an area covered by GSM 900MHz, but
because the traffic in this area is great, the mobile phone will hand over to an area covered
by GSM 1800MHz. And the handover of this type is called the inter-band handover caused by
capacity.
The scattered coverage in hotspot areas only relieves capacity problems in a short term.
Moreover, frequent inter-band frequency handover increase the signaling load, which results
in the loss of system capacity.
(2) Seamless coverage in hotspot areas
If the coverage of this mode is available; the GSM 1800 MHz network can share greater traffic
for GSM 900MHz network and expand the system capacity. In addition, it is cost-effective.
(3) Perfect seamless coverage
If a GSM 1800MHz network adopts the coverage of this type, the advantages are as follows:
The seamless coverage area within a city can be realized.
The GSM 1800MHz network can share the traffic load for GSM 900MHz network as much as
possible.
The system capacity can be greatly expanded.
The ratio of the handover between layers is small.
The quality of the network is quite satisfying.
The frequencies can be planned by patch.
The carriers can be expanded step by step.
However, there are still disadvantages. They are as follows:
The number of base stations is large.
The work load of network planning and optimization is huge.
The investment is large.
The base station addresses cannot be decided once.
Perfect coverage of GSM 1800MHz in hotspot areas
If a GSM 1800MHz network adopts this coverage mode, it can be easily expanded to meet
future coverage.

Compared with the scattered coverage in hotspot areas, the perfect seamless coverage is
characterized by great intensity and large area. Therefore, the ratio of inter-band handover
under this coverage mode is far smaller than that under scattered coverage mode. As a
result, the signaling load is reduced greatly.
Therefore, this coverage mode is an ideal coverage solution. If a GSM 1800MHz network
adopts this coverage mode, it does not necessarily attach to the GSM 900MHz network,
instead, it can form an independent network.
2.9.3 Location Area Division for Dual-Band Network
The location area division for dual-band network is suggested as follows:
If 1800 MHz cells and 900 MHz cells are under the control of two MSCs respectively, their
location areas are different. Therefore, you must set related parameters to maintain the
mobile stations stay in the 1800 MHz cells where the traffic is absorbed. In this case, the
times for the mobile station to handover between the two bands and reselect cells will
decrease. Meanwhile, when designing signaling channels, you must fully consider the load
resulted from location update.
If 1800 MHz cells and 900 MHz cells share a MSC, at the early network construction stage,
they are suggested to use the same location area without affecting the network capacity. If
the restriction on paging capacity is present, two location areas must be divided for them
either in terms of band or geographic location, as shown in Figure 5-17 and Figure 5-18.
Location area division based on geographic location
If the location area is divided in terms of band, because frequent location updates are
resulted from inter-band handover and cell reselection, you must set related parameters to
maintain the mobile stations stay in the 1800 MHz cells where the traffic is absorbed. In this
case, the times for the mobile station to handover between the two bands and reselect cells
will decrease. Meanwhile, when designing signaling channels, you must fully consider the
load resulted from location update.
If the location is divided in terms of geographic location, the frequent location updates
resulted from inter-band handover and cell reselection can be avoided. However, you need
to modify the related data of the original 900 MHz network. In addition, at the edges of the
location areas, because the location updates caused by intra-band and inter-band handover
and cell reselection is present simultaneously, the signaling flow is huge at these edges. As a
result, you must carefully design the edges of the location areas.
2.9.4 Traffic Guidance and Control Strategies of Dual-Band Network
I. Traffic guide of Dual-Band Network
At early construction stage of a dual-band network, traffic control concerns how to use the
new GSM 1800MHz network to share the traffic flow for the GSM 900MHz network. According
to the original intension of the GSM 1800MHz network, the traffic can be guided according to
the following principles:
1) At the early construction stage of a dual-band network, the GSM 1800MHz network is
mainly applied to absorb the traffic of the dual-band subscribers so that the load of the GSM
900MHz network can be eased.
2) When the number of dual-band subscriber grows large, each band must share the traffic
so that the inter-band handover times can be reduced.
Process of traffic guide and control strategies.
The various traffic control strategies can be realized through adjusting parameter settings as
follows:
1) In idle mode, when the mobile station is selecting cells after it is switched on and
reselecting cells when it is in standby state, you can set higher priorities for the 1800 MHz
cells by designing the system parameters, including CBQ, CBA, CRO, TO, and PT. In this case,
subscribers are more likely to stay in the 1800 MHz cells. As a result, their calls are
established on the 1800 MHz cells.
2) If traffic congestion is present in the service cell when a mobile station is setting up a call,
the system applies directed retry function to assign the mobile station to a TCH in the

neighbor cells of the service cell and adjust the traffic allocation.
3) In conversation state, the traffic must be guided to the 1800 MHz cells in lower layers and
levels according to the hierarchy cell structure. In addition, you can use Huawei dual-band
handover algorithms so that the traffic load can be allocated more properly.
II. Hierarchical Cell Structure
According to the hierarchy cell structure of the dual-band network, a GSM system covering
an area can be divided into four layers, as listed in Table 5-25.
To enable the network to develop smoothly and flexibly, you can divide each of the four
layers into multiple levels, and then you can set multiple priority classes (for example, 16
classes) for the levels in each layer. This method is not only helpful for adjusting the traffic
load in part of the areas. Therefore, the hierarchical cell structure enhances the cooperation
of the current network equipments and meets the devolvement of the future network.
In terms of traffic priority, the cells in lower layers and levels has higher priorities, namely,
the cells in lower layers has the priority to absorb the traffic.
2.9.5 Dual-Band Networking Engineering Implementation
During network construction and optimization, a dual-band network is debugged and
commissioned step by step, which facilitates debugging the new GSM 1800 MHz networks and
the original GSM 900MHz networks that has been expanded respectively. After each signal
network is perfectly adjusted, you must debug each base station in the dual-band network.
And you cannot stop the debugging until the whole dual-band network is finished.
The construction of a whole dual-band network can be divided into three stages, namely,
deployment preparation, signal 1800 MHz network debugging, and 900/1800 MHz dual-band
network debugging.
I. Deployment perparation
The coordination of dual-band technologies and network planning must be finished in this
stage. The coordination of dual-band network technologies is a prerequisite for the
cooperation of different carriers networks. Network planning is the first step in network
construction and involves many tasks, including base station address survey, channel number
planning, electromagnetic background test, coverage test, and so on.
The followings must be emphasized in dual-band cooperation:
The customers, the third party (the designing institute or the original equipment supplier),
and the new equipment supplier must be cooperate with each other well.
If one party meets a tough problem during the debugging of the dual-band network, the
engineers from a third party must be present in site and help position the problem.
The 900 MHz BSC and 1800 MHz BSC must synchronize their clocks with the same source
clock. Meanwhile, the clock of each base station in the existing GSM 900 MHz network can
lock the clock of the BSC, and the clock of the BSC can lock the clock of the MSC.
When modifying the parameters related to dual-band handover (such as modifying the
parameters at the BSC side or MSC side), you must notify that to other two parties.
If the some problems concerning the cooperation of dual-band network arise, a meeting must
be organized, in which each party discuss with each other on how to solve the problems.
Both the designing institute or the original equipment supplier and the new equipment
supplier must provide the project implementation plan, cutover plan, and precise cell
information.
II. Signal 1800 MHz network debugging
At this stage, you need not modify any data of the original GSM 900 MHz network, but it is
still the GSM 900MHz network provides services to subscribers. The GSM 1800MHz network
does not absorb traffic.
When debugging the GSM 1800MHz network, you must adjust the following parameter so that
the existing subscribers can be least affected.
In the system message data list, set the parameter CBA to NO to prevent general
subscribers from selecting and reselecting the 1800 MHz network. Theoretically, general
subscribers can hand over to the 1800 MHz network, but in fact, the handover relationship is
not configured with the dual-band network, so the general subscribers cannot enter the

1800 MHz network.

After that, you use the testing mobile phone which can access the network by force to
perform dialing test in each cell. If all goes normal, you can test coverage, handover, power
control, interference, downlink and uplink balance, power adjustment, the coverage of the
GSM 900MHz network, and the coverage of the GSM 1800MHz network.
Through these tests, you can not only discover the problems present in the networks, but
also adjust the channel number, power, tilt angle, and parameter setting and optimize the
parameter configuration for the GSM 1800MHz cell. In this case, the coverage and operation
of the single GSM 1800MHz network can be ensured.
III. 900/1800 MHz dual-band network debugging
After finishing the single GSM 1800MHz network debugging, you must change back the
parameter CBA to YES and configure the data for dual-band handover. The tests
involved into the dual-band network debugging include:
Cell reselection and location update
Traffic load control
Continuous conversation mode
Automatic dialing and scan
Dual-band network handover
Calls and handovers initiated on major streets
Calls and handovers initiated on edge areas
Dialing tests in poor coverage areas and indoor environment
Dialing tests in outdoor and indoor environments in key areas
The data includes neighbor cell relationship, layer and level setting, handover type, and
handover threshold. In this case, when a mobile phone is in idle mode, it can reselect an
1800MHz cell, the GSM 1800MHz network can absorb the traffic of dual-band subscribers,
and the subscribers can perform handover between 1800MHz cells and 900MHz cells.
At the beginning, you can control the GSM 1800MHz network to absorb only a small part of
the traffic of subscribers through adjusting the setting of CRO and handover threshold. When
good cell reselection and dual-band handover are ensured, you can take measures to enable
the GSM 1800MHz network to absorb more traffic, with the prerequisites that no congestion
is present among cells and the network quality is ensured.
At this stage, the following parameters must be configured:
The parameters related to cell selection and reselection, including CBA, CBQ, ACCMIN, CRH,
and CRO.
The parameters related to neighbor cell relationship, layer and level setting, and handover.
The configuration of the previous parameters must be based on the prerequisite that the
cooperation of the GSM 1800MHz cells and GSM 900MHz cells is normal.
After the GSM 900MHz and 1800MHz dual-band network is enabled, you must do the
followings:
1) Find out the problems present in the network through multiple means, such as drive test.
2) Adjust and optimize the network according to the problems so that the dual-band network
can run stably.
3) Check if the dual-band network runs stably, analyze all the traffic statistic data, and check
the network operation indexes.
4) Make sure the problems and take effective measures according to the analysis of the drive
test and traffic statistics.
5) Adjust the related parameters and retest the network till the network indexes meet the
design requirements.
Thus, a dual-band network is constructed and optimized according to the three stages as
introduced in this section.

2.10 Design of Indoor Coverage System

2.10.1 Characteristics of Indoor coverage
With the rapid development of economy, hotels, commercial centers, large-scale flats,
underground railways, and underground parking areas are arising by batch. As a result,
mobile stations are more frequently used in indoor environment. Thus, they require better
indoor mobile communication services.
Generally, the following problems are present in indoor mobile communication systems:
From the perspective of coverage, the complex indoor structure and the shielding and
absorbing effect of the buildings cause great radio wave transmission loss. As a result, the
signals in some areas may be weak, especially the signals in the first and second floors in the
underground are quite weak, or even there are dead zones. In this case, mobile stations
cannot necessarily access the network, there is no paging response, or subscribers are not in
service areas.
From the perspective of network quality, the factors interfering radio frequencies are
probably present in upper floors of high buildings. In this case, the signals in service areas
are not stable, so ping pong effect may occur and conversation quality cannot be ensured.
From the perspective of network capacity, if mobile stations are frequently used in
buildings, such as large-scale shopping centers, conference halls, some areas in the network
cannot meet the requirements of subscribers. In this case, congestion may occur on radio
channels.
If the indoor coverage is realized by a repeater, an outdoor high-power base station, or a
great-height outdoor antenna, the following problems may arise:
The penetration loss is great, so the indoor coverage is not satisfying. In this case, a large
number of dead zones are present, so subscribers cannot keep conversation.
If a repeater is adopted, the level of original signals must be high. In addition, the crossmodulation and intra-frequency interference is great, so the conversation quality is weak
and call drop ratio is high.
The network capacity is limited and the call connected ratio is low.
The frequency planning is hard to be performed for the network and the network capacity is
hard to be expanded.
The detached island effect is great.
The value-added services are restricted for group subscribers due to network quality and
capacity.
To enhance the grade of service, we must improve indoor coverage immediately. When
designing an indoor coverage system, we must make the following considerations:
A new indoor coverage system cannot affect the existing network.
Enough capacity of an indoor system must be ensured.
An indoor system must support new services and functions.
The chapter analyzes the design of indoor coverage system from the following aspects:
Indoor Antenna System Design
Capacity Analysis and Design
Frequency Planning
Traffic Control
2.10.2 Indoor Antenna System Design
I. RF design
(1) Link budget
In an indoor coverage system, the link budget formula is as follows:
Here,
Pant = antenna input interface power
RFmarg = Raleigh fading margin
IFmarg = access margin (depends on environment)
LNFmarg = design margin (generally, it is 5 dB)
BL = body loss (900MHz: 5 dB; 1800/1900MHz: 3 dB)

MSsens = mobile station sensitivity

Lpath = path loss
Here, Lpath = 20logd (m) + 30logf (MHz) - 28 dB + . When there no barrier loss, Lp = 20logd
(m) + 30logf (MHz) - 28 dB. The indicates the loss caused by other bariers.
Because the penetration in cylindrical tunnels is great, leaky cables are applied in cylindrical
tunnels.
When performing link budget, you must consider the followings:
In an indoor multi-antenna system, the link budget for test points must be in accordance
with the link with the minimum loss.
Under the same converge area, the EIRP at each antenna interface must be consistent, and
the error must be controlled within 10 dB.
The uplink signal must be designed to a high value, so antenna diversity is unnecessary.
To reduce uplink interference, you must properly set the maximum transit power of the
mobile station and enable the power control function of the mobile station.
A certain margin must be leaved for error correction and future system expansion.
The estimation and design for interference margin vary with the distance from the outer
wall. The smaller the distance, the larger the interference margin is designed.
(2) Service quality design (interference degree)
The actual interference level changes with network layout and frequency re-planning, and it
can be tested according to actual situations.
(3) Service quality design (interference margin design)
The greater the interference in an area, the greater the interference margin (IFmarg) is
designed, and the higher the level the mobile station needs to receive.
When a dual-band system is adopted in the indoor environment, the indexes of mobile
station receiving level are designed according to the 1800 MHz system standard.
II. Antenna system design
When designing an indoor distribution system, you must first survey the building type,
structure, interference environment, customers, and then analyze the path loss. Finally,
decide the antenna type, number, and installation location according to the requirements of
an area.
This section introduces the antenna design guidelines in some typical cases.
(1) Single cell
If the indoor coverage is realized by a signal cell, each antenna must be designed to ensure
that signals are evenly distributed in the coverage area. Generally, it is recommended to
install the antenna in a zigzag way.
(2) Multi-cells
If the indoor coverage is realized by multiple cells, a certain distance must be leaved
between intra-frequency reuse cells. Each antenna must also be designed to ensure that
signals are evenly distributed in the coverage area of each cell. If the frequencies are reused
frequently, it is recommended to install the antennas on different layers at the same position
of the layer.(3) Closed building
A closed building has the characteristics, such as thick outer wall, great signal attenuation,
and little leakage. In addition, it is little affected by outdoor intra-frequency cells.
Therefore, the frequency between floors is easily to be planned. For the antenna design
guideline in a closed environment.
(4) Half-open environment
For a half-open building, the outer wall is made of glasses, so the signal attenuation is small.
Within the building are the open conference halls, which are greatly affected by outdoor
intra-frequency cells, so you must plan dedicated frequencies or adopt the multi-antenna
system with low output power to limit the edges of the indoor cells within the building.
(5) Frame-structure building
For a frame-structure building, the number of internal walls is large and they are thick.
Therefore, if the antenna is installed at the corridors, the antenna output power must be

high so that good coverage can be ensured. In this case, signals will leak at the windows near
the corridor, so you must plan dedicated frequencies for the building. The distance of the
intra-frequency cells between floors is larger than that in other environments. For the
antenna design guideline in frame-structure building.
(6) Office building
The indoor environment of office buildings requires high grade of services, so its coverage is
realized by several directional and omni antennas. You can control the coverage area easily
through properly designing the effective radiation power in the cell. For design guideline,
see (7) Parking area
Parking area has no special requirement on capacity and mobile station receiving level (-90
dBm). For a parking area, the elevator, escalator, entrance and exit are key coverage areas.
(8) Supermarket
Supermarkets have certain requirements on coverage and capacity. The antennas can be
designed according to actual structure of the buildings.
III. Survey
The antenna design and installation is finally decided according to the survey, which includes
the following aspects:
Detailed coverage area and signal quality and converge requirements
Distribution of the signals in coverage areas
Composition of buildings in coverage areas
Signal access location and mode
Installation position
According to the survey, you must output the final topological structure diagram, antenna
cabling scheme, and list of materials. Generally, the omni antenna is installed at the ceiling
center. The small directional antenna is hung on the inner side of the outer wall, with the
radiation directed to indoor part. In this case, the effect of the antenna against the outdoor
system can be reduced to the minimum, so the C/I requirement of the outdoor system can be
met.
If possible, you can test the coverage and adjust the antenna design according to the test
result, or re-plan the frequency to ensure the voice quality. Generally, if the radiation power
at the antenna interface is 10 dBm, the 2 dBi small indoor omni antenna is used. In this case,
if the walls are densely distributed in the areas within 30 meters from the antenna, the
coverage level can reach -70 dBm.
2.10.3 Capacity Analysis and Design
Before analyzing the capacity, you must define the type of the indoor service area.
Definition of indoor service area type
Indoor service area type
Characteristic
Example
Public service area
The traffic is hard to be predicted.
The population number varies with day and night.
The capacity characteristics, such as uneven distribution and bursting must be considered.
The grade of service and the traffic of each subscriber are similar to that for outdoor cells.
Airport, shopping center, and play ground.
Commercial service area
The existed fixed networks are frequently used.
The traffic is relatively fixed and easy to be calculated.
High service quality is required.
Generally, the grade of service (GoS) is 1%, the traffic of each subscriber can reach 0.1 Erl.
Office building and commercial hotels of high ranks.
There are two cell organization modes of distributed antenna system, namely, single cell and
multiple vertical split cells. The single cell is applied to the indoor environment which

requires smell coverage area. The multiple vertical split cells are applied to the indoor
environment with dense traffic.
Likewise, a single cell will split when the capacity does not meet the requirement, with
vertical splitting the splitting mode. Generally, a cell will vertically split into at least three
cells so that frequency reuse can be ensured. Four layers must be present between two
intra-frequency cells . To avoid interference between frequencies, you must take measures
to prevent a cell from horizontally splitting.
2.10.4 Frequency Planning
If the dedicated frequency is adopted in indoors, the frequency planning is relatively simple.
Generally, the frequency reuse mode in business service areas is almost the same as that in
pubic service areas. If the frequency resource is adequate, you must try best to use
dedicated band for indoor coverage. If not, you can search the available channel numbers
with relatively small interference through scanning the channel numbers. If the frequency
resources of the 900 MHz cannot meet requirements, you can introduce the 1800 MHz
frequency; namely, use a dual-band system.
If you steal frequency resource for indoor system due to no available dedicated frequency,
you must pay attention to the followings:
Do not select the frequencies of the neighbor cells.
Ensure that the BCCH frequencies are not interfered.
The interference on the TCH frequencies can be reduced with the help of radio frequency
hopping.
Search the available uplink frequencies through using BTS equipments to scanning the uplink
channel numbers.
Search the available downlink frequencies through using drive test equipment to scanning
the downlink channel numbers.
If the hierarchical cell structure is not used, the cell with the strongest signal level is the
service cell, and the interference from neighbor frequencies can be neglected.
If the hierarchical cell structure is used, the cell with the strongest signal level cannot
necessarily be the service cell, so you must take measures to reduce the interference from
neighbor frequencies.
Because the environment is urban areas is quite complicated, especially the effect of the
antenna back lobe is present, the service areas for high buildings are greatly interfered, so
you must carefully plan the frequencies for the indoor coverage of high buildings. Generally,
for the lower floors, you can plan the frequencies according to general method. For the
higher floors where the interference is strong, you can use dedicated channel numbers.
However, the final frequency planning must be based on practical tests.
2.10.5 Traffic Control
The indoor coverage system for high buildings can be taken as a system independent of
outdoor systems if the coverage of the indoor system is good. Theoretically, you can only
consider the cell selection and reselection, handover relationship, and the compact on
outdoor networks at the entrances and exits of the building.
However, the actual conditions are quite complicated. For example, the signals outside of
the building may be strong. In this case, if a mobile station is powered off, it may camp on an
outside cell. Therefore, when optimizing the network, you must set the one-way adjacent
cell and two-way adjacent cell according to actual conditions and set the parameters, such
as CRO and TO to a proper value according to the regularity of cell selection and reselection.
In addition, you can set the indoor cells to a high priority so as to reserve more traffic. And
the inter-layer handover threshold and hysteresis are defined and adjusted according to
actual conditions.

2.11 Tunnel Coverage

2.11.1 Characteristic of Tunnel Coverage
At present, most of the tunnels are dead zones, so you must make out special solutions for
tunnel coverage. The tunnel types include railway tunnel, highroad tunnel, and underground
railway tunnel. Each tunnel has its characteristics, and they are specified as follows.
For the highroad tunnel, it is wide. The coverage in the highroad tunnels is relatively stable.
When there are vehicles passing by, you can select the antennas with a larger size to obtain
a higher gain, so the coverage distance is larger.
For the railway tunnel, it is narrow, especially when there is a train passing by; only a little
room is left in the tunnel, so the radio propagation is greatly affected. Moreover, the train
has great effect on radio signals. Since the antenna installation room is quite limited, the
antenna size and gain are greatly restricted. In addition, because general cars cannot be
driven to such tunnels, the tunnel coverage is hard to be tested. Therefore, the planning for
highroad coverage is different from that of the railway coverage.
The length of tunnels ranges from several hundred meters to several kilometers. For short
tunnels, you can adopt flexible and economical means to realize the coverage. For example,
you can install a general antenna near one end of the tunnel, with the radiation directed to
the inside. For long tunnels, however, you must adopt other means. Actually, the coverage
solution varies with tunnels, so it is designed according to actual conditions.
Cross section of the single-track railway tunnel and multi-track railway tunnel: The smaller
the area of the cross section, the greater the loss when a train passes through the tunnel.
The related calculation and analysis are based on the multi-track railway tunnels and
highroad tunnels. For the calculation and analysis for single-track tunnels, the protection
margin can be 5 dB greater than that of multi-track railway tunnels.
Before planning tunnel coverage, you must prepare for the following data:
Length of the tunnel
Width of the tunnel
Number of tunnel holes (1 or 2)
Needed coverage probability (50%, 90%, 98% or 99%)
Structure of the tunnel (it is constructed with metals or concretes)
Number of needed carriers (130)
Minimum receiving level in the tunnel (generally, it ranges from -85 dBm to -102 dBm)
Distance between tunnel holes
Whether AC/DC is available
Whether the hole can be punched in the tunnel wall
Signal level at the tunnel entrance
Existed signal level in the tunnel

2.11.2 Tunnel Coverage Solution

I. Link budget
Indoor radio link loss is mainly decided by path loss medium value and shadow fading. A
tunnel can be taken as a tube. The signals are transmitted through the reflection of walls
and straight transmission, with straight transmission the major form. ITU-R suggests an
indoor propagation model on page 1238, which is also effective for tunnel coverage. The
formula is as follows:
Lpath = 20 lg f + 30 lg d + Lf (n) - 28 dB
Here,
f indicates frequency (MHz)
d indicates distance (m)
Lf indicates penetration loss factors between floors (dB)
n indicates the number of floors lying between the mobile station and antenna.
The Lf (n) can be neglected in tunnel coverage, so the following equation can be applied in
the calculation of the radio propagation in tunnels. That is:
Lpath = 20 lgf + 30 lg d - 28 dB
II. GSM signal source selection
A GSM signal source and a set of distributed antenna system are a must for tunnel coverage.
For tunnel coverage, the GSM signal source is selected according to the radio coverage,
transmission, traffic, and the existing network equipments near the tunnel. A macro cell
base station, a micro cell base station, or a repeater can work as a GSM signal source for the
tunnel coverage.
For the coverage of railway tunnels and highroad tunnels, the indoor macro cell base station
is seldom used as signal source, but it can be used for an underground railway which requires
the coverage of platforms and entrances. In this case, the capacity of the signal source must
be great. In most cases, however, the tunnel coverage is realized by micro cell signals.
For the areas to be covered, if the nearby network capacity is adequate, the capacity
expansion is unnecessary. And if there are good GSM signals available, namely, the donor
signal level meets the requirements of a repeater (for example, -70 dBm); a repeater can
work as the signal source for the tunnel coverage. With the increase of traffic, however, you
must use GSM base stations to replace the repeaters.
Adequate isolation must left between donor antenna and retransmission antenna, though it
will cause difficulty in antenna installation. Generally, the log-periodical antenna with great
front-to-back ratio is used as the retransmission antenna.
The general antenna (wireless repeater), coaxial cable, and optical fiber (optical repeater)
can connect a repeater to a donor cell.
For tunnel coverage, the installation space and auxiliary equipments are quite limited, so
micro cell base stations and repeaters instead of macro cell base stations are often applied in
tunnel coverage.
In mountain areas, repeaters are more likely used because strong signal level often exists at
the mountain tops near the tunnel. In this case, the antenna isolation requirement can be
easily met. If the signal level of the existed network near the tunnel is not strong enough,
you can use a micro cell for the tunnel coverage.
III. Antenna feeder system selection
After deciding the GSM signal source, you must configure the antenna feeder system for the
tunnel coverage according to actual conditions. Three types of configuration are available,
namely, coaxial feeder passive distributed antenna, optical fiber feeder active distributed
antenna, and leaky cable. Hereunder introduces the tunnel coverage based on coaxial feeder
passive distributed antenna and leaky cable.
2.11.3 Tunnel Coverage Based on Coaxial distributed antenna system
In a coaxial distributed antenna system, the following RF components are used:
Feeder (3/8", 1/2", or 7/8") and jumper
Power splitter

Power splitter
Antenna
This section introduces three tunnel coverage solutions based on the coaxial distributed
antenna system.
I. Solution 1
Tunnel coverage solution based on the bi-directional passive distributed antenna system.
Tunnel coverage solution based on bi-directional passive distributed antenna system
According to this solution, if the needed minimum signal level is -85dBm (the location
probability is 50%), you must add a margin of 8 dB if the want to enhance the location
probability to 90%.
If the gain of the bi-directional antenna is 5 dBi, the loss of the equal probability power
splitter and the jumper is 2 dB, and the feeder with the specification of 7/8" is used, the
path loss in 100 meters is 4 dB and the output power of the equipment is 39 dBm.
Suppose that the level of the signals transmitted by the first bi-directional antenna is -85
dBm at the tunnel entrance, you can calculate the distance between the antenna and the
tunnel entrance using the following equation:
Pout- Lpath (d) Lcable (d) Ljumper + Gant = -85dBm + 8dB90%_loc.Prob
Here,
Pout indicates the output power (39dBm).
Lpath (d) indicates the path loss from the first bi-directional antenna to the tunnel entrance.
Lcable (d) indicates the cable loss.
Ljumper indicates the jumper loss (2 2 dB).
Gant indicates the antenna gain (5 dBi).
If introducing the previous data to the equation, you can obtain the sum of the Lpath (d) and
Lcable (d), that is, 117 dB.
For the relationship between distance d and Lpath (d) and Lcable (d), see Figure 5-34, in
which the curve indicates Lpath (d) and the slant line indicates Lcable (d).
1 You can obtain that d = 301m through estimation.
If a power splitter is adopted for the first antenna, a loss of 3dB must be added. In this case,
the sum of Lpath (d) and Lcable (d) is 114 dB.
2 You can also obtain that d = 261m through estimation.
For railway tunnels, train filling will affect signal propagation, so a protection margin of 5dB
must be considered when the antenna is installed in the tunnel. In this case, d = 240m. That
is, if a bi-directional antenna is installed in the tunnel, it can coverage a distance of 480m.
If a power splitter is adopted for the second antenna, the coverage distance between the
first antenna and the second antenna will be shortened unless an amplifier is used.
The followings analyze the coverage when no amplifier is adopted for the second antenna.
The total power output by the first power splitter (it is installed at the first antenna) Pout1 is
expressed as follows:
Pout1 = Pout Lcable (d) - Ljumper - Lsplitter = 39dBm Lcable (261m) - 2dB - 3dB= 23.56
dBm. (The cable loss in 261m is about 10.44 dB, jumper loss is 2 dB, and the power splitter
intersection loss is 3dB).
Suppose the overlapping level between the two antennas is -85 dBm, the distance between
the second antenna and the first antenna is: d2 = d + x. Here, d indicates the coverage
distance of the first antenna (261m), and x indicates the coverage distance of the second
antenna in the single direction.
According to the previous analysis, the following two equations can be obtained:
Pout1 Lcable (261m) Lcable (x) Ljumper + Gant Lpath (x) = - 85dBm + 8dB90%_loc.Prob
Lpath (x) + Lcable (x) = 108.56dB
Plus the two equations, you can obtain the value of x, that is, 100m. This means that when
no amplifier is adopted, two antennas can coverage a tunnel distance of 722m, namely,
2*(261 + 100) m = 722m.
If you adopt cascaded antennas, the transmit power is relative low due to the coaxial cable
loss. In this case, you can use the amplifier to amplify the power.
II. Solution 2

If a tunnel is not long, you can adopt a simpler coverage mode.

Tunnel coverage solution based on a single antenna
According to this solution, a directional antenna is installed at the tunnel entrance, with the
radiation directed to the inside. The following analyze this coverage solution.
In this solution, Pout = 39 dBm (suppose that the output power of the GSM signal source is
8W).
If the Lpath (d) indicates propagation loss, the sum of Lcable (d) and Ljumper is 5dB, the
antenna gain Gant is 8 dBi, and the needed received level is -77dBm, the Lpath (d) is
expressed as follows:
Lpath (d) = 39dBm - 5dB + 8dBi (-77dBm) = 119 dB
According to the equation Lpath (d) = 20 lg10f + 30 lg10d - 28 dB, the value of d can be
obtained, that is, 858m.
The previous analysis is applicable to highroad tunnels. For railway tunnels, you can consider
a margin of 10 dB due to the effect of train filling, but the coverage distance of the antenna
in railway tunnels is calculated the same as that in highroad tunnels. According to the
calculation, d = 398m.
2.11.4 Tunnel Coverage Based on Leaky Cable System
If adopting leaky cables to realize the tunnel coverage, you must find the specifications of
the leaky cables and complete the leaky cable design according to the following steps:
1) Decide coverage factor
2) Calculate the gain of the bi-directional amplifier
3) Estimate the length of the leaky cable between the feeder source and the first amplifier
4) Estimate the length of the leaky cable between the amplifiers
5) Decide the number of needed amplifiers
The followings describe these steps in details.
I. Decide coverage factor
The following information is needed for deciding the coverage factor:
Coupler loss
Number of carriers
Coverage probability
Coverage factor indicates the loss in the areas 2 meters beyond the leaky cable (along the
vertical direction). This loss includes the coupler loss of the leaky cable and protection
margin required by the coverage probability. If 90% of coverage probability is required, you
must add 8dB to the medium level. Some leaky cables specify the relationship between the
coverage probability and coupler loss.
The coverage factor is determined by the parameters, such as coupler loss, RF carrier
number, coverage probability, and tunnel type. For the decision of coverage factor in
concreter tunnels. For the decision of coverage factor in metal tunnels. When deciding the
coverage factor, you can fix a point in the graph and mark a horizontal line through this
point, and this line intersects required coverage probability. This intersection point is the
coverage factor.
Coverage factor in metal tunnels:
For example, if the leaky cable with a coupler loss of 71 (900 MHz) is used, the RF carrier
number is 18, and the coverage probability is 90, the coverage factor in a concrete tunnel is
-77
II. Decide cable length between GSM signal source and the first amplifier
Before deciding cable length between GSM source and the first amplifier, you must obtain
the following information:
Transmit power of the signal source (dBm)
Jumper loss: 1 dB
Connector loss: 1 dB
Leaky cable loss: 2 dB
Transmit power at the feeder source (dBm)
When calculating the power at a point of the feeder, you must subtract the feeder

propagation loss from the GSM signal source. If a wireless repeater with an output power of
18 dBm (18 carriers) is used as the GSM signal source, and the attenuation from the jumper
to feeder, and from the feeder to the leaky cable is 7 dB (That is, the power from the
repeater is transmitted from a jumper to a feeder, and then from the jumper to a leaky
cable, so four connectors are needed. Generally, the attenuation is 2 dB for each jumper, 1
dB for each feeder, and 0.5 dB for each connector, so the total attenuation is 7 dB.), the
transmit power at this point is 11 dB. For the connection of leaky cable.
Connection scheme of leaky cable:
Suppose the needed signal level in a tunnel is -85 dBm, the signal level at the first amplifier
must be equal to or greater than -85 dBm. The coupler loss and longitudinal propagation loss
of the leaky cable are present between the signal feeder point and the first amplifier. They
are calculated according to the following equation:
LossLong = 11dBm (-85dBm) + Losscoup. Here, Losscoup indicates the coverage factor, and
it is -77dB when 90% coverage is ensured. Therefore, the LossLong is 19 dB (that is, 11dBm +
85dBm -77dB = 19dB).
The cable length between the signal feeder source and the first amplifier can be obtained
according to Figure 5-39 and Figure 5-40. For example, suppose that the attenuation is
4.3dB/100 for the leaky cable, you can mark a plumb line at the point indicating 4.3dB. This
plumb line will intersect the curve indicating 19 dB at a point, and then you mark a
horizontal line starting from this point. The horizontal line will intersect the right vertical
axis at a point. And this point shows the cable length. According to this example, the
distance between the signal source and the first amplifier is 440m (that is, 19/4.3 = 440m).
Cable length between amplifiers in concrete cables:
According to the previous figures, the left vertical axis indicates Required RADIAMP Gain,
which can be replaced by the radial loss of the leaky cable, but it makes no difference.
III. Needed amplifier gain
Before calculating the maximum amplifier gain, you must collect the following information:
The minimum acceptable signal level (dBm)
Coverage factor (dB)
The maximum output loss allowed by a single carrier (dBm)
If the amplifier is not added, the signal level output by the leaky cable for the longest
transmission distance is equal to the difference of the minimum acceptable signal level and
the coverage factor.
The signal level at the leaky cable beyond the longest transmission distance may be lower
the minimum acceptable level, so an amplifier must be added to amplify the signals to the
maximum output power allowed by a single carrier. The amplification of this power is related
to the specifications of the amplifier and the number of carriers. If the maximum output
power allowed by a single carrier is known, the amplifier gain can be calculated as follows:
Needed amplifier gain = the maximum output power allowed by a single carrier (it depends
on the number of carriers) (the minimum acceptable signal level coverage factor)
Along the leaky cable, the maximum output power allowed by each carrier of a bi-directional
amplifier is related to the number of carriers that have been amplified. This is considered
mainly for the intermodulation interference is present, because the intermodulation
interference will increase with the total number of carriers that have been amplified.
Relationship between the maximum output power allowed by a single carrier and the
number of carriers that have been amplified:
Needed amplifier gain = the minimum acceptable signal level coverage factor + the
maximum output power allowed by a single carrier.
According to the previous equation, if the minimum acceptable signal level is -85 dBm, the
coverage factor is -77, and the maximum output power allowed by a single carrier is 5 dBm,
the needed amplifier gain is 13 dB.
IV. Decide cable length between amplifiers
Before deciding the cable length between amplifiers, you must know the needed amplifier
gain and the cable loss (dB/100m). Figure 5-39 and Figure 5-40 help you decide the cable
length between amplifiers. For example, in a concrete tunnel, if the amplifier gain is 13 dB

and the cable attenuation is 4.3dB/100m, the cable length between two amplifiers is 300m.
V. Decide the number of needed amplifiers
Before deciding the number of needed amplifiers, you must know the following information:
The cable length between the feeder source and the first amplifier
The cable length between amplifiers
The tunnel length
If the previous information is known, the following formula can be used to calculate the
number of needed amplifiers. That is:
The number of amplifiers (the tunnel length the cable length between the feeder source
and the first amplifier)/(the cable length between amplifiers), rounding up to the nearest
integer.
According to the formula, if the tunnel length is 1000m, the cable length between amplifiers
is 300m, and the cable length between the feeder source and the first amplifier is 420m, 2
amplifies are needed. That is, (1000 420)/300 = 1.93, so the nearest integer is 2.
After deciding the number of needed amplifiers, you can optimize the distance between
amplifiers. That is, you can obtain the distance between the two amplifiers by dividing the
remaining distance by the number of needed amplifier. According to the previous example, it
is 580/2 = 290m, namely, the distance between the two amplifiers is 290m.
VI. Remarks on leaky cable installation
The leaky cable must not touch any metal. Generally, a leaky cable must be installed at a
spot 5m away from concrete walls and at least 10m away from metal walls. In addition, a
leaky cable must be installed near to the coverage area. You cannot necessarily consider the
line-of-sight propagation, because the signals leaking from the cable will fill the space
nearby.
This section introduces the coverage solutions to tunnels in different length. In actual
networking, the following coverage solutions may be used:
Micro base station (or repeater) + a single antenna
Micro base station (or repeater) + distributed antenna system
Micro base station (or repeater) + leaky cable
Before deciding which coverage solution should be adopted, you must consider the
followings:
Is the GSM signal near the tunnel entrance strong enough?
Is there any available transmission link near the tunnel?
Generally, if the existed signal level near the tunnel entrance (including nearby mountains) is
lower than -80 dBm, the micro base station is recommended. If it is greater than -80 dBm,
the micro base station or the repeater is recommended. If problems concerning transmission
are present, the repeater is recommended. When using the repeater, you must consider that
certain isolation is required between repeaters.
I. Coverage solution to short tunnels
Generally, the tunnels shorter than 100m are defined as short tunnels. When planning the
coverage for these tunnels, you must consider the coverage areas near the tunnels. If several
tunnels are close to each other, you can install a base station or a repeater between the
tunnels. If adopting a micro base station, you must adopt the bi-directional antenna. If the
antenna gain is 5 dBi, you should install the antenna at the tunnel entrance so as to ensure
coverage.
When designing tunnel coverage solutions, you must fully consider that fact that cars and
trains move at a high speed, so how to ensure normal handover after the cars or trains
steering into the tunnels is of vital importance.
If the repeater is used as the GSM signal source and the signals outside the tunnel and the
signals within the tunnel belong to the same cell, no handover problem will occur. If the
micro cell is used as the GSM signal source and the signals outside the tunnels and the signals
within the tunnel belong to different cells, the signals in the outside cell will drop
dramatically when the train steers into the tunnel. In this case, handover failure may occur
and call drop will be resulted in.
To solve this problem, you can consider adopting the following methods:

Adopt the bi-directional antenna for the tunnel coverage, because it can provide enough
overlapping area for handover.
Enable special handover algorithms, such as fast level fall handover algorithm. In this case, a
mobile station can hand over to another cell when the signal level falls fast.
Select the directional antenna with small front-to-back ratio.
II. Coverage solution to middle-length tunnels
This section introduces several typical coverage solutions to railway tunnels.
The followings are a series of assumptions:
The Huawei BTS3001C (the maximum output power is 8W) is used as the GSM signal source.
The repeater with 1 amplified carrier and a maximum output power of 2W is considered.
The lowest receiving level is designed to -85 dBm, and the coverage probability is 90% (with
a protection margin of 8 dB).
For railway tunnel coverage, because the train will affect signal transmission, if the antenna
is installed at the tunnel entrance, the protection margin must be increased by 10 dB. If the
antenna is installed in the tunnel, the protection margin must be increased by 5dB.
The dedicated directional antenna with the specification of DB771S50NSY, the horizontal
half power angle of 60, and the antenna gain of 8 dBi is used at the tunnel entrance.
The bi-directional antenna with the specification of K738446 and antenna gain of 5 dBi is
used within the tunnel.
According to these assumptions, if a micro base station (39 dBm) is used as the GSM signal
source, the coverage distance is 400m when the antenna with a gain of 8 dBi is installed at
the tunnel entrance, and the coverage distance is 480m when the bi-directional antenna
with a gain of 5 dBi is installed in the tunnel.
If a repeater (33 dBm) is used as the GSM signal source, the coverage distance is 250m when
the antenna with a gain of 8 dBi is installed at the tunnel entrance, and the coverage
distance is 360m when the bi-directional antenna with a gain of 5 dBi is installed in the
tunnel.
Therefore, for the tunnels shorter than 500m, you can use the combination of a micro base
station and a single antenna (or a repeater) for the tunnel coverage. For curve tunnels, you
can install a bi-directional antaean in the tunnel.
According to on-site survey on the cross-section, the available antenna size, and the tunnel
length, you can use the antenna with a higher gain to coverage the tunnels a little longer
than 500m.
III. Coverage solution to long tunnels
For the tunnels longer than 500m, you need to use the distributed antenna system or the
leaky cable for the coverage. The followings introduce the coverage realized by the
combination of a micro base station and a leaky cable (or a repeater).
Hereunder is a series of assumptions:
The Huawei BTS3001C (the maximum output power is 8W) is used as the GSM signal source.
The repeater with 1 amplified carrier and a maximum output power of 2W is considered.
The lowest receiving level is designed to -85 dBm, and the coverage probability is 90% (with
a protection margin of 8 dB).
The leaky cable with the specification of SLWY-50-22 and the radial loss of 5dB/100 m is
used.
The coupler loss may be 77 dB when the 90% of signals are received.
According to these assumptions, if a micro base station (39 dBm) is used as the GSM signal
source, the coverage distance is 800m when only the leaky cable but no amplifier is used. If
a repeater (33 dBm) is used as the GSM signal source, the coverage distance is 680m when
only the leaky cable but no amplifier is used. The coverage distance will be larger if leaky
cables with smaller loss are used.
For the coverage of still longer tunnels, you must use amplifiers to amplify signals. That is,
you can use either the distributed antenna system or the leaky cable for the coverage
solution. In terms of technical indexes and installation space, coverage solution based on
leaky cable is recommended. In terms of cost, you must select a suitable coverage solution
base on actual conditions.

2.12 Repeater Planning

2.12.1 Application Background
With rapid development of mobile communication networks, people have higher
requirements on service quality. They hope to enjoy mobile services anywhere and anytime.
As for telecommunication carriers, they cannot enable a base station in some dead zones
due to the reasons such as cost and transmission conditions. In this case, a repeater can
provide an auxiliary and economical means to coverage the dead zones.
I. Repeater types
A wireless repeater adopts a set of donor antenna to receive the signals from the base
station. After amplifying the signals, it adopts a set of retransmission antenna to forward the
signals in another direction. Generally, a wireless repeater has only one receiving path, so
the diversity antenna is unnecessary.
Optical repeater
An optical repeater transmits signals using optical fibers, so the repeater side and base
station side must have the optical transmission capability.
Channel bandwidth
Bandwidth selection repeater
A bandwidth selection repeater is also called wideband repeater, and it can select a
frequency (for example, the frequency with a bandwidth of 6M, 19M, or 25M) and amplify it.
Channel selection repeater
A channel selection repeater is also called narrow band repeater or frequency selection
repeater. It amplifies the selected channel numbers only. It is a narrow band repeater and
amplifies a limited channel numbers.
New style
Solar energy repeater
A solar energy repeater is of the wideband type. It is similar to a general wideband repeater
except that its power is solar energy.
Product type
Wireless frequency selection repeater
Currently, the types of the repeaters listed in the left column are in commercial use.
Optical frequency selection repeater
Wireless wideband repeater
Optical wideband repeater
II. Comparison between repeater and micro cell
Many equipments and a long period are needed for constructing a micro cell.
A repeater is installed in a flexible way and the base station equipments and transmission
equipments are unnecessary.
A micro cell can expand the system capacity. When the cells near a base station are busy, a
micro cell can be used to ease the congestion.
A repeater can absorb traffic. When a cell is idle, it brings the traffic to this cell, thus
enhancing the utilization ratio of the equipments. A repeater does not expand the capacity

for a system.
The system needs to allocate channel numbers to a micro cell, but this is hard to be realized
in the areas where the frequency resource is scarce.
The system does not need to allocate channel numbers to a repeater, but it must prevent the
repeater from interfering with other cells.
Note:
The filter of an intra-frequency repeater will produce a delay of about 5s. Theoretically,
the maximum effective coverage distance of a GSM cell will be smaller than 35km in this
case.
A GSM system must enable the dynamic power control function, which is transparent to a
repeater. Generally, you must adopt the automatic level control technologies (ALC) for a
repeater.
& Note:
When the ALC technology is applied to a repeater, if a mobile station is too near to the
repeater, the repeater will reduce the gains for all the mobile stations within its service
area. In this case, the conversation quality of some mobile stations will become poor, or
even call drop may occur; especially the mobile stations far away from the repeater are
greatly affected.
III. Application characteristics
Repeaters are mainly used to cover the dead zones in vast open land, and they are the
extension of the base stations. A repeater improves the coverage but does add up to the
traffic capacity of a network. However, because it enlarges the coverage of the base station,
the total traffic volume increases.
A wireless repeater applies the radio transmission mode, with short construction period and
effective cost. An optical repeater adopts optical fiber as transmission medium, so the
transmission loss is small and transmission distance is large, but construction cost is greater
than that of the wireless repeater.
The application advantage of the wireless repeater lies in low transmission requirement. If
you plant the optical fiber, there is no price advantage against the construction of a micro
cell base station. In this case, considering the network quality, you are recommended to
select the micro cell base station.
Compared with wideband repeater, a narrow band repeater has better performance and
provides better signal quality. However, the following problems are still present in
application:
The carriers of a narrow band repeater must outnumber the carriers configured for the
source base station; otherwise the repeater cannot capture a channel.
The number of paths of many repeaters is set to 4, so the base stations outnumber 4 carriers
cannot work as the signal source.
For the base stations with radio frequency and frequency hopping, if the frequencies in the
frequency hopping set outnumber the paths selected by the repeater, the conversation
cannot be maintained.
When the channel number of the donor cell of the repeater changes, you must adjust the
channel number, otherwise the problems such as channel assignment failure, call drop, and
interference will occur.
The wideband repeater allows the base station to adopt frequency hopping, and you do not
have to adjust the channel number of the repeater after the channel number of the donor
cell changes if the channel number is within the bandwidth of the repeater. However, the
wideband repeater will amplify all the signals within the band, so it causes great
interference against other cells.
No matter whether the optical fiber or wireless repeater is applied, the sum of the radius of
the service area of the repeater and the distance between the repeater and base station
cannot break the TA limitation. For general base stations, the distance between a repeater

and the base station must be shorter than 35 kilometers.

The optical repeater can be used in the areas where the GSM radio signals cannot reach and
no space is left for a repeater. Because the transmission loss of optical fiber is small and its
bandwidth is wide, the optical repeater is quite helpful for transmitting RF signals.
Either an omni antenna or a directional antenna can be selected for an optical repeater
according to the actual landforms. For an optical repeater, its transmission does not have to
be isolated from the reception. In addition, the address of an optical repeater is easy to be
decided. Generally, an optical repeater is applied in the dead zones within countryside,
highroads, touring areas, factories, and urban areas.
In remote mountain areas and along highroads, you can also consider using a solar energy
repeater.
In conclusion, the repeater is used for the following purposes:
Enlarge coverage area and eliminate dead zones.
Strength the field strength and enlarge converge of the base stations in urban areas.
Ensure the coverage along the highroads and tunnels.
Realize indoor coverage.
2.12.2 Working Principles of Repeater
I. Wireless frequency selection repeater
Figure 5-45 shows the working principles of a wireless frequency selection repeater. The
repeater receives the RF signals from the selected base station (donor antenna) and
amplifies and forwards the signals. The antenna receiving the signals from the base station is
called donor antenna, the other antenna is called retransmission antenna.
Working principles of a wireless frequency selection repeater are as follows:
1) The low-noise power amplifier processes the signals (received by the donor antenna) from
downlink carriers.
2) The signals (900 MHz RF signals) are down converted into 71 MHz intermediate frequency
(IF) signals.
3) The IF filter (with a bandwidth of 200 KHz) amplifies the 71 MHz IF signals and up
converts the signals into the 900 MHz RF signals.
4) The retransmission antenna (service antenna) transmits the signals to the coverage areas.
The uplink signals are also processed according to the previous procedures.
II. Wireless wideband repeater
The wireless wideband repeater works as the same way as the wireless frequency selection
repeater except the filter part. The bandwidth of the filter of the wireless wideband
repeater is fixed. Generally, it is 6M, 19M, or 25M.
III. Optical repeater
The difference between the optical frequency selection repeater and the optical wideband
repeater lies in the coverage end. The former adopts the frequency selection components,
but the later adopts the variable bandwidth options.
Compared with the wireless repeater, the optical repeater does require isolation between
donor antenna and retransmission antenna.
2.12.3 Repeater Network Planning
I. Repeater address selection
There is no special requirement on the repeater address selection except the following
items:
A repeater address must lie between the donor base station and the dead zone, and the
azimuth angle between the donor antenna and the retransmission antenna cannot be smaller
than 90, as shown in the following figure.
If the service antenna is a directional antenna, the repeater must be installed about 200 to
500 meters beyond the dead zone. If the repeater is installed within the dead zone, the
coverage quality cannot reach the best, as shown in the following figure.
When the repeater is used to coverage the dense residential areas at the edges of the urban
area, it cannot face the buildings, because great penetration loss will be caused. In this case,

the repeater must be installed at the one side of the building, as shown in the following
figure.
The areas to be covered must meet the requirement of line-of-sight transmission.
The repeater address must ensure the received signal level required by the repeater.
Generally, the received signal level ranges from -50 dBm to -80 dBm.
No strong carrier whose channel number is the same as that of the donor base station is
present at near the repeater address.
The landforms, buildings, or towers where the donor antenna and retransmission antenna
can be installed. (The donor antenna must be directed to the base station and the
retransmission antenna must be directed to the service area of the repeater. In addition, the
isolation between the two antennas must be greater than 170 dBc.)
II. Antenna selection
When selecting the antenna for a repeater, you must consider the followings:
Select the proper antenna gain according to the signals and coverage condition
Do not adopt the omni antenna because the wireless repeater is affiliated to the intrafrequency relay system, otherwise the system will perform self-excitation.
The communication between the donor antenna and the donor base station antenna is pointto-point communication, so you must select the antenna with high gain or narrow horizontal
beam width. For example, to reduce interference, you can select the reflector antenna or
the log-periodical antenna.
Select retransmission antenna according to the characteristics of a coverage area. For a large
coverage area, you can select the general directional antenna with high gain. For tunnel
coverage, you can select the Yagi antenna or the spiral antenna. For indoor coverage, you
must select the antenna specially designed for indoor use. No matter in what occasions, you
must control the transmit direction of the retransmission antenna to prevent the
retransmitted signals from feeding in the donor antenna.
The front-to-back ratio of the antenna must be as great as possible (it is better to be greater
than 30 dB) so that a better isolation between the donor antenna and retransmission
antenna can be ensured.
III. Requirements on antenna isolation
The isolation between repeater antennas depends on the host gain, but the host gain cannot
excel the isolation coefficient for self-excitation. According to the requirements in GSM
protocols 03.30, the isolation must be at least 15 dB greater than the host gain. In actual
project design, you can judge whether the installation position meets the requirements on
antenna isolation according to on-site measurement.
According to the formulas calculating the antenna horizontal isolation, the following formula
can be deducted:
AH = 31.6 + 20 lgd (Gt + Gr) dB (900 MHz)
AH = 37.6 + 20 lgd (Gt + Gr) dB (1800 MHz)
Here, d indicates the distance between the donor antenna and retransmission antenna, in
the unit of meter. Gt and Gr indicate the antenna gain relative to the major lobe in the
direction of the two antennas. If the two antennas are back-to-back installed, Gt and Gr
indicate the front-to-back ratio of the antenna.
Horizontal isolation of repeater antennas:
The formula calculating the vertical isolation of repeater antennas is as follows:
Av = 47.3 + 40 logd dB (900 MHz)
Av = 59.3 + 40 logd dB (1800 MHz)
Vertical isolation of repeater antennas:
If the horizontal isolation and vertical isolation are present simultaneously, the total isolation
can be calculated by the following formula:
AS = (AV - AH) a/90 + AH, here AV indicates the vertical isolation; AH indicates the horizontal
isolation; and a indicates the antenna included angle.
Donor antenna and retransmission antenna are installed on the top of the building. Suppose
the host gain is 100 dB, the isolation between the two antennas can be 120 dB. If the frontto-back ratio of the donor antenna and the retransmission antenna is 30 dB, when no

barriers are present between the two antennas, the requirement on the isolation can be
met.
If the space loss of the signals between the two antennas is 60 dB, the horizontal isolation
distance can be obtained, that is, d = 26m.
During project implementation, you must select the antenna installation position according
to on-site measurement. You can use a signal source and a receiver for the repeater. If the
signal attenuation between the signal source and the receiver reaches 60 dB, it means that
the antenna installation position meets the requirement on antenna isolation.
When installing the antenna for a repeater, you must pay attention to the following items:
If the antennas are horizontally installed, the host of the repeater must be installed between
the donor antenna and the retransmission antenna (it must be nearer to the donor antenna.)
A good isolation must be ensured regardless that the antennas are horizontally or vertically
installed. When they are horizontally installed, it is better that there are some barriers lying
between the donor antenna and the retransmission antenna, because you do not have to
particularly design a large installation space to ensure antenna isolation in this case.
IV. Uplink and downlink balancce calculation
For a GSM repeater, the link balance is realized by four links, namely, the uplink and
downlink between the donor base station and repeater, and the uplink and downlink
between the repeater and mobile station.
This section employs the wireless repeater applied in outdoors as an example to calculate
the link balance. To simplify the calculation, we introduce the effective donor path loss
(EDoPL), which includes all the loss and gain from the output end of the base station
combiner or the input end of the multi-path coupler to the input end of the repeater.
The link balance is calculated according to the following two formulas:
For downlinks, Pbout - EDoPL + GRD - LRF + GRA - Lpass - Pmn = Pmin.
For uplinks, Pmout - Lpass + GRA - LRF + GRU - EDoPL - Pbn = Pbin.
Here,
Pbout indicates the output power of the base station.
Pmout indicates the output power of the mobile station.
GRD indicates the downlink gain of the repeater.
GRU indicates the uplink gain of the repeater.
LRF indicates the feeder loss of the retransmission antenna.
GRA indicates the gain of the retransmission antenna.
Lpass indicates the path loss the mobile stations from the repeater to the service area.
Pbn indicates the attenuation margin of the mobile station.
Pbin indicates the receiving level of the base station.
Pmin indicates the receiving level of the mobile station.
BTSsens indicates the base station sensitivity.
MSsens indicates the mobile station sensitivity.
If the uplink EDoPL and downlink EDoPL are equal to the uplink path loss and the downlink
path loss from the repeater and mobile station, the attenuation margin of the base station is
equal to that of the mobile station. Therefore, if you subtract the formula calculating uplink
balance from the formula calculating downlink balance, you can get Pbout - Pmout + GRD GRU = Pmin - Pbin.
If the links are balance, the equation Pmin - Pbin = Dsens = MSsens- BTSsens is present. In
this case, the formula calculating link balance is Pbout - Pmout + GRD - GRU = Dsens.
Therefore, the Dsens is fixed after the base station equipments are selected. Moreover, the
output power of the base station and mobile station may be decided in GSM system planning.
As a result, to achieve the balance of the whole links, you need to adjust the uplink gain and
downlink gain of the repeater only.
The followings employ the repeater system installed in outdoors as an example to calculate
the whole link balance.
For downlink budget of the outdoor repeater , output power of the transmitter (+43dBm)
loss of the combiner (4dB) EdoPL (90dB) = input power of the repeater (-51dBm) +

downlink gain of the repeater (80dB) = downlink output power of the repeater (+29dBm)
feeder loss of the retransmission antenna (3dB) + gain of the retransmission antenna (18dBi)
path loss of the repeater in the coverage area (127dB) = input level of the mobile station (83dBm) attenuation margin (20dBm) = the mobile station sensitivity (-103dBm).
& Note:
To obtain the value of EDoPL, you can measure the input level of the donor repeater and
output level of the base station combiner first, and then obtain the difference between the
two, and the difference is the value of EDoPL. In addition, the gain of the mobile antenna
must be converted to 0 dBi.
For uplink budget of the outdoor repeater, output power of the mobile station transmitter
(+33dBm) path loss of the repeater in the coverage area (127dB) + gain of the
retransmission antenna (18dBi) feeder loss of the retransmission antenna (3dB) = input
power of the repeater (-79dBm) + uplink gain of the repeater (80dB) = output power of the
repeater (+1dBm) EdoPL (90dB) = input level of the base station (-89dBm) attenuation
margin (20dBm) = base station sensitivity (-109dBm).
& Note:
Because you do not have to consider the diversity function, the attenuation margin on
uplinks is the same as that on downlinks. According to the previous link budget, the
downlinks are restricted by the output power of the repeater, the uplinks are restricted by
the output power of the mobile station, and the noise restricts the maximum gain (EDoPL-10
dB), so the link balance is present. However, this is the most common situation. Actually, you
must calculate the margin for all links when installing or optimizing the repeater system. The
latest repeater supports the uplink gain and downlink gain to be set respectively.
Hereunder is an example.
There is a base station covering parts of a highroad. Its coverage radius is about 20 km.
The measured signal strength at the edges of the base station cells is -93dBm.
The microwave link tower on the top of the hill near the base station is selected as the
address of the repeater.
In the areas (including mountains) 350m below the top of the tower, the received level of
the mobile station is -71 dBm.
The log-periodical antenna with a gain of 18dBi and an azimuth angle of 35is used as the
donor antenna.
The antenna is installed at 15 meters under the tower top and faces the base station.
If the previous conditions are present, the signals output by the repeater are -54 dBm. If a
plane antenna with a gain of 17 dBi and a horizontal azimuth angle of 60 degrees is installed
at the top of the tower and the antenna radiates to the reverse direction of the donor
antenna, the requirements on antenna isolation can be met even if the gain of the repeater
reaches 85 dB. In this case, the output power of the repeater is 30 dBm. And the level of the
signals in the areas along the highroad which are 20 km beyond the tower can reach -90
dBm. Therefore, the radius of the cell along the highroad is enlarged by 50%.
& Note:
If a retransmission antenna is installed at the top of the tower, you must ensure that the
received signal level in the zero point filling areas near the tower.
V. Repeater output power control
When adopting a repeater, you must pay special attention to the effect of the
intermodulation products against the system. The intermodulation products of the repeater
depend on the number of the amplified carriers, the output power of each carrier, and the
linearity of the amplifier.
Linearity of the amplifier:
Third order intermodulation will increase with output power due to the nonlinearity of the
amplifier. Therefore, you must control the output to a certain degree to ensure that that the
indexes on third order intermodulation meet the requirements. The following formula shows
the relationship between the output power of each carrier of the repeater and the

requirements on third order intermodulation.

Po = IP3 + (PIMP/2) +10 lg (N/2)
Here,
Po indicates the output power of each carrier (dBm)
IP3 indicates the third order section of the amplifier (dBm)
PIMP indicates the level of the third order intermodulation (dBc)
N indicates the number of carriers
If the third order section of the amplifier of a typical repeater is 50 dBm, and the
intermodulation level must be lower than -45 dBc according to the requirement of the
wireless communication institutes in Britain.
VI. Repeater gain setting
The gain of the early repeaters must be set manually, but the latest gain of the latest
repeaters can be automatically set. For the repeaters whose gain is set manually, the sum of
the repeater gain and the protection margin must be equal to or smaller than the repeater
isolation; otherwise, the self-excitation of the repeater will be caused. Here the repeater
isolation indicates the isolation between the donor antenna and the retransmission antenna
of the repeater. Generally, the protection margin ranges from 10 dB to 15 dB.
VII. Repeater adjacent cell planning
The coverage areas of a repeater may overlap other donor cells, so you must configure the
corresponding adjacent cell relationship for the repeater to ensure normal handover. In
addition, you must pay attention that the frequencies in the coverage areas of the repeater
and that in the donor cells cannot be the same frequency and neighbor frequency.
VIII. Effect of delay processing against repeater planning
If only one repeater cannot fully cover an area (such as a narrow and long tunnel), you can
use several cascaded repeaters to provide the coverage. The selection of the address and
antenna for the repeater of each level is the same as that for a single repeater.
However, the repeater will amplify the same frequency and it takes some time for the
repeater to process the signal, so there is a delay for each signal segment. If the delay is
greater than the time for the GSM system to identify the time window, the intra-frequency
interference will occur. Therefore, you must consider the effect of the delay when adopting
cascaded repeaters, because the delay will also accelerate the time dispersion and shorten
the coverage distance.
If adopting the optical repeater, you must consider that the transmission speed of the signals
in optical fibers is 2/3 that of in free space, namely, if the extension cell technology is not
used, the maximum transmission distance of the signals in optical fiber is 35 km multiplies
2/3 (about 23.3 km) due to the restriction on transmission delay.
In addition, if one of three synchronous cells adopting the optical repeater, the TA of two
cells will be different due to the difference of transmission mode and rate. In this case, the
synchronous handover failure will occur. Therefore, you must adopt the asynchronous
handover to obtain the TA of a new cell, which works as the handover target cell.
The delay processing varies with repeater types. Some take 2 to 3 s and some takes 5 to
6s. In a GSM system, the delay of two signals cannot be greater than 16s. For the effect of
repeater delay processing against time dispersion.
Distance between point A and the repeater d is 2.1km. The delay for the mobile station at
point A to receive the signals from the repeater and the cell is as follows:
(2.1km + 2.1km)/c (light speed) + 3s = 14s + 3s = 17s > 16s.
In this case, the intra-frequency interference may be present. If the difference of the levels
of the two signals is equal to or lower than 12 dB, the conversation quality will be affected.
The time dispersion will cause intra-frequency interference, and the time dispersion is
caused by the overlap of the signal source cell and the repeater coverage area. Therefore,
you must select the signal of the secondary cells in the coverage areas of the repeater
instead of the signals of the major service cell as the source signal of the repeater. In this
case, the time dispersion caused by overlap can be avoided.
IX. Effect of background noise against repeater planning
Suppose that the maximum received noise level allowed by the base station is DN, if the

uplink background noise level of the repeater host is too great, the base station channels will
be congested when the noise level at the base station is greater than DN. However, how to
set the repeater without affecting the base station? They are introduces as follows.
If the following assumptions are present:
The transmitted signal strength of the base station is Tb.
The received signal strength of the base station is Rb.
The received downlink signal strength of the base station host is Dr.
The transmitted uplink signal strength of the base station host is Ut.
In this case, the path loss between the base station and the repeater is Tb-Dr, so Rb = Ut
(Tb-Dr). As a result, if the repeater does not affect the base station, Rb < DN, so the
following two inequities are present:
Ut (Tb - Dr) < DN
Ut < Tb-Dr + DN
According to the previous analysis, the repeater does not affect the base station if the uplink
background noise level output by the repeater host is lower than (Tb-Dr+DN). From this
perspective of review, the background noise must be particularly emphasized in repeater
planning because it is easier to bring interference than other types of base stations.
X. Specifications of wireless repeaters

2.13 Conclusion
Network planning is the foundation of a mobile communication network, especially the wireless parts
in a mobile communication network costs great and is of vital importance to network quality, so you
must make a good planning at earlier stage, which is helpful for network expansion and service update
in the future.
Network planning requires engineers to analyze coverage, decide network layers, and analyze traffic
based on relative technologies and parameters, and finally output the results of RF planning, including
base station layout and scale.
RF planning, as well as the application of cell parameters, determines the cell coverage. The cell
coverage must be properly designed so that the mobile station can always enjoy the best service at the
best cells. In addition, the cell coverage must be designed in a way conducive to network capacity
expansion.
This chapter also introduces the solutions to dual-band network, indoor coverage, tunnel coverage, and
so on. Last, this chapter introduces the repeater application.
3 GSM Frequency Planning
3.1 Overview
Frequency resource is scarce for the mobile communication, so how to maximize the
spectrum utilization ratio is a great concern for many carriers, equipment providers, and
scholars. And their research into this problem has accelerated the development of the
communication technologies. By now, the mobile communication has experienced three
phases: analog TACS/AMPS, GSM/CDMA IS95, and WCDMA/CDMA2000.
The purpose to enhance the spectrum utilization ratio is to expand the network capacity
based on the limited spectrum resource while ensuring the network quality. If not
considering adding frequencies to the network, you can expand the capacity of a GSM
network using the two methods. One is to increase the number of base stations in the
network; the other is to use the frequency reuse technologies. This chapter mainly describes

the GSM frequency reuse technologies, namely, frequency planning technologies.

To expand the network capacity, you must reuse the limited frequency resources. Though
frequency reuse is beneficial for network expansion, it brings into another problem. That is,
it deteriorates the conversation quality. The more aggressive the frequencies are reused, the
greater the interference will arise in the network. Therefore, how to seek a balance
between network capacity and conversation quality is a demanding task in frequency
planning.
Currently, the 4 x 3, 3 x 3, 2 x 6, 1 x 3, 1 x 1, MRP, and concentric circles are the GSM
frequency technologies in common use. For the 4 x 3 frequency reuse pattern, the
frequency utilization ratio is relatively low, but the higher carrier-to-interference ratio (C/I)
can be obtained, so you can enjoy better conversation quality. Compared with the 4 x 3
frequency reuse pattern, the 1 x 3 frequency reuse pattern ensures a relatively high
frequency utilization ratio, but the reuse distance is shorter, so interference is greater and
the conversation quality is poorer. In this case, you should take some measures, such as the
frequency hopping and DTX, against the interference.
The frequency planning is a key technology for GSM network, so the quality of the frequency
planning will determine the network quality.
This chapter introduces the rules of frequency reuse based on the frequency reuse patterns
and the network requirement. Meanwhile, it also provides examples to detail the frequency
division, C/I, frequency reuse degree under each reuse pattern.

3.2 Frequency Division and C/I Requirement

3.2.1 Frequency Division
The GSM cellular system can be divided into GSM 900MHz system and DCS 1800MHz system in terms of
the band to be used. The carrier spacing is 200 KHz.
I. GSM 900MHz
It has 124 channel numbers. The absolute radio frequency channel number (ARFCN) is 1124, and a
protection band with 200 KHz in width is reserved at the two ends. According to the documents
prescribed by the relative government department of China, China Mobile uses the 890909/936
954MHz band, and the corresponding ARFCN is 195 (generally, the channel number 95 is for reservation
only). For China Unicom, it uses the 909915/954960MHz band, and the corresponding ARFCN is 96
124. For the bands defined for the carriers from other countries, they can be calculated by the
following formulas:
Base station reception: f1 (n) = [890.2 + (n 1) x 0.2] MHz
Base station transmit: f2 (n) = [f1 (n) + 45] MHz
II. DSC 1800MHz
It has 374 channel numbers. The ARFCN is 512885. The relationship between the frequency and the
channel number (n) are listed in the following:
Base station reception: f1 (n) = [1710.2 + (n 512) x 0.2] MHz
Base station transmit: f2 (n) = [f1(n) + 95] MHz
China Mobile uses the 17101720 MHz band, and the corresponding ARFCN is 512561. China Unicom
uses the 17451755 MHz, and the corresponding ARFCN is 687736.
3.2.2 C/I
C/I stands for carrier-to-interference ratio. In the GSM system, frequency reuse will cause intrafrequency interference. The intra-frequency is related to both the reuse distance and the cell radius.
If the intra-frequency cell and the service cell work at the same time, the MS locating in the center of

the service cell will receive both the useful signals from this service cell and the interfering signals
from the intra-frequency cells.
For the omni-directional base station with regular frequency reuse, there are 6 intra-frequency
interference sources at the first layer, namely, the 6 intra-frequency reuse cells in orange. There are 12
intra-frequency interference sources at the second layer, namely, the 12 intra-frequency reuse cells in
yellow. However, the 12 intra-frequency interference sources has only a little effect on the 6
interference sources at the first layer, so it can be neglected.
If the radio propagation environment between the 6 intra-frequency reuse cells and the service cell is
the keeps stable.
When the MS locates at the edge of the service cell, it will receive the poorest signals form the service
cell but the strongest interfering signals. In this case, the needed C/I can be expressed by the following
equation:
If the cellular layout is improperly designed, the interfering sources will increase and the C/I will
decrease. According to the previous equations, the more the cells in each cluster, the greater the C/I
and the better the network quality are, but the frequency utilization ratio will be lower. In addition,
the GSM interference is related to the traffic load. The intra-frequency interference reaches the
greatest when the traffic load reaches the peak.
Generally, the 4 x 3 frequency reuse pattern is used in GSM frequency planning. For the areas where
the traffic is great, you can use other frequency reuse patterns, such as 3 x 3 and 1 x 3. No matter
which frequency reuse pattern you take, you must meet the requirement on interference-to-protection
ratio.
Apart from the intra-frequency interference caused by normal frequency reuse, there are other
abnormal interferences. They are listed in the following:
Multipath signal interference (It occurs when useful signals fall outside the delay equalizer of the
system.)
Outside signal interference (It refers to the signals from the radar, illegal wireless equipments, and
environment noises.)
In the GSM system, the requirements on the C/I are listed in the following:
For intra-frequency C/I, it must be equal to greater than 9 dB. In actual projecting, a margin of 3 dB is
needed, namely, it is equal to or greater than 12 dB.
For adjacent-frequency C/I, it must be equal to or greater than -9 dB. In actual projecting, a margin of
3 dB is needed, namely, it is equal to or greater than -6 dB.
When the carrier offset reaches 400 KHz, the C/I must be equal to or greater than -41 dB.

3.3 Frequency Planning Principle

Generally, when planning the frequency for the network, you will divide the geographic area
into smaller slices, but you must reserve a certain amount of channel number at the
intersection area between slices if the frequency resource is adequate.
The intersection area must be far away from the areas where the traffic is great and the
areas where the networking is complex. Generally, you should begin the planning with the
area where base stations are intensively distributed. If there are rivers or big lakes in the
planning area, you must consider the refection effect of the surface.
Generally, base stations irregularly distributed, so you cannot perform the frequency
planning completely according to 4 x 3 frequency reuse pattern or 3 x 3 frequency reuse
pattern. Instead, you must make flexible adjustment according to actual conditions.
No matter which reuse pattern you take, you must obey the following principles:

- Generally, the intra-frequencies and adjacent cannel numbers are allowed to appear within
a base station.
- The frequency spacing between the BCCH and TCH must be greater than 400 KHz within a
cell.
- The frequency spacing between the TCHs must be greater than 400 KHz within a cell.
(When frequency hopping is used, you can meet this by properly setting the mobile
allocation index offset.)
- The adjacent base stations cannot use the same frequency.
- Considering the complexity of the antenna height and radio propagation environment, the
base stations near each other cannot use the same frequency.
- Generally, if using the 1 x 3 frequency reuse pattern, you must ensure that the number of
frequency hopping channel numbers is at least twice that of the frequency hoping carriers.
- Pay special attention to the intra-frequency reuse. The adjacent areas are not allowed to
share the BCCH and the BSIC.

3.4 Normal Frequency Reuse Technology

3.4.1 C/I under 4 x 3 Frequency Reuse Pattern
The spectrum utilization ratio can be expressed by frequency reuse degree, which
reveals the aggressiveness of the frequency reuse. The frequency reuse degree can be
expressed by the following equation: freuse=NARFCN / NTRX
Here NARFCN is the total number of the available channel numbers, and NTRX is the
number of TRXs configured for the cell.
For the n x m frequency reuse pattern, "n" indicates the number of the base stations
in the reuse clusters, and "m" indicates the number of the cells under each base
station. In this case, the frequency reuse degree can be expressed by the following
equation:
freuse= n x m
In actual planning, however, the allocated number of channel numbers will be greater
than n x m, so the actual freuse is usually greater than n x m. Therefore, the smaller
the freuse, the more aggressive the frequency is reused and the higher the frequency
utilization ratio is. As the aggressiveness of the frequency reuse grows, however, it
will bring greater interference to the network. In this case, you must enable the
technologies, including DTX and power control, to solve this problem. The more

aggressive the frequency is reused, the lower the spectrum utilization ratio is, but the
conversation quality is better at this time.
The purpose the frequency planning is to reach a balance between the frequency utilization ratio and
the network capacity. Based on the assurance of the network quality, you must take measures to
maximize the network capacity.

In the GSM system, the 4 x 3 frequency reuse pattern is in basic use. Here "4"
indicates 4 base stations (each base station consists of 3 cells), and "3" indicates the 3
cells under the control of each base station. Therefore, there are 12 sectors are
available. And the 12 sectors makes up of a frequency reuse cluster, but the
frequency in the same cluster cannot be reused.
For the 4 x 3 frequency reuse pattern, the intra-frequency spacing is great, so it can
meet GSM system's requirement on the intra-frequency interference protection ratio
and adjacent frequency interference protection ratio. As a result, this frequency reuse
pattern is good for the network quality and security. Under the 4 x 3 frequency reuse
pattern, the frequency reuse aggressiveness is 12.
For the aggressive reuse introduced hereunder, because the BCCH plays an important
role in the network and you cannot use the apply the anti-interference measures, such
as downlink power control and DTX, to the BCCH, you must apply the 4 x 3
frequency reuse pattern or looser reuse patterns to the BCCH carriers.
Normal 4 x 3 frequency reuse pattern.

3.4.2 10MHz Bandwidth 4 x 3 Frequency Reuse

Hereunder are several assumptions:
The available bandwidth is 10MHz.
The channel number is 4594.

If the channel numbers ranging from 8194 (14 channel numbers in total) are
allocated to the BCCH, and the other channel numbers are allocated to TCH.

If the previous assumptions are present, the frequency planning under 4 x 3

frequency reuse pattern is provided in Table:
Frequency planning under 4 x 3 frequency reuse pattern (a)
Frequency
group
number
Channel
number of
each
frequency
group

A1

B1

C1

D1

A2

B2

C2

D2

A3

B3

C3

D3

94

93

92

91

90

89

88

87

86

85

84

83

80

79

78

77

76

75

74

73

72

71

70

69

68

67

66

65

64

63

62

61

60

59

58

57

56

55

54

53

52

51

50

49

48

47

46

45

According to this table, the channel numbers in the first line are BCCH numbers, in
which the channel numbers 81 and 82 are standby channel numbers. The channel
number of BCCH of the cell A1 is 94. It is 80, 68 and 56 for other carriers, and so on.
In a cluster which contains 12 cells, the frequency group for base station A is {A1,
A2, and A3}; the frequency group for base station B is {B1, B2, and B3}; the
frequency group for base station C is {C1, C2, and C3}; and the frequency group for
base station D is {D1, D2, and D3}.
Therefore, as listed in this table, no channel number is reused within a cluster. In
addition, the intra-frequency and adjacent frequency are not available for the adjacent
cells and the same cell.
However, the drawbacks of this frequency reuse pattern are that the frequency reuse
ratio is low and the capacity expansion needs a great amount of the frequency
resources. Therefore, this reuse pattern is not used in the areas where the network
capacity needs to be constantly expanded.
If the bandwidth is 10MHz, the maximum base station configuration is S4/4/4 under
the normal 4 x 3 frequency reuse pattern, and the frequency reuse degree is 12.5
(50/4 = 12.5).
Note:

The maximum base station type mentioned in the chapter refers to the configuration type that
most continuous base stations can reach. It does not include standalone base station.
3.4.3 19MHz Bandwidth 4 x 3 Frequency Reuse
For the 19MHz frequency (1 to 94) used by China Mobile, the 4 x 3 frequency reuse
pattern are used for the frequency planning. The channel numbers ranging from 79 to
94 (16 channel numbers in total) are allocated to the BCCH, and other channel
numbers are allocated to TCH. No channel number is reserved for micro cells. In this
case, the frequency planning solution is provided in Table:
Frequency planning under 4 x 3 frequency reuse pattern (b)
Frequency
group
number
Channel
number of
each
frequency
group

A1

B1

C1

D1

A2

B2

C2

D2

A3

B3

C3

D3

94

93

92

91

90

89

88

87

86

85

84

83

78

77

76

75

74

73

72

71

70

69

68

67

66

65

64

63

62

61

60

59

58

57

56

55

54

53

52

51

50

49

48

47

46

45

44

43

42

41

40

39

38

37

36

35

34

33

32

31

30

29

28

27

26

25

24

23

22

21

20

19

18

17

16

15

14

13

12

11

10

As listed in this table, the channel numbers ranging from 79 to 82 are standby
channel numbers. For the 19MHz bandwidth, the maximum base station type can be
S8/7/7 under 4 x 3 frequency reuse pattern. The frequency reuse degrees are 11.75,
13.43, and 13.43, so the average value is 12.87.
3.4.4 6MHz Bandwidth 4 x 3 Frequency Reuse
For the 6MHz frequency (96 to 124) used by China Unicom, the 4 x 3 frequency
reuse pattern is used for the frequency planning. The channel numbers ranging from
111 to 124 (14 channel numbers in total) are allocated to the BCCH, and other
channel numbers are allocated to TCH. No channel number is reserved for micro
cells. In this case, the frequency planning solution is provided in:
Frequency planning under 4 x 3 frequency reuse pattern (c)
Frequency
group
number
Channel
number of
each
frequency
group

A1

B1

C1

D1

A2

B2

C2

D2

A3

B3

C3

D3

124

123

122

121

120

119

118

117

116

115

114

113

110

109

108

107

106

105

104

103

102

101

100

99

98

97

96

As listed in this table, the channel numbers ranging from 111 to 112 are standby
channel numbers. For the 6MHz bandwidth, the maximum base station type can be
S3/2/2 under 4 x 3 frequency reuse pattern. The frequency reuse degrees are 9.67,
13.5, and 13.5, so the average value is 12.22.
3.4.5 4 x 3 Frequency Reuse Conclusion
The 4 x 3 frequency reuse pattern is a basic technology applied in frequency
planning. It is applicable to other frequency aggressive reuse technologies that are
used for the BCCH.
Theoretical analysis shows that when the base stations are regularly distributed and
azimuths of the cells are consistent with each other, the interference can be reduced
to the minimum. Therefore, if you intend to expand the network capacity, you can
keep the base stations to be distributed as regular as possible and plan the azimuths
of the cells along the same direction. In addition, you can also maintain the antennas
at a similar height. However, sometimes you need to adjust the azimuth of the
antenna to improve the coverage, which seems contradicts to the capacity expansion.

Therefore, sometimes you must make find a balance between the coverage and
capacity.
If the network capacity needs to be further expanded, you can take the following
measures:
Split a cell into smaller cells. At present, however, the average coverage radius
of the macro cell base stations in urban areas is already shorter than 500m, so further
cell splitting will meet difficulty in cost and technology.

Utilize new frequency resources. For example, you can employ the 1800MHz
band to establish a DSC 1800MHz network.

Under the current 900MHz network, use more aggressive frequency reuse
technology to expand the network capacity.

At present, the aggressive frequency reuse technology works as the most economical
and convenient way to expand the network capacity, so it is also the most popular
with carriers.
The typical frequency reuse technology includes 3 x 3, 2 x 6, 2 x 3, 1 x 3, and 1 x 1.

3.5 Aggressive Frequency Reuse Technology

3.5.1 3 x 3 Frequency Reuse Pattern
The 3 x 3 frequency reuse pattern can be used in the areas with high traffic. That is,
three base stations form a group, and each base station has three cells, so there are 9
cells, which form a frequency reuse cluster. However, the 9 cells use different
frequencies. Compared with the 4 x 3 frequency reuse pattern, the intra-frequency
reuse distance under the 3 x 3 frequency reuse pattern is small, so on-line
interference is greater.
If the available bandwidth is 10MHz and the channel numbers are from 45 to 94, you can use normal 4 x
3 frequency reuse pattern on BCCH. In this case, the frequency ranges from 81 to 94, so 14 channel
numbers are available. For TCH, you can use 3 x 3 frequency reuse pattern. In this case, the frequency
ranges from 45 to 80, so 36 channel numbers are available.
For the frequency planning under 3 x 3 frequency reuse pattern, see Table:
Frequency planning under 3 x 3 frequency reuse pattern
Frequency
group
number

A1

B1

C1

A2

B2

C2

A3

B3

C3

80

79

78

77

76

75

74

73

72

Channel
number of
each
frequency
group

71

70

69

68

67

66

65

64

63

62

61

60

59

58

57

56

55

54

53

52

51

50

49

48

47

46

45

If 3 x 3 reusing the 10MHz band, you can configure the maximum base station type
as S5/5/5, and the frequency reuse degree is 10.
According to previous equations, because the number of base stations is 3 (N = 3), the intra-frequency
interference attenuation factor is 3 (q = 3). In this case, the number of the intra-frequency
interference sources is 2 at the first layer.
When the bandwidth is 10MHz, the base station type can be configured as S5/5/5 under 3 x 3 frequency
reuse pattern. For 4 x 3 frequency reuse pattern, the maximum base station configuration type can
only be configured as S4/4/4/. Therefore, network capacity under 3 x 3 frequency reuse pattern is
greater than that under 4 x 3 frequency reuse pattern when the bandwidth is the same.

When the number of subscribers in a network is not great, you can use the 3 x 3
frequency reuse pattern to ease the pressure of network capacity. In actual conditions,
however, because base stations are irregularly distributed, the antenna height is
different, and the coverage area of each base station varies, the interference in the
network will increase. In this case, if you intend to obtain better voice quality, you
must take some anti-interference measures, such as using frequency hopping and
DTX.
The characteristic of the 3 x 3 frequency reuse pattern are as follows:
The adjustment for network structure is unnecessary.
The frequencies can be easily grouped and the system capacity is great.

Compared with 4 x 3 frequency reuse pattern, 3 x 3 frequency reuse pattern

brings greater interference, but the overall interference can be controlled to a lower
level.

If frequency hopping is used, adequate bandwidth is needed.

3.5.2 2 x 6 Reuse Pattern

The 2 x 6 frequency reuse pattern is developed from the 4 x 3 frequency reuse
pattern. Under the 4 x 3 frequency reuse pattern, you can add anther 2 cells to each
base station, so 2 base stations (each base station has 6 60-sectorized cells) has 12
cells, which form a frequency reuse cluster. In this case, a frequency reuse cluster
contains 12 60-sectorized cells, and this is defined as 2 x 6 frequency reuse pattern.
2 x 6 frequency reuse pattern.
2 x 6 frequency reuse pattern

Under the 2 x 6 frequency reuse pattern, .

Because each cell is 60-directional cell under 2 x 6 frequency reuse pattern, the
interference source of each cell is reduced to 1 at the first layer. In this case, the
theoretical C/I can be expressed by the following equation:

In actual conditions, because base stations are irregularly distributed, the antenna
height is different, and the effect from radio environment, the value of C/I cannot be
as high as 15.6 dB.
If the available bandwidth is 10MHz, the channel numbers range from 45 to 94, you
can also use 2 x 6 frequency reused pattern. Considering the characteristics of the 2 x
6 cellular structures, you can also use the 2 x 6 frequency reuse for BCCH. The
frequencies are from 81 to 94, 14 channel numbers in total, and the others are TCH
numbers.
For the frequency planning under 2 x 6 frequency reuse pattern, see Table:
Frequency planning under 2 x 6 frequency reuse pattern
Frequency
group
number
Channel
number of
each
frequency
group

A1

B1

A2

B2

A3

B3

A4

B4

A5

B5

A6

B6

94

93

92

91

90

89

88

87

86

85

84

83

80

79

78

77

76

75

74

73

72

71

70

69

68

67

66

65

64

63

62

61

60

59

58

57

56

55

54

53

52

51

50

49

48

47

46

45

As listed in this table, when allocating frequency to the base station, you can select
the frequency according to the regularity of {A1, A2, A3, A4, A4, A6} and {B1, B2,
B3, B4, B5, B6}. Note that intra-frequency and neighbor frequency cannot be present
within the same cell and adjacent cells.
Under the 2 x 6 frequency reuse pattern, you can enhance the system capacity by
adding new cells to the base station. Compared with 4 x 3 frequency reuse pattern,
the maximum base station type can be configured as S4/4/4/4/4/4 under 2 x 6
frequency reuse pattern, so the capacity of a single base station is twice that of the
base station under the 4 x 3 frequency reuse pattern.
Under this frequency reuse pattern, however, the intra-frequency reuse distance is
further shortened, which increases network interference greatly. In addition, as the
number of cells increases, the requirements on the half-power angle and other
antenna indexes are higher. Moreover, you must add antenna feeders to the system if
using the 2 x 6 frequency reuse pattern, which brings great difficulty to project
implementation. Therefore, the 2 x 6 frequency reuse pattern is seldom used.
For the 2 x 6 frequency reuse pattern, the frequency reuse degree is 12.5. And its
characteristics are listed in the following:
Through add more cells to each base station, you can enhance the capacity of
the base station greatly.

The antennas with smaller half-power angle and good performance are needed
and the requirement on antenna and base station address is strict.

The signals radiated by antennas are more concentrated, which is good for
indoor coverage.

The BSS system must support 6 sectors.

More antennas are needed under the 2 x 6 frequency reuse pattern than that
under 4 x 3 frequency reuse pattern, so you must adjust and optimize the planning for
antenna system and frequencies.

The times of handovers under the 2 x 6 frequency reuse pattern are more than
that under the 4 x 3 frequency reuse pattern.

The intra-frequency reuse distance is small, so the interference within the

network is great. Therefore, you must take anti-frequency measures, such as using
DTX and frequency hopping.

3.5.3 2 x 3 Frequency Reuse Pattern

Under 2 x 3 frequency reuse pattern, there are 2 base stations. Each one has 3 cells,
so 6 cells form a frequency reuse cluster. The cells in the same cluster use the
different frequencies, and the cells in different clusters use the same frequency group.
This is defined as the 2 x 3 frequency reuse pattern.
2 x 3 frequency reuse pattern:
Under 2 x 3 frequency reuse pattern, each intra-frequency cell is interfered by 3 cells.
Because the number of base stations in each frequency cluster is 2 (N = 2), the intrafrequency interference attenuation factor (q) can be expressed by the following
equation:
For regularly-arranged cells, the theoretical carrier-to-interference ratio (C/I) can be
expressed by the following equation:
Even if the cells are regularly arranged, however, the value of C/I cannot meet the
requirement of the network. Therefore, you must take anti-frequency measures, such
as frequency hopping, power control, and DTX.
For 10MHz bandwidth, the available channel numbers are from 45 to 94. If the 14
channel numbers (81-94) are BCCH numbers, and the others are TCH numbers, the
frequencies are planned according to 2 x 3 frequency reuse pattern.
Frequency planning under 2 x 3 frequency reuse pattern
Frequency group
number

Channel number of
each frequency
group

A1

B1

A2

B2

A3

B3

80

79

78

77

76

75

74

73

72

71

70

69

68

67

66

65

64

63

62

61

60

59

58

57

56

55

54

53

52

51

50

49

48

47

46

45

You can use looser 4 x 3 frequency reuse pattern and allocate 14 channel numbers for
BCCH. If the bandwidth is 10MHz, you can configure the maximum base station

type as S7/7/7 under the 2 x 3 frequency reuse pattern. In this case, the frequency
reuse degree is 7.14.
The network capacity is great under the 2 x 3 frequency reuse pattern, but small
intra-frequency reuse distance will cause great interference. In addition, the cell
traffic cannot 100% reach the designated value. In actual conditions, therefore, you
can use the looser 4 x 3 frequency reuse pattern for BCCH and the 2 x 3 frequency
reuse pattern for TCH.
The characteristics of the 2 x 3 frequency reuse pattern are listed below:
The network capacity is relatively great.
The adjustment for the network structure is unnecessary.

The network capacity can be expanded without wide frequency band.

Small intra-frequency reuse distance will cause great interference, so you must
take anti-interference measures to ensure network quality.

Radio frequency (RF) hopping technology must be used to support the

equipments.

The antennas must be directed to the same direction as much as possible.

3.5.4 1 x 3 Frequency Reuse Pattern

1 x 3 frequency reuse pattern is also called fractional reuse. For 1 x 3 or 1 x 1
frequency reuse pattern, the reuse distance is quite small, so the interference in the
network is quite great. Therefore, to avoid frequency collision, you must use RF
hopping technology and set the parameters, including MA (mobile allocation), HSN
(hopping sequence number), and MAIO (mobile allocation index offset). The ratio of
number of the TRXs to that of the frequency hopping is FR LOAD (generally, it is
smaller than 50%).
Under the 1 x 3 frequency reuse pattern, the interference in the network can also
indicates the probability of the collision of intra-frequencies and neighbor
frequencies. Emulation shows that probability of the collision is related to FR only.
According to 1 x 3 frequency reuse pattern, the 3 cells of a base station form a
frequency reuse cluster. The same-directional cells of each base station use the same
frequency group.
1 x 3 frequency reuse pattern.
For the 1 x 3 frequency reuse pattern, the number of base station is 1 (N = 1), so , and .

Because the value of C/I here is far lower than the protection value required by the
system, you must take anti-interference measures, such as frequency hopping, power
control, and DTX, to enhance the value of C/I.
If the available bandwidth is 10MHz, the available channel numbers are from 45 to
94. Because RF hopping must be used under 1 x 3 frequency reuse pattern,
considering the importance of BCCH, you can use 4 x 3 frequency reuse pattern for
BCCH and 1 x 3 frequency reuse pattern for TCH.
For BCCH, 14 channel numbers (81-94) are available; for TCH, 36 channel numbers
(45-80) are available.

The channel numbers used for TCH are divided according to two ways. They are
space grouping and sequence grouping. For the 1 x 3 frequency reuse spacing
grouping, see Table:
1 X 3 frequency reuse space grouping

(a)

Frequency
group number

Channel number

MAIO

80, 77, 74, 71, 68, 65, 62, 59, 56, 53, 50, 47

0, 2, 4,6, 8, 10

79, 76, 73, 70, 67, 64, 61, 58, 55, 52,49, 46

1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11

78, 75, 72, 69, 66, 63, 60, 57, 54, 51, 48, 45

0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10

For the 1 x 3 frequency reuse sequence grouping, see Table:

1 x 3 frequency reuse sequence grouping

(a)

Frequency
group number

Channel number

MAIO

80, 79, 78, 77, 76, 75, 74, 73,72, 71, 70, 69

0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10

68, 67, 66, 65, 64, 63, 62, 61, 60, 59, 58, 57

0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10

56, 55, 54, 53, 52, 51, 50, 49, 48, 47, 46, 45

0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10

Because the ratio of the number of carriers to that of frequency hopping is required to
be 1 to 2, if the bandwidth is 10MHz, you can configure the maximum base station
type as S7/7/7. In this case, the frequency reuse degree is 7.14.
The 3 cells of the same base station use the same HSN, and the cells of different base
stations use different HSNs. To avoid the interference from neighbor frequencies,
you can configure a proper MAIO for the cells of the same base station.
If the available bandwidth is 6MHz, the available channel numbers are from 96 to
124. In this case, you can use 4 x 3 frequency reuse pattern for BCCH (the available
channel numbers are from 111 to 124, namely, 14 in total). For TCH, you can use 1 x
3 frequency reuse pattern (the available channel numbers are from 96 to 110, namely,
15 in total.
For the 1 x 3 frequency reuse space grouping when the bandwidth is 6MHz,
see Table:
1 x 3 frequency reuse space grouping

(b)

Frequency
group number

Channel number

MAIO

96, 99, 102, 105, 108

0, 2, 4

97, 100, 103, 106, 109

1, 3

98, 101, 104, 107, 110

0, 2

When the bandwidth is 6MHz, you can configure the maximum base station type as
S4/3/3 under 1 x 3 frequency reuse space grouping. In this case, the frequency reuse
degree is 7.25/9.67/9.67, with 8.86 in average.
For the 1 x 3 frequency reuse sequence grouping, see Table:
1 x 3 frequency sequence grouping

(b)

Frequency
group number

Channel number

MAIO

96, 97, 98, 99, 100

0, 2

101, 102, 103, 104, 105

0, 2

106, 107, 108, 109, 110

0, 2

Because the ratio of the number of carriers to that of frequency hopping is required to
be 1 to 2, if the bandwidth is 6MHz, you can configure the maximum base station
type as S3/3/3. In this case, the frequency reuse degree is 9.67.
For TCH, both the space grouping and sequence grouping have drawbacks.
Generally, for the urban areas where base stations are regularly and densely
distributed, you should better use sequence grouping. For the areas where base
stations are fragmentary and irregularly distributed, you should better use space
grouping.
The characteristics of 1 x 3 frequency reuse pattern are listed below:
The frequencies are more aggressively reused, so the network capacity is great.
The network capacity under space grouping is a little greater than that under
sequence grouping.

When planning a network, you need to plan channel numbers for BCCH only.

Re-planning for frequencies is unnecessary during network optimization.

The efficiency for network planning is high.

Wideband combiner must be used, but the cavity combiner with frequency
selectivity is inapplicable.

This frequency reuse pattern requires wideband repeater.

The interference among intra-frequencies and neighbor frequencies increases as

the frequency reuse distance decreases.

RF hopping must be used, and the channel numbers participating frequency

hopping is twice that of the number of carriers at least.

In actual conditions, you cannot take anti-interference measures, such as RF

hopping, DTX, and power control, for BCCH. Therefore, to ensure network quality, you
can use the looser 4 x 3 frequency reuse pattern for BCCH only.

3.5.5 1 x 1 Frequency Reuse Pattern

One cell of one base station forms a frequency reuse cluster, and this is defined 1 x 2
frequency reuse pattern. Other cells and this cell use the same frequency group.

If the available bandwidth is 6MHz, the available channel numbers are from 96 to
124. Because RF hopping must be used under 1 x 1 frequency reuse pattern,
considering the importance of BCCH, you can use 4 x 3 frequency reuse pattern for
BCCH and 1 x 1 frequency reuse pattern for TCH.
If 4 x 3 frequency reuse pattern is used for BCCH, the available channel numbers are
from 111 to 124, 14 in total. The channel numbers from 96 to 110 are used for TCH,
15 in total.
For the frequency planning under 1 x 1 frequency reuse pattern, see Table:
Frequency planning under 1 x 1 frequency reuse pattern.
Frequency
group number

Channel number

MAIO

96,97,98,99,100,101,102,103,104,105,106,107,108,109,110

0,2,4

96,97,98,99,100,101,102,103,104,105,106,107,108,109,110

6,8

96,97,98,99,100,101,102,103,104,105,106,107,108,109,110

10,12

If the bandwidth is 6MHz, you can configure the maximum base station type as
S4/3/3/ under 1 x 1 frequency reuse pattern. In this case, the frequency reuse degree
is 7.25/9.67/9.67, so the average value is 8.86.
Therefore, the maximum base station configuration under 1 x 1 frequency reuse
pattern is the same as that under 1 x 3 frequency reuse space grouping pattern, so is
the network capacity.
3.5.6 A + B Frequency Reuse Pattern
The A + B frequency reuse pattern is developed from 1 x 3 frequency reuse pattern.
When the bandwidth is narrow but the capacity is great, you can use this frequency
reuse pattern. In this case, you must use RF hopping. Under the A + B frequency
reuse pattern, the frequencies can be divided into three groups. They are {f1}, {f2},
and {f3}. For frequency planning, see Figure:
A + B frequency reuse pattern

According to A + B frequency reuse pattern, you can increase frequency diversity

gain by increasing the number of channel numbers participating frequency hopping
within the cell, because the increase of the frequency diversity gain can improve the
carrier-to-interference ratio. To avoid interference among intra-frequencies and
neighbor frequencies, you can configure a proper MAIO for the cells within the same
base station. The probability of the collision of the intra-frequencies and neighbor
frequencies will decrease as the number of channel numbers participating frequency
hopping increases among cells of different base stations.
If the available bandwidth is 6MHz, the available channel numbers are 96 to 124. For
A + B frequency reuse pattern, you must use RF hopping, but the BCCH does not
participate in RF hopping. Therefore, in actual planning, to ensure good network

quality, you can use looser 4 x 3 frequency reuse pattern for BCCH and A + B
frequency reuse pattern for TCH.
If you use 4 x 3 frequency reuse for BCCH, the available channel numbers are 111 to
124, 14 in total, in which two channel numbers are standby ones. For TCH, the
available channel numbers are 96 to 110, 15 in total.
For the frequency planning under A + B frequency reuse pattern, see Table:
Frequency planning under A + B frequency reuse pattern
Frequency
group number

Channel number

MAIO

96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105

0, 2, 4

101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110

1, 3

96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110

5, 7

When the bandwidth is 10MHz, you can configure the maximum base station type as
S4/3/3 under A + B frequency reuse pattern. In this case, the frequency reuse degree
is 7.25/9.67/9.67, so the average value is 8.86.
In actual conditions, the irregular distribution of base stations and antenna height
may deteriorate the performance of parts of the network. Therefore, the A + B
frequency reuse pattern are not recommended in large networks.

3.6 Concentric Cell Technology

3.6.1 Concept
In the GSM network, concentric cell technology is used to divide the service area
into two parts: overlay and underlay. In essence, the concentric cell technology
concerns channel allocation and handover. When combining this technology with
various frequency planning technologies, you can both expand network capacity and
improve network quality.
The underlay covers the traditional cells, and the overlay covers the areas near the
base station. Generally, 4 x 3 frequency reuse pattern is used for the underlay. For

overlay, the frequency reuse patterns, such as 3 x 3, 2 x 3, or 1 x 3, are used.

Therefore, all carriers can be divided into two groups, one for underlay, and the other
one for overlay. The overlay and underlay share the same base station address, one
set of antenna feeder system, and one BCCH, so you must set the BCCH on the
underlay.
If the capacity of the overlay is great, you can group the channel numbers according to Table below.
In this case, the overlay has more channel numbers, which is beneficial for the base station to absorb
nearby traffic volume.

Logical
channel
Underlay
(12)
Overlay
(18)

Channel number
66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77
78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 98 90 91 92 93 94 95

Channel number grouping for 6MHz bandwidth concentric cell

(a)

If traffic volume is evenly distributed, you can enhance the underlay capacity through grouping the
channel numbers according to Table below.
In this case, the underlay can absorb more traffic volume.

Logical
channel

Channel number

Underlay
66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89
(24)
Overlay
(6 )

Channel number grouping for 6MHz bandwidth concentric cell

90 91 92 93 94 95

(b)

3.6.2 General Underlay Overlay

General underlay overlay (GUO) aims to restrict the intra-frequency interference. To
realize this purpose, you can reduce the overlay coverage area. That is, if the transmit
power of the overlay carriers is lower than that of the underlay carriers, the coverage
area of the overlay is smaller than that of the underlay.
The handover between the overlay and underlay is related to the receiving level of
the MS and the TA (timing advance) from the MS to the base station. You should
allocate the channel numbers (such as BCCH number) with looser frequency reuse
aggressiveness to the MSs in the underlay. For the MSs in the overlay, you should
allocate the channel numbers with aggressive frequency reuse to them. In this case,
you can expand the network capacity by using aggressive frequency reuse pattern in
overlay.
For general underlay overlay, the coverage area of the underlay is inconsistent with
that of the overlay, so problems concerning traffic and handover control are often
caused. The general underlay overlay is applicable to the areas near the base station
where the traffic is concentrated. The more concentrated the traffic near the base
station, the more apparent the effect of capacity expansion is. However, the transmit
power of the carriers in the overlay is low, so it is hard for the base station to absorb
indoor traffic volume. In this case, when the traffic volume is evenly distributed, the
general underlay overlay has little effect on capacity expansion.

3.6.3 Intelligent Underlay Overlay

Intelligent underlay overlay (IUO) technology can ensure that the coverage areas of call carriers are the
same. For an IUO, the transmit power of the carriers in the underlay and overlay is the same.
In an IUO, the frequencies of a base station are divided into two layers: one is regular layer, and the
other one is supper layer. At the regular layer, the frequency reuse distance is large, so you can use
looser frequency reuse pattern, such as 4 x 3 frequency reuse pattern. At the supper layer, the
frequency reuse distance is relatively small, so you can use aggressive frequency reuse patterns, such
as 2 x 3 and 1 x 3 frequency reuse pattern.

In an IUO, the interference at the supper layer is great, so designated equipments and
handover algorithms on C/I must be provided.
In an IUO, the conversation is first established at the supper layer, and then the BSC
monitors the C/I of the channels at the supper layer without any stop. If the C/I is
greater than the Good C/I Threshold, the conversation seizes a channel at the supper
layer. If the C/I is smaller than the Bad C/I Threshold, the conversation seizes a
channel at the regular layer. In addition, you can control the traffic volume at the
supper layer and the regular layer by adjusting the handover threshold.
For an IUO, the transmit power of the carriers at the regular layer is the same as that
at the supper layer, so the network can absorb the traffic flexibly, which is beneficial
for the expansion for actual network capacity.
If the IUO technology is used, you must add the functions, including the estimation
of intra-frequency protection C/I for downlink channels and the handover algorithms
related to IUO, to the system.

3.6.4 Characteristics of Concentric Cell Technology

The characteristics of concentric cell technology are listed below:
Any change of the network structure is unnecessary.
Special software and designated algorithms on channel allocation and handover
are needed.

The system has no special requirement on hardware.

GUO is applicable to the areas near the base station where the traffic is
concentrated.

The overlay coverage of the GUO is small, so the intra-frequency reuse

attenuation factor (q) is great, which increases interference in the network.

The transmit power of the overlay carriers in the GUO is low, so it is hard for the
carriers to absorb indoor traffic.

The transmit power of the underlay carriers in the GUO is the same, so the
carriers can absorb indoor traffic, which contributes to network capacity expansion
and good conversation quality.
For the comparison between the GUO and IUO, see Table:

A comparison between GUO and IUO.

Coverage
area

Frequency reuse
pattern

Transmit
power

Logical channel
allocation

Handover
algorithm

Underlay

4x3

High

BCCH/TCH

Power&
Distance

3 x 3/2 x 3/1 x 3

Low

TCH

4x3

Same

BCCH/TCH

3 x 3/2 x 3/1 x 3

Same

TCH

GUO
Overlay
Underlay

C/I

IUO
Overlay

3.7 Multiple Reuse Pattern Technology

3.7.1 Basic Principle

According to multiple reuse pattern (MRP), the carriers are divided into several
groups. The carries in each group work as an independent layer, and each layer uses a

different frequency reuse pattern. During frequency planning, you can configure the
carriers layer by layer, with reuse aggressiveness increases layer by layer.
MRP has no special requirement on hardware. It is developed from the concept of carrier layering. That
is, the available channel numbers are divided into multiple groups, and each group works as a carrier
layer. According to the rules of the aggressive frequency reuse pattern, the channel numbers allocated
for each layer are listed in Table:
Channel number allocation for each layer
Layer

Channel number

BCCH

n1

TCH 1

n2

TCH 2

n3

TCHm-1

nm

Note:
n1 n2 n3 n4 nm.

For MRP, first you must divide an available band into several sub-bands. Generally,
the sub-bands work as the bands for BCCH. The reasons are listed below:
BSIC decoding will not be affected by traffic. TCH numbers cannot affect separated
BCCH numbers, which is helpful for the MS to decode the BSIC.
The planning for adjacent cell list can be simplified. The separated BCCH numbers
contributes the simplification of adjacent cell list, so the MS can capture the useful
BCCH quickly.
Maximum gain can be obtained from power control and DTX. Downlink power
control and DTX can be applied to TCH carriers only, so the separated BCCH numbers
can maximize the function of downlink power control and DTX.
The re-planning for TCH numbers will not affect BCCH. When a TRX is added to the
system, if not considering the isolation of combiner and adjacent frequency
interference, you do not have to change the BCCH numbers.

After that, you must divide the remaining channel numbers into multiple TCH bands.
For MRP, different frequency reuse patterns must be used for different TCH bands.
According to the carrier allocation in the network, you can decide the average
frequency reuse degree. According to the maximum number of carriers configured in
each cell and the number of cells configured in the network, you can adjust the
average frequency reuse degree to a proper value. In this way, you can effectively
control network quality.
The increase of the carries has little effect on the frequency allocation plan. The
increased channel numbers affect other cells that have more carriers than the service
cell has. For example, if a cell has four carriers, the cells that have been configured
with more than four cells will be affected.
MRP technology enables carriers to be configured flexibly. According to MRP, the
frequencies of a cell can never be completely identical with that of the adjacent cells.

Therefore, the MRP improves both the intra-frequency interference protection ratio
and frequency hopping effect.
According to the requirements defined in GSM protocols, all the downlink timeslots
of the BCCH carriers must transit with full power and the interference features of the
BCCH are different from that of the TCH. Therefore, to ensure network quality and
security, you are recommended to use 4 x 3 frequency reuse pattern for BCCH. In
this case, the channel numbers used for BCCH are equal to or more than 12. In actual
conditions, they are from 12 to 15.
If the available bandwidth is 7.2MHz, the available channel numbers are from 60 to
95, 36 in total, and they can be divided into 4 groups
To ensure network security, you must finish BCCH number allocation first. To be specific,
plan the 12 channel numbers according to 4 x 3 frequency reuse pattern and allocate 1
BCCH number to each of the 12 cells. After that, you should allocate 1 carrier at the TCH3
layer to each cell, and then you should allocate the TCH2 and TCH1 numbers to the cells.
In this case, you can configure four channel numbers for each cell of a base station
(S4/4/4). The remaining 3 channel numbers can be configured for micro cells or minimicro cells.

3.7.2 MRP Sequence Grouping

Because BCCH numbers and TCH numbers are selected in different ways, the MRP
can be divided into two types. They are MRP sequence grouping and MRP space
grouping, the first of which is introduced hereunder.
If the available bandwidth is 10MHz, the channel numbers are from 46 to 94. In this
case, you can plan the frequencies at the BCCH and TCH carrier layers according to
the sequence of the channel numbers. If using the sequence planning, you should add
1 to 2 extra channel numbers to the BCCH numbers. For the MRP sequence
grouping, see:
MRP sequence grouping
Carrier type

ARFCN of the available channel

number

Available channel numbers

BCCH

8394

12

TCH1

7482

TCH2

6673

TCH3

5865

TCH4

5257

TCH5

4651

Note:
ARFCN stands for absolute radio frequency channel number.

According to this table, the channel numbers can be divided into 6 groups. For
BCCH, 12 channel numbers can be reused at the carrier layer. Traffic channels can be
divided into 5 groups, from TCH1 to TCH5. For TCH1, 9 channel numbers can be

reused; for TCH2 and TCH3, 8 channel numbers can be reused; and for TCH4 and
TCH5, 6 channel numbers can be reused.
Therefore, when the bandwidth is 10MHz, the base station type can be configured as
S6/6/6. If the traditional 4/12 frequency reuse pattern is used, the maximum base
station type can be configured as S4/4/4 only.
For MRP sequence grouping, intra-frequency and neighbor frequency interference
may exist within the frequency layer, and the interference between frequency layers
exist at the critical points of the frequencies.
3.7.3 MRP Space Grouping

For MRP space grouping, neighbor frequency interference does not exist within the
frequency layer, but exist between frequency layers. When the traffic is not busy, this
frequency reuse pattern can reduce network interference.
If the available bandwidth is 10MHz, the available channel numbers are from 46 to 94. In
this case, the frequencies can be allocated according to
Carrier
type

ARFCN of the available channel number

Available channel numbers

BCCH

46, 48, 50, 52, 54, 56, 58, 60, 62, 64, 66, 68

12

TCH1

70, 72, 74, 76, 78, 80, 82, 84, 86

TCH2

88, 90, 92, 94, 47, 49, 51, 53

TCH3

55, 57, 59, 61, 63, 65, 67, 69

TCH4

71, 73, 75, 77, 79, 81

TCH5

83, 85, 87, 89, 91, 93

Note:
ARFCN stands for absolute radio frequency channel number.

At the very beginning, not each cell needs the TRX of the last layer, so the TRX of
the last layer can reuse the frequencies more aggressively. In addition, though
interference increases after the MRP is enabled, the TRXs in the cells also increase.
In this case, more the channel numbers will participate in frequency, which enhances
frequency hopping gain.
If both the channel numbers with a little interference and the channel numbers with
great interference exist simultaneously within a cell, the frequency hopping
technology will average the interference through mixing these channel numbers. In
this case, the system can still decode the signals normally.
When allocating the frequencies according to MRP, you must notice that the
minimum frequency reuse degree at the TCH layer must be equal to or greater than 6.
In actual conditions, however, the minimum average frequency reuse degree at the
TCH layer ranges from 7 to 8. Therefore, when the frequency resource is adequate,
you can reserve some channel numbers to for future use during frequency planning.

Fixed MRP means that the channel numbers allocated to each TCH are fixed. They
are independent of each other, as shown in Figure 6-14. For MRP, you should plan
the channel numbers layer by layer so that the TCH numbers can be easily adjusted.
In this case, if interference is present at a TCH layer, you need to adjust the channel
numbers allocated to that layer only.
3.7.4 Characteristics of MRP Technology

MRP technology can enables you to plan the frequencies flexibly according to traffic
distribution. Compared with 3 x 3 frequency reuse pattern, MRP contributes to
greater network capacity. Compared with 2 x 3 and 1 x 3 frequency reuse pattern,
MRP has little effect against network quality. In addition, MRP technology is
compatible with the technologies, such as frequency hopping, power control, DTX.
Moreover, it has no special requirement on hardware and software.
Generally, the advantages of the MRP are listed below:
The network capacity is great and frequency utilization rate is high.
The channel configuration is flexible. The frequency reuse pattern is selected
according to network capacity and traffic distribution. In the areas where the traffic
is high, you can add carriers to these areas.
No two cells have the same channel numbers, so no intra-frequency cell exists in
the system if the MRP is used.
Baseband hopping and RF hopping can be used.
The base station type can be configures flexibly, which is good for network quality.
The channels to be allocated are weighted, which enhances the network quality.

3.7.5 Comparison between MRP and 1 X 3 Frequency Reuse Pattern

In fact, 1 x 3 frequency reuse pattern is a special kind of MRP. The configuration for
the equivalent MRP is 12/3/3/3/3/3. The following is a comparison between MRP
and 1 x 3 frequency reuse pattern.
The network capacity under 1 x 3 frequency reuse pattern is greater than that
under MRP.
For 1 x 3 frequency reuse pattern, you need to plan a group of frequencies for TCH
only. If you have to add new carriers to the system without adding new base stations,
you do not have to re-plan the frequencies. Therefore, the frequency planning is
simpler under 1 x 3 frequency reuse pattern than that under MRP.
If the network is irregular in landforms and traffic distribution, you should better
not use 1 x 3 frequency reuse pattern. In most cases, a base station is interfered by
many base stations nearby. If the 1 x 3 frequency reuse pattern is used, you will find
it hard to position the interference source. Therefore, when adding new base stations
to the network, you cannot eliminate the interference by adjusting some channel
numbers only. If using MRP, however, you can easily solve this problem.

3.8 Network Capacity Comparison

For the comparison of the network capacity under various frequency reuse patterns, see:
Comparison of the network capacity under various frequency reuse pattern
Bandwidth

Frequency reuse
pattern

Base station Loadable

Frequency
configuration traffic
reuse degree
type
volume

Admissible
subscribers

Capacity
ratio

43

12

3/2/2

27.9

1188

33

3/3/3

34.5

1380

1.16

43 + 13

7.5

4/4/3

53.5

2140

1.8

MRP(12, 9, 6)

3/3/3

34.5

1380

1.16

26

12

2/2/2/2/2/2

49.2

1968

1.66

IUO: 4 3 + 2 3

4/4/3

53.5

2140

1.8

43

12

3/3/3

34.5

1380

33

4/4/4

62

2480

1.8

43+13

7.5

5/5/5

81.9

3276

2.37

MRP(12, 9, 8, 7)

4/4/4

62

2480

1.8

26

12

3/3/3/2/2/2

60.1

2404

1.74

IUO: 4 3 + 2 3

5/5/5

81.9

3276

2.37

43

12

4/4/4

62

2480

3 3

5/5/5

81.9

3276

1.32

43+13

7.5

7/7/7

123.6

4944

1.99

MRP(12,9,8,7,6,6)

6/6/6

104.1

4164

1.70

26

12

4/4/4/4/4/4

126

5040

2.03

IUO: 4 3 + 2 3

7/7/7

123.6

4944

1.99

6MHz

7.2MHz

9.6MHz

Note:
GoS = 0.02; a = 0.025 Erl.

GSM Parameter Configuration and Adjustment

When operators prepare to construct a mobile communication network,
they must predict coverage according to traffic prediction and local radio
propagation environment. This guides project design of the system and
parameter configuration of radio network.
The project design includes the following aspects:
Network topology design
Selecting the location of base station
Frequency planning
Cell parameter configuration

The RF planning determines the coverage range of a cell, and the serving
range of the cell is determined based on the combination of RF planning
and cell parameter configuration. By this, the MS always enjoys optimal
services and maximum network capacity at the best cell.
This chapter discusses the meaning and effect of important parameters in
GSM radio communication. Mastering the effect and impact of these

parameters helps to configure network parameters and optimize the

network in later stages.
In a GSM network, abundant radio parameters are configured according to
cells or partial areas; however, the parameter configuration might affect
neighbor areas. Therefore, while configuring and adjusting parameters,
you must pay attention to the impact of configuring parameters on other
areas, especially neighbor areas.

4.1 Network and Cell ID

4.1.1 Cell Global ID

I. Definition
GSM is a global cellular mobile communication system. To ensure that
each cell corresponds to a unique ID globally, the GSM system numbers
the following items:
Each
Each
Each
Each

GSM network in each country

location area
base station
cell

Numbering the previous items aims as follows:

An MS can identify the serving network so that the MS can select a network in any
environment.
The network can obtain the precise location of the MS so that the network can
process various service requests involving the MS.
The MS can report information about neighbor cells to the network during calling to
avoid call drop.

The cell global identity (CGI) is a major network identity parameter. CGI
consists of location area identity (LAI) and cell identity (CI). LAI includes
mobile country code (MCC), mobile network code (MNC), and location
area code (LAC).
The system transmits CGI information through system information (SI)
transmitted by cell broadcast. When an MS receives SI, it demodulates SI
for CGI information. The MS judge whether to camp on the cell according
to the MCC and MNC. It also judges whether the current location area
changes to determine updating location. While updating location, the MS
reports LAI information to the network so that the network can know the
location area of the MS.

II. Format
The CGI is MCC-MNC-LAC-CI, with details as follows:
MCC consists of three decimal digits, ranging from 000 to 999.
MNC consists of two decimal digits, ranging from 00 to 99.

 LAC ranges from 0 to 65535

CI ranges from 0 to 65535.

III. Configuration and Influence

As a globally unique mobile identity, the MCC is uniformly distributed and
managed by international telecommunication union (ITU). The MCC for
China is 460 (decimal).
The MNC is uniformly distributed by state telecommunication
management organs. Now two GSM networks exist in China. The MNC for
China Mobile is 00. The MNC for China Unicom is 01.
The method for coding LAC is ruled by each country accordingly. This
caters for China also (refer to GSM system from Ministry of Information
Industry). At the early stage of network construction, the LAC is coded
and distributed. The LAC is seldom changed in the later stages.
The coverage areas related to the LAC is vital in the network. You can
configure it as great as possible.
No special restriction is on the distribution of CI. The CI ranges from 0 to
65535 (decimal). It must be ensured that two equivalent CIs exist in the
same location area. This is determined in the system design. Except for
special situations (such as constructing base stations), the CI must not be
changed during the system operation.

IV. Precautions
You must pay attention to the following aspects:
The MNC is unchangeable.
While configuring the LAC, you must follow related regulations. Equivalent LACs
must not exist in the state network.
Equivalent CIs must not exist in the same location area.

4.1.2 Base Station Identity Code

I. Definition
In a GSM network, each base station corresponds to a distributed local
color code, called base station identity code (BSIC). When the MS receives
broadcast control channel (BCCH) carriers of two cells at the same time,
with same channel number, the MS distinguishes them by BSIC.
In network planning, the BCCH carriers of neighbor cells are different in
frequency to reduce intra-frequency interference. The cellular
communication system features that the BCCH carrier might be reused.
Therefore, the BSIC of the cells with the same BCCH carrier must be
different.
The system transmits BSIC on synchronization channel (SCH) of each cell. The effect of BSIC is as
follows:

 The BSIC involves in decoding process of random access channel (RACH) to prevent
base stations from connecting to the RACH sent to the neighbor cells by the MS by
error.
After the MS receives SCH messages, it judges that it has been synchronous to the
cell. Decoding information on the downlink common signaling channel correctly
requires training sequence code (TSC) used on common signaling channel.
GSM regulations describe TSC in eight fixed formats, and the sequence number of
them is 07. The cell BCC determines the TSC used by the common signaling channel
of a cell. Therefore the BSIC helps inform the MS of the TSC used by the common
signaling channel of the serving cell.
In a call, the MS must measure the level of BCCH carrier of neighbor cells and
report it to the base station according to regulations to neighbor cell list of BCCH.
Meanwhile, the MS must provide measured BSIC of the carrier in the uplink
measurement reports. When the neighbor cells of a cell include two or more cells
with the same BCCH carrier, the base station can distinguish the cells by BSIC to avoid
incorrect handover.
In a call, the MS must measure signals of neighbor cells, and sends measurement
reports to the network. The measurement report can contain information about six
neighbor cells only, so the MS must be controlled to report the cells actually related
to handover. The first three digits of BSIC (namely, NCC) aims as previously
mentioned. Operators control the MS to report the neighbor cell information
permitted by the serving cell NCC by broadcast parameters NCC permitted.

II. Format
The BSIC is NCC-BCC, with details as follows:
The NCC ranges from 0 to 7.
The BCC ranges from 0 to 7.

III. Configuration and Influence

Usually different GSM PLMNs use the same frequency resource, but, to
some degree, their network planning is independent. The neighbor GSM
PLMNs use different NCCs according to regulations. This ensures that the
neighbor base stations with same frequency use different BSICs.
The BCC is part of the BSIC. It helps identify different base stations with
same BCCH carrier number in the same GSM PLMN. The values of BCC
must meet the previous requirements. According to GSM regulations, the
TSC of cell BCCH carrier must be same as that of cell BCC. The equipment
providers must ensure the TSC consistency.

IV. Precautions
The neighbor cells or cells nearby using the same BCCH carrier must use
different BSICs. Especially when two or more cells use the same BCCH
carrier in the neighbor cell list of a cell, theses cells must use different
BSIC. Pay attention to cells at the bordering areas between provinces and
cities, and otherwise cross-cell handover might fail and abundant
mistaken access problems might occur.

4.2 Paging and Access Control Parameters

4.2.1 Number of Access Grant Reserved Blocks (BS_AG_BLK_RES or AG)
I. Definition
The common control channel consists of access grant channel (AGCH) and paging channel
(PCH).
For different CCCHs, each BCCH multiframe (including 51 frames) contains CCCH message
blocks different number. The CCCH is shared by AGCH and PCH. According g to regulations,
partial message blocks on CCCH are especially reserved for AGCH. This avoids that the
AGCH messages are blocked when the PCH traffic is great.
The number of parameter access grant reserved blocks (AG) refers to the number of
message blocks reserved for AGCH on CCCH in each BCCH multiframe.
II. Format
The AG ranges from 0 to 2 when CCCH shares physical channel (CCCH_CONF = 1) with
stand-alone dedicated control channel (SDCCH).
The AG ranges from 0 to 5 when CCCH does not share physical channel (CCCH_CONF=0)
with stand-alone dedicated control channel (SDCCH).
III. Configuration and Influence
When the channel combination of the cell is fixed, the parameter AG adjusts the ratio of
AGCH and PCH in CCCH. When the PCH is idle, it can send immediate assignment
messages. The AGCH does not transmit paging messages. Equipment operators can balance
AGCH and PCH by adjusting AG, with the following principles.
The principle for AG value is that based on no overload of AGCH, you must reduce the
parameter to shorten the time for MS to respond to paging, and to improve system service
performance. When the immediate assignment messages are superior to paging messages
to be sent, configure AG to 0.
The value of AG is recommended as follows:

AG is 1 when the CCCH and SDCCH share a physical channel.

AG is 2 or 3 in other situations.

In network operation, take statistics of overload situations of AGCH and adjust AG

accordingly. By default the immediate assignment messages are superior to paging
messages to be sent in the network, so you need not reserve a channel for immediate
assignment messages. In this situation, configure AG to 0.

4.2.2 Frame Number Coding Between Identical Paging

Frame number coding between identical paging is BS_PA_MFRMS (MFR for short).
I. Definition
According to GSM regulations, each MS (corresponding to an IMSI) belongs to a paging
group (for calculation of paging groups, see GSM regulation 05.02). Each paging group in a
cell corresponds to a paging subchannel. According to its IMSI, the MS calculates the paging
group that it belongs to, and then calculates the location of paging subchannel that
belongs to the paging group. The MS only receives the signals of the paging subchannel
that it belongs to, and neglects that of other paging subchannels. In addition, the MS even
powers off some hardware of itself during other paging subchannel to lower power cost of
itself.

The number of paging channel multiframe (MFR) is the number of multiframes used in a
period of paging subchannel. The MFR determines the number of paging subchannels that
the cell PCH is divided into.
II. Format
The MFR ranges from 2 to 9, which respectively means that the same paging group cycles
in a period of 2 to 9 multiframes.
III. Configuration and Influence
According to the definition of CCCH, AG, and MFT, you can calculate the number of paging
channel in each cell.

When the CCCH and SDCCH share a physical channel, there is (3 - AG) MFRs.
When the CCCH and SDCCH share a physical channel, there is (9 - AG) MFRs.

According to the previous analysis, the greater the MFR is, the more the paging channels of
the cell are (see the calculation of paging groups in GSM regulation 05.02). Theoretically,
the capacity of paging channels does not increase with the increase of MFR. The number of
buffers for buffering paging messages on each base transceiver station (BTS) increases.
The paging messages are sent more evenly both in time and space, so it seldom occurs that
the paging messages overflow in the buffers so call lost occurs (related to functions by
equipment providers).
However, to enjoy the previous advantages, you will have a longer delay of paging
messages on the radio channels. The greater the MFR is, the greater the delay of paging
messages in the space is, and the lower the average service performance of the system is.
Therefore, the MFR is an important parameter in network optimization.
The following principle caters for configuring MFR:
The configured strategy for buffers of each equipment provider is different, so you must
select the MFR properly so that the paging messages do not overflow on PCH. Based on
this, configure the parameter as small as possible. In addition, you must measurement the
overflow situations of PCH periodically while the network is running, and adjust MFR
accordingly.
IV. Precautions
Any paging message of the same location area must be sent to all cells in the location
areas at the same time, so the PCH capacity of each cell in the location area must be
equivalent or close to each other. Otherwise, you must consider smaller PCH capacity as
the evidence for designing location area.

4.2.3 Common Control Channel Configuration (CCCH-CONF)

I. Definition
The CCCH includes AGCH and PCH. It sends immediate assignment messages and paging
messages. In each cell, all traffic channels (TCHs) share CCCH. According to the TCH
configuration and traffic model of the cell, the CCCH can be one or more physical
channels. In addition, the CCCH and SDCCH share a physical channel. The combination
methods for CCH are determined by CCCH parameter CCCH_CONF.
II. Format
The CCCH_CONF consists of three bits, with the coding methods listed in Table:
CCCH configuration coding
CCCH_CONF

Meaning

Number of CCCH message blocks in

a BCCH multiframe
000

One physical channel for used

for CCCH, not shared with
9
SDCCH

001

One physical channel for used

3
for CCCH, shared with SDCCH

010

Two physical channels for used

for CCCH, not shared with
18
SDCCH

100

Three physical channels for

used for CCCH, not shared with 27
SDCCH

110

Four physical channels for used

for CCCH, not shared with
36
SDCCH

III. Configuration and Influence

When the CCCH and SDCCH share one physical channel, the CCCH has the minimum
channel capacity. When the CCCH and SDCCH do not share a physical channel, the more
physical channels that the CCCH uses, the greater the capacity is.
The CCCH_CONF is determined by the operators based on combination of cell traffic model
and paging capacity of the location area where a cell belongs to. It is determined in
system design, and adjusted in network expansion. According to experiences, when the
paging capacity in the location area is not high and cell has one or two carriers, it is
recommended that the CCCH uses one physical channel and share it with SDCCH (in
combination CCCH methods). This spares a physical channel for paging. Otherwise, the
method that CCCH and SDCCH do not share one physical channel is used.
When the cell TRX exceeds 6 and CCCH OVERLOAD occurs in the cell, it is recommended
that the CCCH uses two or more basic physical channel and does not share them with
SDCCH.
IV. Precautions
The CCCH_CONF must be consistent with the actual configuration of cell CCCH. In
addition, you must consider the influence on the access grant reserved blocks.

4.2.4 Extended Transmission Slots (TX_INTEGER)

I. Definition
In a GSM network, a random access channel (RACH) is an ALOH. To reduce the conflicting
times on RACH when an MS accesses the network, and to increase RACH efficiency, GSM
regulations (sections 3.3.1.2 of 04.08) prescribe the compulsory access algorithm for MS.
The algorithm defines three parameters as follows:
Extended transmission slots T
Maximum retransmission times RET

T
It is the number of slots between two sending when the MS keeps sending multiple
channel request messages.

S
It is related to channel combination, and is an intermediate variable of access
algorithm. It is determined by T and CCCH configuration.

II. Format
The value of T is from 3 to 12, 14, 16, 20, 25, 32, and 50.
The value of S ranges as listed in Table:
Values of S
S in different CCCH combination methods
T

The CCCH and SDCCH does

The CCCH and SDCCH share a
not share a physical channel physical channel

3, 8, 14, 50

55

41

4, 9, 16

76

52

5, 10, 20

109

58

6, 11, 25

163

86

7, 12, 32

217

115

III. Configuration and Influence

To access the network, the MS must originate an immediate assignment process. To begin
the process, the MS sends (RET + 1) channel request messages on RACH. To reduce conflicts
on RACH, the time for MS to send channel request messages must meet the following
requirements:
The number of slots (not including slots for sending messages) between
originating immediate assignment process by MS and sending the first channel request
messages is random. Its range is {0, 1, , MAX (T, 8) - 1}. When the MS originates the
immediate assignment process, it takes a value from the range according to even
distribution probability.

The number of slots (not including slots for sending messages) between a
channel request message and the next is from {S, S + 1, , S + T - 1} according to
even distribution probability.

According to previous analysis, the greater the T is, the larger the range of intervals
between one channel request message and the next, and the less the RACH conflicting
times is. The greater the S is, the greater the interval between one channel request
message and the next, the less the RACH conflicting times is, and the more efficiently the
SDCCH is used. However, the increase of T and S leads to longer time for MS to access the
network, so the access performance of the whole network declines. Therefore you must
configure T and S properly.
S is calculated by MS according to T and combination of CCH. You can configure T freely
and sends it to MS by system information. Usually, you need configure T properly to make T
+ S as small as possible (to reduce the time for MS to access the network); meanwhile you
must ensure an effective assignment of SDCCH to avoid overload (for all random access
requests, the system does not distinguish whether they are from the same MS, but assigns
a SDCCH). In operation, you can adjust the value according to traffic measurement of cell
immediate assignment.

4.2.5 Minimum Access Level of RACH

I. Definition
The minimum access level of RACH is the level threshold for the system to judge whether
there is a random access request.
II. Format
The minimum access level of RACH ranges from 0 to 63 (corresponding to 110 dBm to 47
dBm).
The unit is level grade value.
III. Configuration and Influence
When the access burst level of RACH is greater than the threshold, the BTS judges that
there is an access request. The BTS, together with the parameter random access error
threshold, determines whether the random access burst is valid. To configure the
parameter properly, you must combine actual sensitivity of the base station and the
parameter minimum received level permitted for MS to access. This prevents the MS
from failing in calling though there are signals. The access burst level of RACH affects call
drop rate and access range (coverage), so you must pay attention to the influence on
access of MS.

4.2.6 Random Access Error Threshold

I. Definition
GSM protocols prescribe that by relativity of judgment training sequence (41 bits) the
system can judge whether the received signals are the random access signals of MS.
II. Format
The value ranges from 0 to 255. The recommended value is 180.
III. Configuration and Influence
The random access error threshold defines the relativity of training sequence. If the
smaller it is, the more errors of random access signals permitted by the network are, the
easily the MS randomly accesses the network, and the greater the report error rate is. If
the greater the random access error threshold is, the smaller the report error rate is, and
the more difficult the access to the network is when signals are weak. See protocol 0408,
0502.
The system requires the random access error threshold transferred by current bit of 41 bit
training sequence.
90100

33

101120

34

121140

35

141160

36

161175

37

176195

38

196221

39

222243

40

244250

41

089 or 251
255

38

The two parameters random access error threshold and minimum access level of RACH
determine the validity of random access burst.

4.2.7 Access Control Class (ACC)

I. Definition
GSM regulations (02.11) prescribe that each GSM user (common user) corresponds to an
access class, ranging from class 0 to class 9. The access class is stored in SIM of mobile
users. For special users, GSM regulations reserves five special access classes, ranging from
class 11 to class 15. Theses classes are prior to other classes in accessing. Special users
might have one or more access classes (between 11 and 15), which are also stored in user
SIM. Users of class 11 to 15 are prior to that of class 0 to 9. However, the class between 0
and 9 or between 11 and 15 does not mean priority.
The access class is distributed as follows:

Class
Class
Class
Class
Class
Class

09: common users

11: users for PLMN management
12: users for security departments
13: common business departments (in charge of water, gas)
14: emergency services
15: PLMN staff

Users of class 09 have its access rights catering for home PLMN and visited PLMN. Users of
class 11 and 15 have its access rights catering for visited PLMN only. Users of class 12, 13,
and 14 have its access rights catering for in the country where home PLMN belongs to.
II. Format
The access control class consists of two parts:
Common access control class
Value range: a check option, including class 0 disabled, , class 9 disabled.
Recommended value: all 0.

Special access control class

Value range: a check option, including class 11 disabled, , class 15 disabled.
Recommended value: all 0.

If a class is configured to 1, it means that access is forbidden. For example, a common

access class is configured to 1000000000; common users excluding class 0 users can access
the network.
III. Configuration and Influence
C0C15 (excluding C10) are set by equipment room operators. Usually these bits are
configured to 1. Proper configuration contributes to network optimization as follow:
When installing a base station, starting a base station, or maintaining and
testing in some cells, configure C0C15 (excluding C10) to 1. In this way, different

users are prevented from accessing the network, so the installing and maintenance is
less influenced.

During busy hours of cells with high traffic, congestion occurs, RACH conflicting
time increase, AGCH traffic overloads, and Abis interface traffic overloads. When you
configure class of some users to 1, you can reduce the traffic of the cell.

4.2.8 Maximum Retransmission Times (RET)

I. Definition
See GSM regulation 04.08. When an MS originates an immediate assignment process, it
sends a channel request message to the network on RACH. The RACH is an ALOH, so the MS
can send multiple channel request messages before receiving immediate assignment
messages, to increase access success rate of MS. The maximum retransmission times M
(RET) is determined by equipment room operators, and sent to MS by SI.
II. Format
The maximum retransmission times consists of two bits, with the meanings listed in Table:
Coding of maximum transmission times M
M

maximum transmission times

00

01

10

11

III. Configuration and Influence

The greater the M is, the higher the success rate of call attempt is, and the higher the
connection rate is, but the load of RACH, CCCH, and SDCCH increase. In cell with high
traffic, if the RET is over great, overload of radio channels and congestion occur, so the
connection rate and radio resource utilization declines sharply. If the RET is over small,
the call attempt times of MS reduces, success rate reduces, so the connection rate
reduces. Therefore, proper configuration of RET for each cell help utilize network radio
resources and improve connection rate.
For configuration of RET M, refer to the following methods:
For areas with low traffic, such as in suburban or rural areas, configure RET to 7
to increase the access success rate of MS.

For areas with average traffic, such as common urban areas, configure RET to 4.

For microcell with high traffic and of apparent congestion, configure RET to 1.

4.2.9 Control Class of MS Maximum Transmit Power (MS-TXPWR-MAX-CCH)

I. Definition
MS-TXPWR-MAX-CCH is sent in BCCH SIs. It affects behavior of MS in idle mode. It is also
used in calculating C1 and C2, and determines cell selection and reselection.

C1 = RLA_C - RXLEV_ACCESS_MIN - MAX((MS_TXPWR_MAX_CCH - P), 0)

RLA_C: average received level by MS

RXLEV_ACCESS_MIN: minimum received level permitted for MS to access

MS_TXPWR_MAX_CCH: maximum power level of control channel (control class of

MS maximum transmit power)

P: Maximum transmit power level of MS

II. Format
The range of MS-TXPWR-MAX-CCH is 031. For cells of GSM900 and GSM1800, the dBm
values corresponding to the control class are different.
In a GSM900 network, the 32 control class of maximum transmit power
corresponding to 031 is as follows:
{39, 39, 39, 37, 35, 33, 31, 29, 27, 25, 23, 21, 19, 17, 15, 13, 11, 9, 7, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5,
5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5}

In a GSM1800 network, the 32 control class of maximum transmit power

corresponding to 031 is as follows:
{30, 28, 26, 24, 22, 20, 18, 16, 14, 12, 10, 8, 6, 4, 2, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
0, 0, 36, 34, 32}

Recommended values are 5 for GSM900 and 0 for GSM1800.

III. Configuration and Influence
MS-TXPWR-MAX-CCH determines the power class used before MS receives power control
messages. For details, see protocol 0508.
The smaller it is, the greater the output power of MS is. The MS near the base station
interferes with neighbor channels of the cell, so the access to the network by other MSs
and communication quality are influenced. The greater it is, the smaller the output power
of MS is, and the lower the access success rate of MS at cell borders is. You must configure
MS-TXPWR-MAX-CCH properly according to the serving range of the cell.

4.2.10 Power Offset (POWEROFFSET)

I. Definition
When the MS accesses the network and before it receives the initial power control
messages, all GSM900 MSs and type 1 and type 2 DCS1800 MSs use MS_TXPWR_MX_CCH of
BCCH. If the MS_TXPWR_MX_CCH exceeds the maximum transmit power of MS, the MS uses
the closest power.
The parameter POWEROFFSET is effective to type 3 DCS1800 MSs. When the type 3
DCS1800 MS accesses the network, it use total power of MS_TXPWR_MX_CCH +
POWEROFFSET before receiving the initial power control message. See protocol GSM0508.
II. Format
The values of 03 correspond to 0 dB, 2 dB, 4 dB, and 6 dB.
The recommended value is 2.
III. Configuration and Influence
The greater the parameter is, the more easily the type 3 DCS1800 MS accesses the
network. A great POWEROFFSET enables MS to access the network afar, but does not help
control cross-cell interference, so the network quality is influenced.

4.2.11 IMSI Attach/Detach Allowed

I. Definition
The IMSI detach means that the MS informs the network of itself work state changing from
working to non-working. Usually it refers to when the MS powers off or the SIM is taken off
MS. After receiving the inform from MS, the network sets the IMSI as in non-working state.
The IMSI attach is opposite of IMSI detach. It means that MS informs the network of itself
work state changing to working. Usually it refers to when the MS powers on or the SIM is
put into MS again. After the MS turns to working state again, it detects whether the
current location areas (LAI) is the same as that recorded in MS at last.

If yes, the MS starts IMSI attach process (this is one of location updating).
If no, the MS starts location updating process of cross location area.

After receiving the location updating message or IMSI message from MS, the network sets
the IMSI as in working state.
The parameter IMSI attach/detach allowed (ATT) is used for informing MS of the IMSI
attach/detach process.
II. Format
The value of ATT includes YES/NO. NO means that starting IMSI attach/detach process by
MS is forbidden. YES means that starting IMSI attach/detach process by MS is compulsory.
III. Configuration and Influence
Usually configure ATT to YES so that the network will not process the proceeding of the MS
after the MS powers off. This frees system resources (such as PCH).
IV. Precautions
The ATT of different cells in the same location area must be the same to avoid
abnormalities while the MS is called. For example, in a cell with YES as the value of ATT,
when the MS powers off, it starts IMSI detach process. Therefore the network records that
the MS is in non-working state, so it does not page the MS. In a cell with No as the value of
ATT and the cell being different from the one where the MS powers off, when the MS
powers on again in the cell, the MS does not start IMSI attach process. In this situation, the
MS cannot be called normally until it starts location updating process.

4.2.12 Direct Retry (DR)

I. Definition
During the assignment process of call setup, congestion might cause assignment failure.
The assignment failure causes failure of the whole call. GSM networks has a function to
avoid such failures, namely, DR. The DR is that the BSS directly assign MS to TCH of
neighbor cells. The parameter is used by system to set whether to allow direct retry
function.
II. Format
The value of DR includes YES and NO. YES means that the system allows directional retry.
NO means that the system does not support direction retry function.
III. Configuration and Influence
DR improves call success rate. If conditions are ready, start DR. On the contrary, DR is that
the BSS directly assign MS to TCH of neighbor cells when congestion occurs in the cell
where the MS camps, so the MS can originates a call in the non-best cell with lowest
received level, and extra interference might be brought about in frequency reuse

networks. Therefore, you must use the function properly according to comprehensive
network situations.

4.3 Serial Parameters of Cell Selection and

Reselection
4.3.1 cell_bar_access
I. Definition
In the SI broadcasted in each cell, a bit indicates whether the MS is allowed to access
the network in the cell, namely, cell_bar_access.
II. Format
The value of cell_bar_access includes 1 and 0. The value 0 indicates that MS is
allowed to access the network from the cell. The value 1 indicates that the MS is
barred to access the network from the cell. Actually whether to allow MS to access
the network from the cell is determined by both cell_bar_access and cell_bar_qualify.
III. Configuration and Influence
The cell_bar_access is configured by equipment room operators. Usually the MS is allowed to access
the network from all the cells, so cell_bar_access is configured to 0. In special situations, the operators
want some cell for handover service only, so cell_bar_access is configured to 1
The MS usually works in microcells (you can configure the priority of cells and reselection parameters
to enable this). When the MS is calling while moving fast, the network force MS to hand over to the
base station G. The signals of base station G are stronger than microcell base station in most areas.
When the call terminates, the MS just camps near base station G and at edge of microcell cells, the MS
will not reselect a cell according to GSM regulations, therefore the MS cannot return to microcell.

The capacity of base station G is usually small, so the previous phenomenon leads to
congestion of base station G. To solve the problem, you can configure the
cell_bar_access to 1, namely, to forbid MS directly accessing base station G. In area
A, handover is allowed to base station G.
IV. Precautions
The cell_bar_access is used only in some special areas. For common cells, it is
configured to 0.
4.3.2 cell_bar_qualify
I. Definition
The cell_bar_qualify determines the priority of cells, namely, it enables MS to select
some cell by preference.
II. Format

The value of cell_bar_qualify includes 1 and 0. The cell_bar_qualify and

cell_bar_access determine the priority state of cells, as listed in Table 1-4.
Table 7-1 Cell priorities
cell_bar_qualify

cell_bar_access

Cell selection priority

Cell reselection state

Normal

Normal

Barred

Barred

Low

Normal

Low

Normal

An exception is that the cell selection priority and cell reselection state are normal
when the following conditions are met:

The
The
The
The
The

cell belongs to the PLMN which the MS belongs to.

MS is in cell test operation mode.
cell_bar_access is 1.
cell_bar_qualify is 0.
access control class 15 is disabled.

III. Configuration and Influence

The priority of all the cells are usually configured to normal, namely,
cell_bar_qualify = 0. In microcell and dualband networking, operators might want
MS to camps on the cell of some type by preference. In this situation, the equipment
room operators can configure the priority of these cells to normal and other cells
to low.
During cell selection, when the proper cells with normal as the priority is not present
(proper cells means that all parameters meet the conditions for cell selection, namely,
C1 > 0, and the cell is allowed to access), the MS will select cells with low priority.
IV. Precautions
Pay attention to the following aspects:
When cell priority is used as a method to optimize network, the cell_bar_qualify
only affects cell selection, without any influence on cell reselection. You must
optimize the network by combining cell_bar_qualify and C2.

During cell selection, when the proper cells with normal as the priority is not
present, the MS will select cells with low priority. Therefore when the level of the cell
with normal priority is low, and cells with low priority and high level are present, the
MS will access the network slowly while powering on.

4.3.3 Minimum Received Level Allowing MS to Access (RXLEV_ACCESS_MIN)

I. Definition
To avoid bad communication quality, call drop, and a waste of network radio
resources due to MS accessing the network at low received signal level, GSM
regulations prescribe that when an MS accesses the network the received level must

be greater than the threshold level, namely, the minimum received level allowing MS
to access.
II. Format
The value range of RXLEV_ACCESS_MIN is from 110 dBm to 47 dBm.
III. Configuration and Influence
The recommended RXLEV_ACCESS_MIN needs to be approximately equal to the
receiving sensitivity of MS. The RXLEV_ACCESS_MIN affects cell selection
parameter C1, so it is important to traffic adjustment and network optimization.
For cells with over high traffic and severe congestion, you can increase
RXLEV_ACCESS_MIN. In this way, the C1 and C2 of the cells decrease, and the
effective coverage range decreases. You must not configure RXLEV_ACCESS_MIN
over great, because this might cause non-seamless coverage and complaints for
signal fluctuation. It is recommended that the RXLEV_ACCESS_MIN is smaller
than or equal to 90 dBm.
IV. Precautions
Except for areas of high density of base stations and of qualified coverage, adjusting
cell traffic by RXLEV_ACCESS_MIN is not recommended.
4.3.4 Additional Reselection Parameter Indicator
I. Definition
The cell selection and reselection by MS depends on the parameters C1 and C2.
Whether C2 is the cell reselection parameter is determined by network operators.
Additional reselection parameter indicator (ADDITIONAL RESELECT) informs MS
of whether to use C2 in cell reselection.
II. Format
ADDITIONAL RESELECT consists of 1 bit. In SI3, it is meaningless, and
equipment manufacturers configure it to N. The MS uses ADDITIONAL
RESELECT of SI4.
When ADDITIONAL RESELECT is configured to N, the meaning is: if the rest bytes
of SI4 (SI4RestOctets) are present, the MS must abstract and calculate parameters
related to C2 and related cell reselection parameter PI.

When ADDITIONAL RESELECT is configured to Y, the meaning is that the MS must

abstract and calculate parameters related to C2 and related cell reselection
parameter PI.

III. Configuration and Influence

Cells seldom use SI7 and SI8, so you can configure ADDITIONAL RESELECT to
N. When cells use SI7 and SI8, and the parameter C2 is used in cell reselection, you
can configure ADDITIONAL RESELECT to Y.
4.3.5 Cell Reselection Parameter Indicator

I. Definition
The cell reselection parameter indicator (CELL_RESELECT_PARAM_IND) is used
in informing MS of whether C2 is a cell reselection parameter and whether C2 is
present.
II. Format
The value of CELL_RESELECT_PARAM_IND includes Y and N, with the
meanings as follows:
Y: The MS must calculate C2 by abstracting parameters from SIs of cell
broadcast, and set C2 as the standard for cell reselection.

N: The MS must set C1 as the standard, namely, C2 = C1.

III. Configuration and Influence

The equipment room operators determine the value of PI. Configure PI to Y if related
cells set C2 as the standard for cell reselection; otherwise, configure it to N.
4.3.6 Cell Reselection Offset, Temporary Offset, and Penalty Time
I. Definition
After the MS selects a cell, without great change of all the conditions, the MS will
camp on the selected cell. Meanwhile, it does as follow:

cells.

Starts measuring signals level of BCCH carrier in neighbor cells.

Records the 6 neighbor cells with greatest signal level.
Abstract various SI and control information of each neighbor cell from the 6

When conditions are met, the MS hands over from the selected cell to another. This
process is called cell reselection. The conditions include:

Cell priority
Whether the cell is barred to access
Radio channel level (important)

When the signal level of neighbor cells exceeds that of the serving cell, cell
reselection occurs. The channel level standard used in cell reselection is C2, with the
calculation as follows:
1)
When PENELTY_TIME 11111:
C2 = C1 + CELL_RESELECT_OFFSET - TEMPORARY_OFFSET * H (PENALTY_TIME - T)
Wherein, if PENALTY_TIME - T (x) < 0, the function H(x) = 0; if x 0, H(x) = 1.
2)
When PENELTY_TIME = 11111:
C2 = C1 - CELL_RESELECT_OFFSET

T is a timer, with 0 as the initial value. When a cell is listed by MS in the list of cells
with maximum signal level, start T with step of 4.62ms (a TDMA frame). When the
cell is removed from the list, the associated T is reset.
After cell reselection, the T of original cell works as PENALTY_TIME. Namely,
temporary offset is not performed on the original cell.
CELL_RESELECT_OFFSET (CRO) modifies cell reselecting time C2.

TEMPORARY_OFFSET (TO) is supplemented to C2 from starting working of T to

the prescribed time.
PENALTY_TIME is the time for TEMPORARY_OFFSET having effect on C2.
When PENALTY_TIME = 11111, the MS is informed of using C2 = C1 CRO.
CELL_RESELECT_OFFSET, TEMPORARY_OFFSET, and PENALTY_TIME are
cell reselection parameters.
When the cell reselection parameter PI is 1, the MS is informed of receiving
values of three parameters on BCCH.

If PI is 0, the MS judges that the previous three parameters are 0, namely C2 =

C1.

If the C2 of a cell (in the same location area as the serving cell) calculated by MS is
greater than the C2 of the cell where MS camps, and this lasts for over 5s, the MS
reselects to camp on the cell.
If the C2 of a cell (in different location area as the serving cell) calculated by MS is
greater than the sum of C2 of the cell where MS camps and cell reselect hysteresis,
and this lasts for over 5s, the MS reselects to camp on the cell.
The interval between two reselections is at least 15s, and this avoids frequent cell
reselection by MS.
C2 is formed on the combination of C1 and artificial offset parameters. The artificial
offset parameters help MS camp on or prevent MS from camping on some cell. This
balances the traffic of the network.
II. Format
1)
The cell reselection offset (CRO) is in decimal, with unit of dB. It ranges from 0
to 63, which means 0 to 126 dB (2 dB as the step). The recommended value is 0.
2)
The temporary offset (TO) is in decimal, with unit of dB. It ranges from 0 to 7,
which means 0 to 70 dB (10 dB as the step). The recommended value is 0.
3)
The penalty time (PT) is in decimal, with unit of second. It ranges from 0 to 31.
The value 0 to 30 means 20s to 620s (20s as the step). The value 31 is reserved for
changing the effect direction of C2 by CRO. The recommended value is 0.

III. Configurationa and Influence

The previous parameters can be adjusted accordingly in the following three
situations:
1)
When the communication quality is bad due to heavy traffic or other causes,
change the parameters to enable MS not camps on the cell (the cell is exclusive from
the MS). For this situation, configure PT to 31, so TO is ineffective. C2 = C1 CRO. The
C2 is artificially lowered. So the probability for MS to reselect the cell decreases. In
addition, the equipment room operators can configure CRO to a proper value
according to the exclusive level of the cell by MS. The greater the exclusion is, the
greater the CRO is.
2)
For cells with low traffic and equipment of low utilization, change the
parameters to enable MS to camp on the cell (the cell is prior). In this situation,
configure CRO to 020 dB according to the priority. The higher the priority is, the
greater the CRO is. TO is configured the same as or a little greater than CRO. PT helps
avoid over frequent cell reselection, the recommended value of PT is 20s or 40s.
3)
For cell with average traffic, configure CRO to 0, PT to 11111 so that C2 = C1.
No artificial influence is on the cell.

IV. Precautions
In whatever situations, the CRO must not be greater than 30 dB, because over great
CRO leads to unstable network, such as complaints about signal fluctuation.
4.3.7 Cell Reselection Hysteresis (CRH)
I. Definition
CRH affects cell reselection of cross location area. The MS starts cell reselection if
the following conditions are met:
The signal level of neighbor cell (in different location area) is greater than that
of the serving cell.

The difference between the signal levels of the neighbor cell and the serving
cell must be greater than the value prescribed by cell reselection hysteresis.

The difference is based on the cell reselection methods used by MS. If the MS
reselects a cell with C2, then compare values of C2.
II. Format
CRH is in decimal, with unit of dB. The range is 0 to 14, with step of 2 dB. The
recommended value is 4.
III. Configuration and Influence
If the original cell and target cell belongs to different location areas, the MS must
originate a location updating process after cell reselection. Due to the attenuation
feature of radio channels, the C2 of two cells measured at the bordering area of
neighbor cells fluctuates much, so the MS reselect cells frequently. The interval
between two reselections is over 15s, which is rather short for location updating. The
signal flow of network increases sharply, radio resources cannot be fully utilized.
During location updating, the MS cannot respond to paging, so the connection rate
decreases. Adjust CRH according to signal flow and coverage. When signal flow
overloads or location updating of cross location area is frequent, the cell reselection
hysteresis is increased as recommended. You must avoid abnormal coverage due to
over large location area.
IV. Precautions
Do not configure CRH to 0 dB.

4.4 Parameters Affecting Network Functions

4.4.1 Newly Established Cause Indicator (NECI)
I. Definition

In a GSM network, the traffic channel (TCH) consists of full-speed TCH and halfspeed TCH. When the network supports half-speed TCH, the MS is informed of
whether the area supports half-speed TCH by NECI.
II. Format
The value of NECI includes Y and N, with the meaning as follows:

Y means that the area support half-speed TCH.

N means that the area cannot support half-speed TCH.

III. Configuration and Influence

Half-speed TCHs enable each carrier to support more traffic channel, but you must
confirm whether the system support half-speed TCH.
4.4.2 Power Control Indicator (PWRC)
I. Definition
The PWRC informs MS of whether to take statistics of downlink level of BCCH
carrier slot for measuring average value when the BCCH frequency participates in
frequency hopping. The causes to configuring PWRC are as follows:
GSM regulations allow frequency hopping channels to use BCCH (frequency
hopping not in BCCH slots) .

GSM regulations allow downlink power control over frequency hopping channels.

The MS needs signal level of the measured neighbor cells, so the power of each
slot on BCCH frequency is prohibited to change. The downlink power control does not
involve carrier slots for BCCH which includes the frequency hopping.

For previous causes, when the MS measures the average downlink channel level with
common methods, the measurement result is inaccurate for power control because
the average value includes the downlink received level of BCCH carriers the power
of which are not controlled, so the measurement report is inaccurate for power
control.
To avoid the influence on power control, when the MS calculates average received
level during frequency hopping, the received level obtained from BCCH carrier slot
must be removed (see GSM regulations 05.08).
II. Format
The value of PWRC includes 0 and 1, with meanings as follows:

When PWRC is 0, the measurement result by MS includes BCCH carrier.

When PWRC is 1, the measurement result by MS does not include BCCH carrier.

III. Configuration and Influence

The PWRC is usually configured to 0. Configure it to 1 if all the following
conditions are met:

Channels have frequency hopping on two or more frequencies.

One of the frequency is BCCH carrier frequency.
The system uses downlink power control.

IV. Precautions
The value of PWRC depends actually on the following parameters:

Whether to use frequency hopping.

Whether the hopping frequency includes BCCH carrier.
Whether the system uses downlink power control.

4.4.3 Discontinuous Transmit of Uplink

I. Definition
Discontinuous transmit of uplink (DTXU) refers to the process for MS not to
transmit signals during silent period (see description about DTX in Chapter 2).
II. Format
Whether the network allows uplink to use discontinuous transmit (DTX) is set by
equipment room operators. DTX ranges from 0 to 2, with the following meanings:

0: MS can use DTXU.

1: MS must use DTXU.
2: MS cannot use DTXU.

III. Configuration and Influence

Using uplink DTX affects call quality, but it is helpful in the following aspects:
Lower interference to radio channels.
Due to this, the average call quality of network is improved.

Cut power consumption by MS

For the previous advantages, DTX is recommended to use.

4.4.4 Discontinuous Transmit of Downlink
I. Defintion
Discontinuous transmit of downlink (DTXD) means the network does not transmit
signals during silent period.
II. Definition
DTXD is in string, and the range is YES and NO. The meanings are as follows:

YES: Downlink uses DTX.

NO: Downlink does not use DTX.

III. Configuration and Influence

Using downlink DTX affects call quality in a limit scale, but it is helpful in the
following aspects:
Lower interference to radio channels.
Due to this, the average call quality of network is improved.

Reduce load of base station CPU

Therefore, if possible, you use DTX.

IV. Precautions
According to GSM regulations, downlink DTX is optional. If the base station
equipment supports DTXD, then use it. However, you must ensure that voice
transcoder is available to support DTXD.
4.4.5 Call Resetup Allowed
I. Definition
When coverage voids cause radio link failure, consequently call drop, the MS starts
to resetup the call for recovery. Whether resetting up the call is allowed depends on
the parameter call resetup allowed (RE).
II. Format
The values of call resetup allowed are 1 and 0, with meanings as follows:

1: Call resetup is allowed in the cell.

0: Call resetup is forbidden in the cell.

III. Configuration and Influence

When a connected MS passes coverage voids, call drop occurs easily. If call resetup
is allowed, the average call drop rate (CDR) is lowered. However, call resetup takes
longer time, and most users disconnects before completion of call resetup. Therefore
call resetup is difficult to achieve, and even wastes abundant radio resources. In a
word, call resetup is disabled.
4.4.6 Emergency Call Allowed
I. Definition
The following MSs cannot enjoy various services:

MS without SIM
MS with ACC as one of C0 to C9 and with cell_bar_access

The parameter emergency call allowed (EC) determines whether the MS is allowed
for emergency calls, such as police emergency call.
II. Format
EC consists of 1 bit. For the MS with ACC of C0 to C9 or without SIM, the EC is
NO, meaning emergency call forbidden. YES means emergency call allowed. For the
MS with ACC of C11 to C15, when both the access control bit and EC are configured
to forbidden, it is forbidden for emergency calls.
III. Configuration and Influence
According to the GSM regulations, the emergency number is 112, different from that
in China. The Chinese emergency call cannot function as prescribed in GSM
regulations. For international roaming users, set 112 to answerphone to inform users

of various special service numbers. Therefore, setting emergency call must be

allowed through configuring radio parameters, namely, configure EC to 1.
4.4.7 Early Classmark Sending Control
I. Definition
In a GSM network, the MS classmark marks the following aspects:

Service capacity
Supported frequency band
Power capacity
Encryption capacity

Classmark consists of classmark1, classmark2, and classmark3. A GSM MS. In a

GSM network, the MS reports Classmark1 or Classmark2 information immediately
after ESTIND<CM SERV REQ> (corresponding to L2-SABM at Um interface) is
allocated. Classmark3 (CM3) information includes power information of various
frequency band of multi-frequency MS.
During handover between different bands, the power class must be correctly
described. When the GSM system pages and transmits BA2 in different bands, it
must know the CM3 message. In GSM regulation Phase2plus, early classmark
sending control (ECSC) is added. ECSC means that by SI the system informs MS of
reporting Classmark3 after link setup. This avoids querying process by network.
II. Format
The values of ECSC are Y and N, with the following meanings:

Y: The MS reports Classmark3 to the network immediately after link setup.

N: The MS is forbidden to report its Classmark3 to network initiatively.

III. Configuration and Influence

The major information of Classmark3 is for dualband network, so do as follows:

Configure ECSC to N in single frequency GSM application areas.

Configure ECSC to Y in dualband GSM application areas.

IV. Precautions
In a dualband network, configure the parameter of all cell to the same value.
Configuring the parameter to different values in one or more cells is forbidden;
otherwise, the network quality declines.

4.5 Frequency Hopping Parameters

4.5.1 Frequency Hopping Sequence Number
I. Definition

In a GSM network, the cell allocation (CA) means the set of carriers used by each
cell, recorded as {R0, R1, , Rn - 1}. Wherein, Ri indicates the absolute channel
number. For each communication process, the set of carriers used by base station and
MS is mobile allocation (MA), recorded as {M0, M1, , Mn - 1}. Wherein, Mi
indicates the absolute channel number. Obviously MA is a subset of CA.
During a communication process, the air interface uses a carrier number, one element
of MA. The variable mobile allocation index (MAI) determines an exact element of
MA. According to the frequency hopping algorithm in GSM regulation 05.02, the
MAI is the TDMA frame number (RN) or reduced frame number (RFN), frequency
hopping sequence number (HSN), and mobile allocation index offset (MAIO).
Wherein, the HSN determines two aspects:
Track of frequency points during frequency hopping
The asynchronous neighbor cells using the same MA can avoid continuous
frequency collision during frequency hopping by using different HSNs.

II. Format
HSN is in decimal, ranging from 0 to 63, wherein:

0: cyclic frequency hopping

163: pseudo frequency hopping

III. Configuration and Influence

You can choose any HSN in cells using frequency hopping, but you must ensure that
the cells using same frequency group must use different HSN. The following
paragraph is an exception:
In an 1X1 network, three cells under a base station use the same frequency group, but
they are synchronous cells because of same FN. Therefore the three cells use the
same HSN. You must plan MAIO properly to avoid frequency collision of the three
cells under the same base station.
4.5.2 Mobile Allocation
I. Definition
The mobile allocation (MA) in the GSM network indicates a frequency set for
frequency hopping. Namely, when the MA of a cell is fixed, the communication
frequency points of the cell performs transient in the set by MA according to rules.
The parameter MA determines all the elements in MA.
II. Format
MA is a set, with all GSM frequency points as its element, namely:

For GSM900 networks: 1124 and 9751023.

For GSM1800 networks: 512885

III. Configuration and Influence

MA is configured according to network designing requirements.

IV. Precautions
Chinese GSM networks do not cover all available frequency bands of GSM system,
so configure MA in available frequency bands.
The number of elements in each MA set cannot exceed 63.
The MA cannot include BCCH carriers.
The number of MA must not be multiples of 13 if all the following conditions are
met:

Using DTX
HSN = 0 (cyclic frequency hopping)

You must avoid SACCH to appear usually at the same frequency point.
4.5.3 Mobile Allocation Index Offset
I. Definition
During communication, the air interface uses a carrier frequency, one element of MA
set. MIO determines an exact element of MA set. According to the frequency
hopping algorithm in GSM regulation 05.02, the MAI is the TDMA frame number
(RN) or reduced frame number (RFN), frequency hopping sequence number (HSN),
and mobile allocation index offset (MAIO). MAIO is an initial offset of MAI, and it
aims to avoid multiple channels to use the same frequency carrier in the same time.
II. Format
MAIO ranges from 0 to 63.
III. Configuration and Influence
MAIO is configured by equipment room operators.
IV. Precautions
The different cells using same group of MA must use consistent MAIO.
Using different MAIOs enables different sectors in the same location to use the same
frequency group (MA) without frequency collision.

4.6 Distance Control Parameters

4.6.1 Call Clearing
I. Definition
Call clearing (CallClearing) means that the maximum allowed distance threshold is cleared
between MS and base station in talk.
II. Format
CallClearing ranges from 0 to 63, with unit of TA.

III. Configuration and Influence

Configure CallClearing according to actual coverage range of a cell. Proper configuration
of CallClearing helps check whether the handover threshold of the cell is properly defined,
especially for urban cells.
If the call is frequently cleared after CallClearing threshold is defined according to cell
radium, probably the handover threshold is improperly configured. This is due to that the
MS cannot hand over to the best server cell after exceeding designed coverage range.
Define CallClearing according to msRangeMax, namely, CallClearing > msRangeMax.
In actual network operation, call clearing is unusually performed, because radio link fails
due to over poor coverage before call clearing. Defining CallClearing aims to restrict the
distance between MS and base station and to avoid MSs in allowed coverage range to
interfere other MSs, especially in areas with complex landform.
The cell coverage range is irregular, so island effect might occur. For this phenomenon,
define CallClearing to clear calls in island areas.

4.6.2 TA Handover Threshold (MSRANGEMAX)

I. Defintion
When the distance between MS and base station reaches or exceeds MSRANGEMAX,
distance handover is triggered.
II. Format
MSRANGEMAX ranges from 0 to 63, with unit of TA. The reference is 63.
III. Configuration and Influence
MSRANGEMAX must be smaller than CallClearing, and otherwise the handover function will
be actually unavailable. While configuring MSRANGEMAX, you must adjust the threshold of
other types of handover; otherwise ping-pong handover occurs. one occasion might be as
follows:
The distance between MS and the serving cell exceeds the threshold, but the signals of
target cell are weaker than that of original cell. Consequently the PowerBudget handover
is triggered immediately after distance handover is triggered.

4.6.3 TA Restriction (MS_BS_DIST_USED)

I. Definition
The maximum allowed access distance between base station and MS. If the distance
between an MS and base station exceeds the maximum allowed access distance, the MS is
forbidden to access cells.
II. Format
The range is 0 to 63, with unit of TA. The reference is 63.
III. Configuration and Influence
For its configuration, refer to the method for configuring CallClearing. Adjust the
parameter to enable it consistent with the geographic coverage range of the cell. Set a
proper threshold to filter pseudo RACH requests to avoid unnecessary assigning SDCCH.
According to tests, for mountain-mounted base stations, the coverage and interference is
difficult to control. If you define the maximum allowed access distance to 63, the RACH

misjudgment increases (the system demodulates interference to RACH bursts by mistake).

Therefore the radio performance and traffic measurement indexes of the cell are
affected.

4.7 Radio Link Failure Process and Parameters

The radio link failure is detected from uplink and downlink. The MS completes downlink
detection, while the base station completes uplink detection.

4.7.1 Radio Link Failure Counter (RLC or Radio Link Timeout)

I. Definition
The MS originates call resetup or disconnects by force if all the following conditions are
met:

The voice or data quality is too poor to be received.

Power control and handover cannot help to improve the quality.

A disconnection by force actually brings about a call drop, so the MS considers it a radio
link failure that the voice or data service is actually too poor to be received. GSM
regulations provide solutions to the previous problems as follows:
Set a counter S in the MS. The initial value of S is provided at the beginning of talk, and it
is the value of the parameter radio link failure counter. S changes as follows:
S decreases by 1 if the MS fails in decoding a correct SACCH message when the
MS should receive the SACCH message.

S increases by 2 if the MS succeed in decoding a correct SACCH message.

S cannot exceed the value for radio link failure counter. When S equals to 0, the MS
originates call resetup or disconnects by force.
II. Format
The step from 4 to 64 is 4, with unit of SACCH period as follows:

For TCH, the SACCH period is 480ms.

For SDCCH, the SACCH period is 470ms.

III. Configuration and Influence

The value of the parameter radio link failure counter affects CDR and utilization of radio
resources.
Assume that cell A is a neighbor cell to cell B and the bordering coverage is poor. When an
MS moves from P to Q while in talk,
If the radio link failure counter is over small, call drop occurs before cross-cell
handover.

If the radio link failure counter is over great, the network releases related
resources until radio link expires, though the voice quality is too poor when MS camps
on cell B near P. Therefore, the utilization of radio resources declines.

Proper configuration of radio link failure counter is important, and is related to the actual
situations. To configure radio link failure counter, refer to the following rules:
Configure it to between 52 and 64 in areas with over low traffic.
Configure it to between 36 and 48 in areas with low traffic and great coverage
radium

Configure it to between 20 and 32 in areas with heavy traffic.

IV. Precautions
Configure radioLinkTimeout to smaller than T3109. This contributes to success of call
resetup and avoids the following situation effectively:
Before the MS releases radio resources due to expiration, the network side completes
releasing channels resources and reallocates resources to other MSs. Therefore two MSs
might use the same slot and this causes interferences even call drop.

4.7.2 SACCH Multiframe (RLTO_BS)

I. Definition
Refer to the description of radio link failure counter. A counter is set accordingly to radio
link at base station side for managing radio link failures. The solutions vary due to
different equipment providers, but a general method is as follows:
Set a counter S in the base station. The initial value of S is provided at the beginning of
talk, and it is the value of the parameter radio link failure expiration. S changes as
follows:
S decreases by 1 if the MS fails in decoding a correct SACCH message when the
MS should receive the SACCH message.

S increases by 2 if the MS succeed in decoding a correct SACCH message.

S cannot exceed the value for radio link expiration of base station. When S equals to 0, the
MS originates call resetup or disconnects by force, as shown in Figure 1-5.
II. Format
RLT0_BS ranges from 4 to 64.
III. Configuration and Influence
Proper configuration of radio link expiration of base station affects CDR and utilization of
radio resources. It is related to the actual situations. To configure radio link failure
counter, refer to the following rules:
Configure it to between 52 and 64 in areas with over low traffic.
Configure it to between 36 and 48 in areas with low traffic and great coverage
radium

Configure it to between 20 and 32 in areas with heavy traffic.

Configure it to a greater value in areas with apparent voids or where call drop
occurs frequently while the MS moves.

IV. Precautions
RLT0_BS and RLC must be consistent.

andover and Related Parameters

4.8.1 PBGT Handover Threshold (HoMargin)
I. Definition
The PBGT handover threshold is power handover tolerance (handover in serving
areas). When the signal level of neighbor cell is hoMargin (dB) higher than that of
the serving cell, handover occurs. Complex radio propagation conditions cause
fluctuation of signal level. Using handover tolerance avoids frequent handover at

bordering areas. The PBGT handover threshold is similar to HO_MARGIN (GSM

05.08).
II. Format
The PBGT handover threshold ranges from 0 to 127, corresponding to 64 dB to +63
dB. The reference value for suburban areas is 68. The reference value for urban areas
is 70 to 72.
III. Configuration and Influence
The PBGT handover threshold aims to adjust handover difficulty properly, and to
avoid ping-pong handover. If it is configured over great, the handover is delayed and
handover is less efficient. When it is smaller than 64, the MS hands over from the
serving cell to the neighbor cell with lower level.
4.8.2 Minimum Downlink Power of Handover Candidate Cells (rxLevMinCell)
I. Definition
It is the minimum allowed access level for a cell to be a neighbor cell. When the cell
level measured by MS is greater than the threshold, the BSS list the cell into
candidate cell list for handover judgment.
II. Format
It ranges from 110 dBm to 47 dBm.
III. Configuration and Influence
It is helpful in the following two aspects:
It guarantees communication quality.
For a common single layer network structure, the value ranges from 90 dBm to 80
dBm.

It helps allocate traffic between cells averagely.

Especially in multi-layer network structure, to maintain MS in a network layer, you can
increase the level of the cell of the network layer (such as 70 dBm), and also
decrease that in other cells.

IV. Precautions
You cannot configure rxLevMinCell over great (over 65 dBm) or over small (lower
than 95 dBm), and otherwise communication quality is affected.
4.8.3 Handover Threshold at Uplink Edge
I. Definition
If the uplink received level keeps being smaller than the handover threshold at uplink
edge for a period, edge handover can be performed.
II. Format

It ranges from 0 to 63, corresponding to 110 dBm to 47 dBm. The recommended

values are as follows:

Configure it to 25 in urban areas without PBGT handover.

Configure it to 20 in single site of suburban areas.
Configure it to 20 in urban areas with PBGT handover

III. Configuration and Influence

When PBGT handover is enabled, the corresponding edge handover threshold can be
lowered. When PBGT handover is disabled, and the edge handover threshold is over
low, an artificial cross-cell non-handover occurs. Therefore call drop occurs or intrafrequency and side interference occur due to cross-cell talk.
4.8.4 Handover Threshold at Downlink Edge
I. Definition
If the downlink received level keeps being smaller than the handover threshold at
downlink edge for a period, edge handover can be performed.
II. Format
It ranges from 0 to 63, corresponding to 110 dBm to 47 dBm. The recommended
values are as follows:

Configure it to 30 in urban areas without PBGT handover.

Configure it to 25 in single site of suburban areas.
Configure it to 25 in urban areas with PBGT handover

III. Configuration and Influence

When PBGT handover is enabled, the corresponding edge handover threshold can be
lowered. When PBGT handover is disabled, and the edge handover threshold is over
low, an artificial cross-cell non-handover occurs. Therefore call drop occurs or intrafrequency and side interference occur due to cross-cell talk.
4.8.5 Downlink Quality Restriction of Emergency Handover
I. Definition
If the downlink received quality is lower than the threshold of downlink quality
restriction of emergency handover, the quality difference emergency handover
occurs.
II. Format
It ranges from 0 to 70, corresponding to RQ (QoS 0 to 7) x 10.
The recommended value is 50.
III. Configuration and Influence
When frequency hopping is enabled, the voice quality is better with the same RQ,
you can configure it to 60 or 70. When emergency handover occurs, the intracell

handover occurs first. If there are no other candidate cells, and the intracell handover
is enabled, the intracell handover occurs.
4.8.6 Uplink Quality Restriction of Emergency Handover
I. Definition
If the uplink received quality is lower than it, quality difference emergency handover
is triggered.
II. Format
It ranges from 0 to 70, corresponding to RQ (QoS 0 to 7) x 10.
The recommended value is 50.
III. Configuration and Influence
When frequency hopping is enabled, the voice quality is better with the same RQ,
you can configure it to 60 or 70. When emergency handover occurs, the intracell
handover occurs first. If there are no other candidate cells, and the intracell handover
is enabled, the intracell handover occurs.
4.8.7 Uplink Quality Threshold of Interference Handover
I. Definition
It is the uplink received quality threshold of the serving cell that triggers interference
handover. The interference handover is triggered if all the following conditions are
met:
The uplink received level is higher than the uplink received power threshold of
interference handover.

The uplink received quality is lower than the uplink quality threshold of
interference handover.

When handover switch is enabled, the interference handover occurs within the cell
by preference.
II. Format
It ranges from 0 to 70, corresponding to RQ (QoS 0 to 7) x 10.
The recommended value is 50.
III. Configuration and Influence
When frequency hopping is enabled, the voice quality is better with the same RQ,
you can configure it to 60 or 70. When interference handover is triggered, select the
candidates according to the sorted result. If the serving cell ranks first and its
intracell handover is enabled, the MS selects the serving cell; otherwise it selects the
second candidate cell.
4.8.8 Downlink Quality Threshold of Interference Handover

I. Definition
It is the downlink received quality threshold of the serving cell that triggers
interference handover. The interference handover is triggered if all the following
conditions are met:
The downlink received level is higher than the downlink received power
threshold of interference handover.

The downlink received quality is lower than the downlink quality threshold of
interference handover.

When handover switch is enabled, the interference handover occurs within the cell
by preference.
II. Format
It ranges from 0 to 70, corresponding to RQ (QoS 0 to 7) x 10.
The recommended value is 50.
III. Configuration and Influence
When frequency hopping is enabled, the voice quality is better with the same RQ,
you can configure it to 60 or 70. When interference handover is triggered, select the
candidates according to the sorted result. If the serving cell ranks first and its
intracell handover is enabled, the MS selects the serving cell; otherwise it selects the
second candidate cell.
IV. Precautions
The interference handover quality must be better than emergency handover quality.
4.8.9 Uplink Received Power Threshold of Interference Handover
I. Definition
If interference handover occurs due to uplink quality, the serving cell must reach the
minimum uplink received power threshold. If this is met, the system judges that
uplink is interfered, so interference handover is triggered.
The interference handover is triggered if all the following conditions are met:
The uplink received level is higher than the uplink received power threshold of
interference handover.

The uplink received quality is lower than the uplink quality threshold of
interference handover.

When handover switch is enabled, the interference handover occurs within the cell
by preference.
II. Format
It ranges from 0 to 63, corresponding to 110 dBm to 47 dBm.
The recommended value is 25.
III. Configurationa and Influence

When interference handover is triggered, select the candidates according to the sorted
result. If the serving cell ranks first and its intracell handover is enabled, the MS
selects the serving cell; otherwise it selects the second candidate cell.
4.8.10 Downlink Received Power Threshold of Interference Handover
I. Definition
If interference handover occurs due to uplink quality, the serving cell must reach the
minimum downlink received power threshold. If this is met, the system judges that
downlink is interfered, so interference handover is triggered.
The interference handover is triggered if all the following conditions are met:
The downlink received level is higher than the downlink received power
threshold of interference handover.

The downlink received quality is lower than the downlink quality threshold of
interference handover.

When handover switch is enabled, the interference handover occurs within the cell
by preference.
II. Format
It ranges from 0 to 63, corresponding to 110 dBm to 47 dBm.
The recommended value is 30.
III. Configurationa and Influence
When interference handover is triggered, select the candidates according to the sorted
result. If the serving cell ranks first and its intracell handover is enabled, the MS
selects the serving cell; otherwise it selects the second candidate cell.
4.8.11 Maximum Repeated Times of Physical Messages (NY1)
I. Definition
In asynchronous handover process of GSM system, when the MS receives handover
messages of the network, it sends handover access messages on the target channel.
After the network receives the message, it does as follows:
1)
2)
and
3)

Calculate related RF features.

Send physical messages (it the channel messages are encrypted, start encryption
decryption algorithm) in unit data to MSs.
Start timer T3105.

If the network does not receive correct layer 2 frames sent by MS until expiration of
T3105, the network will resend the physical message and restart T3105. The
maximum times for resending physical messages is determined by the parameter
maximum repeated times of physical messages (NY1)
II. Format
NY1 ranges from 0 to 254.

The recommended value is 20.

III. Configuration and Influence
When the network receives the handover access messages sent by MS, the physical
channel (PCH) needs to be synchronous. If the communication quality on channels is
guaranteed, the MS can receive physical messages correctly and send layer 2 frames
to the network.
If the physical messages are sent multiple times, and the network cannot receive
layer 2 frames sent by MS, the PCH is too poor to communicate normally. Though
link is setup after multiple trials, the communication quality is not guaranteed. This
lowers the utilization of radio resources. Therefore configure NY1 to a smaller value.
IV. Precautions
Configuring NY1 is affected by T3105. If T3105 is configured to a short value, then
the NY1 needs to be increased accordingly.
If a handover trial fails before the original cell receives the HANDOVER FAILURE
message, and the T3105 of the target cell expires for Ny times, the target BTS sends
a CONNECTION FAILURE INDICATION message to the target BSC. Though the
MS might return to the original channel, the traffic measurement counters from
multiple vendors will take statistics of connection failure.
To avoid the previous phenomenon, configure T3105 as follows:
Ny * T3105 > T3124 + delta (delta: the time between expiration of T3124 and
receiving HANDOVER FAILURE message by original BTS)
4.8.12 Multiband Indicator (multiband_reporting)
I. Definition
In a single band GSM network, when the MS send measurement reports of neighbor
cells to the network, it needs to report the content of the six neighbor cells with
strongest signals.
In a multiband network, operators wish that MS uses a band by preference in crosscell handover. Therefore the MS sends measurement reports according to signal
strength and signal band. The parameter multiband indicator indicates MS to report
content of multiband neighbor cells.
II. Format
The multiband indicator ranges from 0 to 3, with meanings as follows:
0: According to signal strength of neighbor cells, the MS must report six allowed
measurement reports of neighbor cells with strongest signals and known NCC, with
the neighbor cells in whatever band.

1: The MS must report the allowed measurement report of a neighbor cell with
known NCC and with strongest signals at each band expect for the band used by the
serving cell. The MS must also report the neighbor cells of the band used by the
serving cell in rest locations. If there are other rest locations, the MS must report
conditions of other neighbor cells in any band.

2: The MS must report the allowed measurement report of two neighbor cells
with known NCC and with strongest signals at each band expect for the band used by
the serving cell. The MS must also report the neighbor cells of the band used by the
serving cell in rest locations. If there are other rest locations, the MS must report
conditions of other neighbor cells in any band.

3: The MS must report the allowed measurement report of three neighbor cells
with known NCC and with strongest signals at each band expect for the band used by
the serving cell. The MS must also report the neighbor cells of the band used by the
serving cell in rest locations. If there are other rest locations, the MS must report
conditions of other neighbor cells in any band.

III. Configuration and Influence

In multiband networks, it is related to traffic of each band. For configuration, refer to
the following rules:
If the traffic of each band is approximately equal, and operators do not select a
band intentionally, you can configure the multiband indicator to 0

If the traffic of each band is obviously different, and operators want MS to

select a band by preference, you can configure the multiband indicator to 3.

For situations between the previous two, configure multiband indicator to 1 or

2.

4.8.13 Permitted Network Color Code (ncc permitted)

I. Definition
During a talk, the MS must report the measured signals of neighbor cells to the base
station, but each report includes only six neighbor cells. Therefore the MS is
configured to report the potential handover target neighbor cells, instead of reporting
unselectively and according to signal level.
To enable previous functions, restrict MS to measure the cells with the fixed network
color code (NCC). The NNC allowed by parameters list the NCCs of the cells to be
measured by MS. The MS compares the measured NCC of neighbor cells and NCCs
set allowed by parameters. If the measured NCC is in the set, the MS reports the
NCC to the base station; otherwise, the MS discard the measurement report.
II. Format
The parameter ncc permitted is a bit mapping value, consisting of 8 bits. The most
significant bit is bit 7 while the least significant bit is bit 0. Each bit corresponds to
an NCC code 0 to 7 (see GSM regulations 03.03 and 04.08).
If the bit N is 0 (N ranges from 0 to 7), the MS needs not to measure the level of the
cell with NCC of N. Namely, it only measures the signal quality and level of the cells
corresponding to bit number of 1 in NCC and ncc permitted configuration.
III. Configuration and Influence
Each area is allocated with one or more NCCs. In the parameter ncc permitted of the
cell, the local NCC is absolutely and only included. If excluded, abnormal handover
and call drop occur. For normal roaming between areas, the NCC of neighbor areas
must be included in the edge cells of an area.

IV. Precautions
Improper configuration of the parameter causes normal handover and even call drop.
The parameter only affects behaviors of MS.

Power Control and Related Parameters

4.9.1 Maximum Transmit Power of MS (MSTXPWRMX)
I. Definition
The transmit power of MS in communication is controlled by BTS. According to the uplink
signal strength and quality, power budget result, the BTS controls MS to increase or
decrease its transmit power.

Note:

In any situation, power control is prior to related handover for BSS. Only when the BSS fails
to improve uplink signal strength and voice quality to the prescribed level, it starts
handover.
To reduce interference between neighbor cells, the power control of MS is restricted.
Namely, the BTS controls MS to transmit power within the threshold.
MSTXPWRMX is the maximum transmit power of MS controlled by BTS.
II. Format
MSTXPWRMX ranges from 0 to 31.
The dBm values corresponding to GSM900 and GSM1800 cells are different:
The 32 maximum transmit power control classes for GSM900 are {39, 39, 39, 37,
35, 33, 31, 29, 27, 25, 23, 21, 19, 17, 15, 13, 11, 9, 7, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5,
5}

The 32 maximum transmit power control classes for GSM900 are {30, 28, 26, 24,
22, 20, 18, 16, 14, 12, 10, 8, 6, 4, 2, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36, 34, 32}

III. Configuration and Influence

Configuring MSTXPWRMX helps control interferences between neighbor cells, because:
If MSTXPWRMX is over great, the interference between neighbor cells increases.
If MSTXPWRMX is over small, the voice quality declines and improper handover
might occur.

4.9.2 Received Level Threshold of Downlink Power Increment (LDR)

I. Definition
When the downlink received level of the serving cell is smaller than a threshold, the
network must start power control to increase the transmit power of base station and to
guarantee communication quality of MS.
The received level threshold of downlink power increment defines the downlink received
level threshold. When the downlink level received by MS is smaller than it, the base
station starts power control to increase its transmit power.

The parameter N1 means that at lease N1 sampling points must be measured before
starting handover algorithm.
The parameter P1 means the level of at least P1 sampling points in N1 sampling points is
smaller than the threshold prescribed by received level threshold of downlink power
increment.
II. Format
It ranges from 110 dBm to 47 dBm.
N1 ranges from 1 to 32.
P1 ranges from 1 to 32.
III. Configuration and Influence
The received level is between 60 dBm and 80 dBm in a GSM network, so configure
received level threshold of downlink power increment to 85 dBm.
N1 is related to propagation quality of radio channels within cell coverage range. To
reduce influence by attenuation, configure N1 to between 3 and 5.
Configure P1 to about 2/3 of N1.

4.9.3 Received Level Threshold of Uplink Power Increment (LUR)

I. Definition
When the uplink received level of the serving cell is smaller than a threshold, the network
must start power control to increase the transmit power of MS and to guarantee
communication quality of MS.
The received level threshold of uplink power increment defines the uplink received level
threshold. When the uplink level received by MS is smaller than it, the base station starts
power control to increase MS transmit power.
The parameter N1 means that at lease N1 sampling points must be measured before
starting handover algorithm.
The parameter P1 means the level of at least P1 sampling points in N1 sampling points is
smaller than the threshold prescribed by received level threshold of uplink power
increment.
II. Format
It ranges from 110 dBm to 47 dBm.
N1 ranges from 1 to 32.
P1 ranges from 1 to 32.
III. Configuration and Influence
The received level is between 60 dBm and 80 dBm in a GSM network, so configure
received level threshold of uplink power increment to 85 dBm.
N1 is related to propagation quality of radio channels within cell coverage range. To
reduce influence by attenuation, configure N1 to between 3 and 5.
Configure P1 to about 2/3 of N1.

4.9.4 Received Quality Threshold of Downlink Power Increment (LDR)

I. Definition

When the downlink received quality of the serving cell is smaller than a threshold, the
network must start power control to increase the transmit power of base station and to
guarantee communication quality.
The received quality threshold of downlink power increment defines the downlink received
level threshold. When the downlink quality received by MS is smaller than it, the base
station starts power control to increase its transmit power.
The parameter N3 means that at lease N3 sampling points must be measured before
starting handover algorithm.
The parameter P3 means the quality of at least P3 sampling points in N3 sampling points is
smaller than the threshold prescribed by received quality threshold of downlink power
increment.
II. Format
It ranges from 0 to 7, the voice quality grade.
N3 ranges from 1 to 32.
P3 ranges from 1 to 32.
III. Configuration and Influence
The received quality is 0 to 2 of quality grade in a GSM network, so configure received
quality threshold of downlink power increment to 85 dBm.
N3 is related to propagation quality of radio channels within cell coverage range. To
reduce influence by attenuation, configure N3 to between 3 and 5.
Configure P3 to about 2/3 of N3.

4.9.5 Received Quality Threshold of Uplink Power Increment (LUR)

I. Definition
When the uplink received quality of the serving cell is smaller than a threshold, the
network must start power control to increase the transmit power of MS and to guarantee
communication quality.
The received quality threshold of uplink power increment defines the uplink received
quality threshold. When the uplink quality received by MS is smaller than it, the base
station starts power control to increase transmit power of MS.
The parameter N3 means that at lease N3 sampling points must be measured before
starting handover algorithm.
The parameter P3 means the quality of at least P3 sampling points in N3 sampling points is
smaller than the threshold prescribed by received quality threshold of uplink power
increment.
II. Format
It ranges from 0 to 7, the voice quality grade.
N3 ranges from 1 to 32.
P3 ranges from 1 to 32.
III. Configuration and Influence
The received quality is 0 to 2 of quality grade in a GSM network, so configure received
quality threshold of uplink power increment to 3.

N3 is related to propagation quality of radio channels within cell coverage range. To

reduce influence by attenuation, configure N3 to between 3 and 5.
Configure P3 to about 2/3 of N3.

4.9.6 Received Level Threshold of Downlink Power Decrement (UDR)

I. Definition
When the downlink received level of the serving cell is greater than a threshold, the
network must start power control to decrease the transmit power of base station and to
decrease interference to radio channels.
The received level threshold of downlink power decrement defines the downlink received
level threshold. When the downlink level received by MS is greater than it, the base
station starts power control to decrease its transmit power.
The parameter N2 means that at lease N2 sampling points must be measured before
starting handover algorithm.
The parameter P2 means the level of at least P2 sampling points in N2 sampling points is
greater than the threshold prescribed by received level threshold of downlink power
decrement.
II. Format
It ranges from 110 dBm to 47 dBm.
N1 ranges from 1 to 32.
P1 ranges from 1 to 32.
III. Configuration and Influence
The received level is between 60 dBm and 80 dBm in a GSM network, so configure
received level threshold of downlink power decrement to 85 dBm.
N2 is related to propagation quality of radio channels within cell coverage range. To
reduce influence by attenuation, configure N2 to between 3 and 5.
Configure P2 to about 2/3 of N2.

4.9.7 Received Level Threshold of Uplink Power Decrement (UUR)

I. Definition
When the uplink received level of the serving cell is greater than a threshold, the network
must start power control to decrease the transmit power of MS and to decrease
interference to radio channels.
The received level threshold of uplink power decrement defines the uplink received level
threshold. When the uplink level received by MS is greater than it, the base station starts
power control to decrease transmit power of MS.
The parameter N2 means that at lease N2 sampling points must be measured before
starting handover algorithm.
The parameter P2 means the level of at least P2 sampling points in N2 sampling points is
greater than the threshold prescribed by received level threshold of uplink power
decrement.
II. Format
It ranges from 110 dBm to 47 dBm.

N2 ranges from 1 to 32.

P2 ranges from 1 to 32.
III. Configuration and Influence
The received level is between 60 dBm and 80 dBm in a GSM network, so configure
received level threshold of uplink power decrement to 60 dBm.
N2 is related to propagation quality of radio channels within cell coverage range. To
reduce influence by attenuation, configure N2 to between 3 and 5.
Configure P2 to about 2/3 of N2.

4.9.8 Received Quality Threshold of Downlink Power Decrement (UDR)

I. Definition
When the downlink received quality of the serving cell is greater than a threshold, the
network must start power control to decrease the transmit power of base station and to
decrease space interference.
The received quality threshold of downlink power decrement defines the downlink
received quality threshold. When the downlink quality received by MS is greater than it,
the base station starts power control to decrease transmit power of MS.
The parameter N4 means that at lease N4 sampling points must be measured before
starting handover algorithm.
The parameter P4 means the quality of at least P4 sampling points in N2 sampling points is
greater than the threshold prescribed by received quality threshold of downlink power
decrement.
II. Format
It ranges from 0 to 7, the voice quality grade.
N4 ranges from 1 to 32.
P4 ranges from 1 to 32.
III. Configuration and Influence
The received quality is 0 to 2 of quality grade in a GSM network, so configure received
quality threshold of downlink power decrement to 0.
N4 is related to propagation quality of radio channels within cell coverage range. To
reduce influence by attenuation, configure N4 to between 3 and 5.
Configure P4 to about 2/3 of N4.

4.9.9 Received Quality Threshold of Uplink Power Decrement (UUR)

I. Definition
When the uplink received quality of the serving cell is greater than a threshold, the
network must start power control to decrease the transmit power of MS and to decrease
space interference.
The received quality threshold of uplink power decrement defines the uplink received
quality threshold. When the uplink quality received by MS is greater than it, the base
station starts power control to decrease transmit power of MS.
The parameter N4 means that at lease N4 sampling points must be measured before
starting handover algorithm.

The parameter P4 means the quality of at least P4 sampling points in N4 sampling points is
greater than the threshold prescribed by received quality threshold of uplink power
decrement.
II. Format
It ranges from 0 to 7, the voice quality grade.
N4 ranges from 1 to 32.
P4 ranges from 1 to 32.
III. Configuration and Influence
The received quality is 0 to 2 of quality grade in a GSM network, so configure received
quality threshold of uplink power decrement to 0.
N4 is related to propagation quality of radio channels within cell coverage range. To
reduce influence by attenuation, configure N4 to between 3 and 5.
Configure P4 to about 2/3 of N4.

4.9.10 Power Control Interval (INT)

I. Definition
It takes a period from beginning of power control to detection of effect of power control.
Therefore an interval must exist between continuous two power controls; otherwise the
system becomes unstable and even call drop occurs.
The parameter power control interval (INT) configures the minimum interval between two
continuous times of power control.
II. Format
It ranges from 0 to 31s.
III. Configuration and Influence
According to frame structure of GSM network, configure INT to about 3s.
IV. Precautions
INT cannot be smaller than 1s, and otherwise the system becomes unstable.

4.9.11 Power Increment Step (INC)

I. Definition
The INC indicates the power increment of MS or base station in power control.
II. Format
The range of INC is 2 dB, 4 dB, or 6 dB.
III. Configuration and Influence
The recommended value is 4 dB.

4.9.12 Power Decrement Step (RED)

I. Definition

The RED indicates the power decrement of MS or base station in power control.
II. Format
The range of RED is 2 dB or 4 dB.
III. Configuration and Influence
The recommended value of RED is 2 dB.

4.10 Systematic Important Timers

4.10.1 T3101
I. Definition
T3101 is the BSC timer controlling time of immediate assignment process.
II. Format
T3101 ranges from 0 to 255s. The recommended value is 3s.
III. Configuration and Influence
In an immediate assignment process, the BSC requires BTS to provide SDCCH to set up
signaling channel. When the BSC sends a channel activation message, T3101 starts timing.
When the BSC receives the setup instruction sent by BTS, T3101 stops timing. When T3101
expires, the system releases corresponding SDCCH resources. Proper configuration of
T3101 reduces congestion due to dual assignment SDCCH effectively.
The greater the T3101 is, the longer the inefficient time for using signaling resources is.
For example, if the extended transmission delay is improperly configured (usually the sum
of T and S is over small), the MS fails in responding to the network side, so the MS resends
the random access request message.
Therefore, the network side will assign SDCCH (the network cannot distinguish the
repeated sending access request from the first send). For better use of signaling resources,
especially in activating queue function, you must configure T3101 to a smaller value. The
minimum interval for sending channel activation message and receiving setup indicator is
600ms. For non-overload BSS, the maximum interval is 1.8s.

4.10.2 T3103
I. Definition
In inter- and intra-BSS handover, the BSC determines the time for keeping TCH both in
handover-originated cell and target cell. When the time receives handover completion
(intra-BSC) or clearing (inter-BSC) message, T3103 stops.
II. Format
T3103 ranges from 0 to 255s. The recommended value is 5s.
III. Configuration and Influence
The following paragraph is an example of inter-BSS handover.

When T3103 receives the handover command, it is reset and starts timing. When it
receives clearing command, it is reset. This means that T3103 reserves two channels when
it is timing, one channel for source BSC, and one channel for target BSC. If it is over long,
two channels are occupied for a long time and resources might be wasted.
According to the tests, if the NSS timer is properly configured, the handover process
occurs within 5s. Therefore, the recommended value is 5s.

4.10.3 T3105
I. Definition
See the protocol 0408 and 0858. When sending physical information, the network starts
T3105. If the timer expires before receiving any correct frames from MS, the network
resends physical information and restarts the T3105. The maximum repeated times is Ny1.
II. Format
T3105 ranges from 0 to 255, with unit of 10ms.
III. Configuration and Influence
The physical information is sent on FACCH. The time for sending four TDMA in a time on
FACCH is about 18ms. If the next physical information is just sent 18ms after the first one,
probably the first physical information is still being sent. The minimum time for sending
physical information continuously and most quickly is 20ms.
IV. Precautions
T3105 is related to the timer NY1. If T3105 is small, configure NY1 to a greater value. If a
handover trial fails and the T3105 of the target cell expires for Ny times before the
original cell receives the HANDOVER FAILURE message, the target BTS sends the
CONNECTION FAILURE INDICATION message to the target BSC.
The counter of target BSC is renewed though MS might return to the original channel. To
avoid this, the T3105 must meet the following foulard:
Ny * T3105 > T3124 + delta
Wherein, delta is the time between expiration of T3124 and receiving HANDOVER FAILURE
message by original BSC.

4.10.4 T3107
I. Definition
T3107 is a BSC timer, restricting the time for executing TCH assignment instruction. It
caters for TCH assignment of intracell handover and channel assignment of calling.
II. Format
T3107 ranges form 0s to 255s. The recommended values are as follows:

10s when channel resources are enough.

5s when channel resources are limited.

III. Configuration and Influence

T3107 starts after the BSC sends the ASS_CMD message to BTS. It stops after the BSC
receives the ASS_CMP or ASS_FAIL message sent by BTS. If T3107 expires, the system judges
that the MS disconnects to the network, so the occupied resource is released to other MSs.
According to the measured statistics result of network, the channel assignment is

complete within 2s. If the BSC does not receive ASS_CMP message after 2s, the assignment
command fails.
If the radio link is bad and some information must be resent, the process might be
prolonged to 5s. To avoid premature disconnection, configure T3107 to 10s. In this way,
the MS can reuse the original channel when handover or assignment fails. Therefore the
call drop due to intracell handover decreases or the system service quality of reassignment is improved (if the system supports re-assignment function). However, the
channel resource might be wasted for several seconds. When the network capacity is
limited, you must save the resource as possible.

4.10.5 T3109
I. Definition
The BSC restricts the releasing resource of SACCH by T3109.
II. Format
T3109 ranges from 3s to 34s. The recommended T3109 is as follows:
T3109 = a + RdioLinktimeOut x 0.480s, a = 1s or 2s.
III. Configuration and Influence
T3109 measures the time for channel releasing indicator after sending MS clearing
instructions. It starts after the BSC sends DEACT_SACCH message to BTS. It stops after the
BSC receives the REL_INC message sent by BTS. When T3109 expires, the BSC sends the
CLEAR REQUEST message to MSC.
IV. Precautions
The sum of T3111 and T3109 must be greater than RadioLinkTimeOut. If T3109 is over
small, the corresponding radio resources are re-allocated before RadioLinkTimeOut is due
(radio link is not released).

4.10.6 T3111
I. Definition
T3111 is a connection release delay timer, used in deactivation of delayed channel after
disconnection of major signaling link. T3111 aims to spare some time for repeated
disconnections. When BSC receives the REL_IND message sent by BTS, T3111 starts. For
time protection, T3111 stops until expiration and the BSC sends the RF_CHAN_REL message
to BTS.
II. Format
T3111 ranges from 0s to 5s.
The recommended value is 2s.
III. Configuration and Influence
After the disconnection of major signaling link, T3111 delays the release of channels. It
allows the base station to retransmit the instruction for releasing radio channels to MS
within delayed time. After the base station sends a release request massage, the radio
resources remain for T3111 time.
If the system capacity is small, configure T3111 as short as possible. The minimum value of
T3111 is 2s, over five multiples of the time for resending MS the instruction for releasing

radio channel resources. A greater T3111 might be of no help, but affects congestion of
SDCCH and TCH easily.

4.10.7 Parameter T3212

I. Definition
In a GSM network, the causes to location updating are as follows:
The MS attach.
The MS detects that its location area changes.

The network forces MS to update location periodically.

The network controls how frequent the MS updates location, and the period for
location updating is determined by the parameter T3212.

II. Format
T3212 ranges from 0 to 255, with unit of 6 minutes (1/10 hour). If T3212 = 1, it means that
T3212 is 6 minutes. If T3212 = 255, it means that T3212 is 25 hours and 30 minutes. If
T3212 = 0, it means that MS is not required for periodical location updating in the cell. The
recommended T3212 is 240.
III. Configuration and Influence
As an important means, the periodical location updating enables network to connect to
MSs closely. Therefore, the short the period is, the overall service performance of the
network is. Anyhow frequent periodical location updating brings two negative aspects:
The signaling flow of the network increases sharply and the utilization of radio
resource declines. When the period is over long, the processing capability of network
elements (NE, including MSC, BSC, and BTS) is directly affected.

The MS must transmit signals with greater power, so the average standby time is
shortened sharply.

Therefore, configure T3212 according to resource utilization in various aspects of network.

T3212 is configured by equipment room operators. Its value depends on the flow and
processing capability of each NE. Configure T3212 as follows:
Configure T3212 to a greater value (such as 16 hours, 20 hours, or even 25
hours) in areas with heavy traffic and signaling flow.

Configure T3212 to a smaller value (such as 3 hours or 6 hours) in areas with low
traffic and signaling flow.

Configure T3212 to 0 in areas with traffic overrunning the system capacity.

To configure T3212 properly, you must permanently measure the processing capability and
flow of each UE in the running network, such as:

The processing capability of MSC and BSC

A interface, Abis interface, and Um interface
The capability of HLR and VLR

If any of the previously listed NEs is overloaded, you can consider increasing T3212.
IV. Precautions
T3212 cannot be over small. Otherwise, the signaling flow at each interface increases
sharply and the MS (especially handset) consumes increasing power. If the T3212 is smaller
than 30 minutes (excluding 0), the network will be fiercely impacted.
Configuring T3212 of different cells in the same location area to the same value is
recommended. In addition, the T3212 must be consistent with related parameters of
switching side (smaller than the implicit detach timer at switching side).

If the T3212 of different cells in the same location area is the same, in the cell
reselection, the MS continues to time according the T3212 of the original cell. If the T3212
of the original and target cell in the same location area is different, the MS uses the T3212
of the original cell modulo that of the serving cell.
According to the actual tests of MS in the network, if the T3212 in the same location area
is different, after the MS performs modulo algorithm based on behaviors of some users,
the MS might power on normally. However, the MS fails in originating location updating, so
the network identifies it as implicit detach. Now the MS powers on normally, but a user
has powered offprompt appears when it is called.

4.10.8 T3122
I. Definition
T3122 defines the period that the MS must wait for before the second trial calling if the
first trial calling fails. It aims to avoid congestion of SDCCH due to repeated trial calling by
MS and to relieve system load.
II. Format
T3122 ranges from 0s to 255s. The recommended value is 10s.
III. Configuration and Influence
The value of T3122 is included in the immediate assignment reject message. After the MS
receives the immediate assignment reject message (no channels for signaling, A interface
failure, overload of central processing unit, namely, CPU), it can send new trial calling
request after T3122. T3122 aims to relieve radio signaling and voice channel resources.
T3122 also help avoid systematic overload. When the CPU is overloaded, the system
multiplies T3122 by a factor (determined by processorLoadSupconf) to increase T3122
through overload control. In peak load time, you can manage network access by increasing
T3122. Namely, you can increase the interval between two continuous trial callings to
relieve network load.

4.10.9 T3124
I. Definition
T3124 is used in occupation process in asynchronous handover. It is the time for MS to
receive the physical information send by network side.
II. Format
Configure it to 675ms when the channel type of assigned channel for HANDOVER COMMAND
message is SDCCH (+ SACCH). Configure it to 320ms in other situations.
III. Configuration and Influence
When the MS sends the HANDOVER ACCESS message on the primary DCCH, T3124 starts.
When the MS receives a PHYSICAL INFORMATION message, the MS stops T3124, stops
sending access burst, activates the PCH in sending and receiving mode, and connects to
the channel if necessary.
If the assigned channel is a SDCCH (+ SACCH), you must enable MS to receive a correct
PHYSICAL INFORMATION message sent by network side in any block. If T3124 expires (only
in asynchronization) or the low layer link fails in the new channel before sending the
HANDOVER COMPLETE message, the MS proceeds as follows:
1)

Deactivate the new channel

2)
3)
4)

Restart the original channel

Reconnect to TCH
Trigger to setup primary signaling link

Then the MS sends the HANDOVER FAILURE message on the primary signaling link and
return normal operation before trial handover. The parameters for returning the original
channel are those before response to the HANDOVER COMMAND message (such as in
encryption mode).

4.10.10 T11
I. Definition
T11 is an assignment request queue timer.
II. Format
T11 is determined by equipment room operators. It indicates the maximum queuing delay
for assignment request.
III. Configuration and Influence
When the BSC is sending the ASSIGNMENT REQUEST message, no TCHs are available. The
ASSIGNMENT REQUEST message must be put to a queue and the BSC sends the QUEUING
INDICATION message to MSC. Meanwhile, T11 starts timing.
When the BSC sends the ASSIGNMENT COMPLETE message (TCH is successfully assigned) or
the ASSIGNMENT FAILURE message (TCH is not assigned) to MSC, T11 stops timing.
If T11 expires, the corresponding ASSIGNMENT REQUEST message is removed from queue
and the BSC sends a CLEAR REQUEST message with the cause of no radio resource
available to MSC to clear calling. Assignment queuing helps reduce service rejection times
due to congestion, so enabling it is recommended in a network. Anyhow, T11 cannot be
over great and it must be configured according to customer habits.

4.10.11 T200
I. Definition
T200 is important (both the MS and base station have T200) at Um interface in data link
layer LAPDm. LAPDm has different channels, such as SDCCH, FACCH, and SACCH, and the
transmission rate of different channel is different, so T 200 must be configured with
different values. The type of the channels corresponding to T200 is the value of the T200.
II. Format
Different channels corresponds different values of T200. According to the protocol, when
SAPI = 0 and SAPI = 3, the T200 of corresponding data link is dependently implemented,
depending on delay of synchronous processing mechanism and process in layer 1 and layer
2.
Table 7-1 Value range and default of each type of T200
T200

Minimum

Maximum Default

T200_SDCCH_SAPI0

50

100

60; /* = 60 * 5 ms */

T200_FACCH_Full_Rate

40

100

50; /* = 50 * 5 ms */

T200_FACCH_Half_Rate

40

100

50; /* = 50 * 5 ms */

T200_SACCH_TCH SAPI0

120

200

150; /* = 150 * 10 ms */

T200_SACCH_TCH SAPI3

120

200

150; /* = 150 * 10 ms */

T200_SACCH_SDCCH

50

100

60; /* = 60 * 10 ms */

T200_SDCCH_SAPI3

50

100

60; /* = 60 * 5 ms */

III. Configuration and Influence

T200 avoids deadlock in sending data in data link layer. The data link layer changes the
physical link in which error occurs easily to data link with no errors. At the two ends of the
data link communication system, a confirm-to-resend mechanism is used. Namely,
receiving a message by the receiver must be confirmed by the sender.
If it is unknown that the message is lost, both two ends wait for messages, so the system
confronts a deadlock. Therefore, T200 is used by the sender. When T200 expires, the
sender judges that the receiver fails in receiving the message, so it resends the message.
When the sender needs to confirm whether the receiver has received the message, T200
starts. When the sender receives the response from the receiver, T200 stops. When T200
expires, the resending mechanism starts. If the sender receives no response from the
receiver after multiple resendings, it sends ERROR INDICATION (T200 expiration) to layer 3.
IV. Precautions
T200 must be properly configured to ensure a predictable behavior at Um interface. The
rules for configuring T200 include:
The potentially-existing lost frames in radio link must be detected as possible.
Necessary retransmission of frames must start at the earliest possible moment.

If the response is delayed due to UE failure, the T200 cannot expire before
receiving and processing the next frame from the opposite end.

If T200 expires and no other frames are sent by preference, the related frames
must be resent in the message block.

T 200 starts immediately after next PH-READY-TO-SEND.

4.10.12 N200
I. Definition
N200 is the resending times after expiration of T200.
II. Format
To configure N200, follow rules below:
1)
When SAPI = 0 or 3, N200 depends on the state and the channel used.
When multiframe operation is set up, it ensures a common time value for layer 2 link
failure in all channels. For layer 2 link establishment and release, configure N200 to
5.
2)
In timer recovery state, configure N200 as below:

5 (SACCH)

23 (SDCCH)

34 (FACCH of full rate)

29 (FACCH of half rate)

3)
When SAPI is unequal to 0 or 3, configure N200 to 5, as shown in Table 1-6.

Table 7-2 Situations of SAPI unequal to 0 or 3

SAPI

Channel

Valid response
delay

Minimum
resending
delay
Trmin
51

Maximum resending
delay

Tresp
Trmax Note 3
0
SDCCH
MS: 11
51
BSS: 32
0
FACCH/Full rate
9
26
39
0
FACCH/Half rate
10
34
44
3
SDCCH
MS: 11
51
51
Note 1
BSS: 32
3
SACCH(with TCH)
25/129 Note 2
312
416
Note 2
The TDMA frame is the measurement unit of values in this table, equal to
120/26ms (approximately 4.615ms)
Note 1: It caters for the process without SAPI 0 transmission.
Otherwise, it does not have a upper limit due to the priority of SAPI
0 transmission.
Note 2: You can configure it to a greater value only when PCH is
unavailable due to SAPI frame transmission if SAPI = 3.
Note 3: It caters only for sending monitoring frames that are
available and without F equal to 1.
III. Configuration and Influence
If the BSC fails in receiving lay 2 response message after multiple resending, it sends the
ERROR INDICATION message (T200 expires) to layer 3. The BSC takes statistics of ERROR
INDICATION message by corresponding traffic measurement counter. When T200 or N200 is
configured to an over small value, call drop occurs probably due to ERROR INDICATION.

5 GSM Radio Network Optimization

Radio network optimization aims to improve network performance and
maximize the benefit of the existing network resources through
parameter collection, data analysis, parameter adjustment, and
necessary technical means.
From the perspective of carriers, they hope to configure the system
rationally, utilize network resources to the maximum, enhance network
economic benefit, and reduce operation costs through network
optimization. From the perspective of users, they hope to get satisfactory
telecommunication services in terms network stability, speech quality,
and so on. Therefore, the core task of radio network planning and
optimization is to seek a balance among coverage, capacity, and quality
based on rational investment and the limited frequency resources, thus
achieving the best rate of investment return.

5.1 Network Optimization Procedure

Hereunder details the procedure:

Network information acquisition

You are required to confirm the actual engineering parameters and

network parameters, survey the local radio environment and hottraffic spots, and understand customer requirement.

Data collection

You are required to collect OMCR traffic statistics data and alarm data;
drive test data, and the objective reflection of MS.

Data analysis

You are required to analyze network performance, network

parameters, and OMCR traffic statistics using network optimization
tools.

Network tuning

You are required to tune engineering parameters and network

functional parameters.

Network optimization report

A network optimization report must include optimization measures,

fulfilled network performance indexes, and suggestions for network
development.

5.2 Network Optimization Tools

5.2.1 Test MS
Test MS is a daily must for engineers to perform network test. The test MS can
display the service cell of a mobile telecommunication network and the six neighbor
cells. It can also be used to test network parameters. The test MS can be connected to
a computer, so it can collect and analyze data with the help of drive test software.
The functions of a SAGEM test MS are listed below:

View the IMSI of the SIM card

Scan BCCH

The SAGEM test MS can scan the BCCH, and it will provides the Rxlev and
BSIC of the scanned BCCH in each cell.

View network parameters

The SAGEM test MS can display network parameters of the service cell of and
the six neighbor cells when it is idle or in conversation state.

Forced cell selection

The test MS can be forced to reselect the designated cell for dialing test and
handover test.

Forced handover

The test MS can be forced to hand over to the designated cell to analyze whether
the handover is normal during conversation.

Frequency selection
GPRS function test (The MSs of SAGEM OT96 support this function)

5.2.2 Drive Test Software

ANT, TEMS, and SAFCO are the GSM drive test software in common use.
Generally, the drive test software consists of two parts: foreground data collection
software and background data analysis software.
I. Foreground Data Collection Software
The foreground data collection software is mainly responsible for collecting the
uplink and downlink data at the Um interface of the GSM mobile network. If the
BTSs and the landform map of the test areas are imported, the track of the drive test,
the radio parameters of each test point, and the main information of the service cell,
neighbor cell, and the Um interface can be observed.
The functions of foreground data collection software are listed below:

Test functions

Test functions include call test, scan test, call interference test, double-network
synchronization test, dialing record test, dual-band comparison test, and MS
selection test.

Topical test

Topical test is responsible for forced handover and frequency locking (call) test,
BCCH frequency locking (standby) test, forced location update test, and band
locking test.

Interference test

Interference aims to locate the BCCH same-frequency and neighbor frequency

interference and TCH neighbor frequency interference within the same network
in time.

Parameter collection

The field strength of the service cell and the neighbor cells, bit error ratio, frame
error rate, and various radio parameters of the cell need to be collected.

Geographic navigation

The foreground data collection software can be used to display the geographic
navigation through combing the digital map and BTS resources.

SQI (Speech Quality Index) test

SQI test aims to evaluate the speech quality experienced by mobile users.

Traffic statistics

The foreground data collection software can be used for CQT traffic statistics. It
enables the call setup, call duration, and call release to be recorded respectively.
In addition, it is also responsible for recording call drop rate and congestion rate.

Data record

The foreground data collection software can record and store the test data of the
test MS synchronously, and can record and store the scanned data of the 900MHz
and 1800MHz synchronously.

Scanning test

Scanning test aims to test and record the field strength of the channels of the
GSM 900MHz network and GSM1800MHz network.

Competitive test

The comparison between real-time field strength and speech quality is available.
In addition, real-time check of cell parameters is allowed.
II. Bachground Data Analysis Software
The background data analysis software can geographically present the radio network
test data and reflect the distribution of network parameters on the electronic map
visually. It can locate the problem cell by fully considering the drive test data,
network resource data, digital frequency sweep receiver data, and GSM signaling
characteristics, thus guiding engineers to evaluate and optimize the network
rationally and effectively.
The functions of background data analysis software are listed below:

Radio coverage evaluation and analysis

Interference analysis
Neighbor cell analysis
Handover analysis
Signaling analysis
Speech record and analysis

5.2.3 Signaling Analyzer

MA-10 and K1205 are the GSM signaling analyzer in common use. This section
introduces the functions of the signaling analyzer.
MA-10 signaling analyzer can test the Abis interface signaling messages, the A-G
interface signaling messages, and the SS#7 interface signaling messages of ISUP,
TUP, and INAP when it is on line. In addition, it can perform PCM BERT (bit error
rate test) and GSM BERT. Furthermore, it can enable the signaling message files
saved during on-line monitoring when it is off-line.
The MA-10 signaling analyzer has five sub-applications. They are listed below:
MA-10 control (It is used to test Abis interface signaling messages, A-G interface
signaling messages, and bit errors when it is on line.)

MONITOR ABIS offline (It is used to analyze the Abis interface signaling messages
when it is off line.)

MONITOR MSC offline (It is used to analyze the A-G interface signaling messages
when it is off line.)

GSM-BERT offline (It is used to analyze GSM BERT when it is off line.)

PCM-BERT offline (It is used to analyze PCH BERT when it is off line.)

With the help of MA-10 signaling analyzer, network optimization engineers can
collect and analyze Abis interface data and A-interface data, view the whole
signaling procedure, and obtain the measurement report, and then compare the
information with the downlink signals obtained from drive test. These means can
help network optimization engineers have an overall understanding of the operation
of the network. In this case, the causes and places for the problems, such as call drop,
handover failure, and congestion can be located.
5.2.4 Network Optimization Software
Good network optimization software can work as a platform for radio projects and
maintenance personnel. NASTAR, Huawei network planning and optimization tool,
can deeply analyze GSM network by integrating OMCR traffic statistics,
configuration data, alarm data, engineering data, and so on. In addition, it also
provides the interfaces for network planning, performance analysis, alarm analysis,
and geography conditions.
The functions of NASTAR are listed below:
Import static traffic statistics data (import the traffic statistics files of the
maintenance console into database)

Import static traffic statistics data according to time

Import dynamic Huawei traffic statistics

Import BSC data configuration

Display the geographic view of BTSs

Cancel, add, and move the cells based on the geographic view of BTSs

Record spectrum utilization and analyze idle channel number

Check same-frequency BSIC

Analyze neighbor cells

Measure distance and azimuth angle

Display navigation window and legend

Query performance analysis tasks in common use

Make performance analysis task

Query network optimization tasks in common use

Make network optimization tasks

Perform tasks and alarms automatically

Import and export tasks

Display task result and site view

Query traffic statistics inversely from the cell set selected by site view

Display the traffic tasks in direct views, including linear figure, column, pie
(support the display of double y-axis and the simultaneous display of multiple
indexes; support 2D and 3D.)

Export electronic table (Excel) for query results.

5.3 Network Performance Evaluation

Before putting network optimization into practice, you should have an overall
understanding of the network performance. The traffic statistics data, DT (drive test)
data, and CQT (call quality test) data are necessary for network performance acquisition.

5.3.1 DT
DT is used to evaluate the connectivity, coverage, call drop, and voice quality for the main
roads and transportation backbones in urban areas. The indexes for the roads include
connected ratio, call drop rate, coverage rate, voice quality, and so on. The indexes for
transportation backbones include call drop rate per kilometer, coverage rate, voice
quality, connected rate, and so on.

Connected ratio

Connected ratio = total connected times/attempted calls *100%

Call drop rate

Call drop rate = call drop times/total connected times *100%

Coverage rate

Coverage rate = ( -94dBm test road kilometers)/total test road kilometers*100%

Voice quality

According to bit error rate, voice quality can be divided into 8 classes, from 0 to 7.
Each class matches its bit error rate range.
The calculation of voice quality depends on actual conditions. Generally, the following
method is in common use:
Voice quality = [Rxqual (class 0)% + Rxqual (class 1)% + Rxqual (class 2)%*1 + Rxqual
(class 3)%* + Rxqual (class 4)%*0.8 + Rxqual (class 5)%* + Rxqual (class 6)%*0.5 + Rxqual
(class 7)%*0.2

Call drop ratio per kilometer

Call drop ratio per kilometer = ( -94dBm test road kilometers)/total call drop times

5.3.2 CQT
CQT is applied to the important spots in urban areas. It enables you to experience the
network quality from the perspective of users. This section introduces the indexes used to
evaluating the CQT.

Coverage rate

Coverage rate = ( -94dBm test points)/total calling test points)*100%

Connected ratio

Connected ratio = total connected times/attempted calls *100%

Call drop rate

Call drop rate = call drop times/total connected times *100%

Voice discontinuity/background noise rate

Voice discontinuity/background noise rate = (total voice discontinuity occurrence

times + total background occurrence times)/total connected times*100%
One-way audio/echo/cross-talking rate = (total one-way audio times + total
echo occurrence times + total cross-talking occurrence times)/total connected
times*100%

CQT enables you to use the MOS (mean opinion score) to evaluate the voice quality from
the perspective of people's objective feeling. The MOS can be divided into five classes,
from 1 to 5. For the evaluation standard, see Table 5-2 of Chapter 5 GSM Radio Network
Planning of GSM Radio Network Planning and Optimization.

5.3.3 Network Operation Indexes

Though DT and CQT can detail network problems, they are restricted from test routes and
time. Therefore, DT and CQT cannot test the overall network. To give an overall evaluation
towards the network, you should collect as more network operation indexes as possible.
The indexes evaluating network operation quality are listed below:

Service access capacity indexes

Service access capacity indexes include toll network connected ratio, short message
connected ratio, (GPRS) PDP activation ratio, and IP telephone connected ratio.

Service hold capacity indexes

Service hold capacity indexes include call drop rate, worst cell ratio, traffic call drop
ratio, handover success rate, and short message gateway transit success rate.
With the expansion of network scale, the network structure becomes ever more
complicated. In this case, networks with high performance but low cost are encouraged.
The indexes on network utilization can be used to evaluate whether the cost to run a
network is low. These indexes include toll circuit utilization rate, traffic channel
availability, busiest and idlest cell ratio, and so on.
Hereunder introduces the methods to calculate the indexes used to evaluate network
operation at the radio side.

Radio connected ratio

Radio connected ratio = (1 SDCCH congestion rate)*(1 TCH congestion rate (all
busy))*100%

Call drop rate

Call drop rate = TCH call drop/successful TCH seizures (all busy)

Worst cell ratio

A cell with TCH congestion rate higher than 5% at busy hours or a cell with TCH call
drop rate higher than 3% is defined as a worst cell. The number of the worst cells
varies with network scales.

Traffic call drop ratio

Traffic call drop ratio = total TCH traffic volume *60%/total TCH call drop times (all
busy)

Handover success rate

Handover success rate = successful handovers/attempted handovers*100%

Traffic channel availability

Traffic channel availability = the available traffic channels at busy hour/configured

traffic channels*100%

5.4 Traffic Statistics Index Analysis

At the network optimization stage, the traffic statistics indexes are the basis for
network performance optimization. For network optimization, the KPIs, such as
congestion rate, call drop rate, and handover success rate, are in common use. These
indexes are the external representation of network quality. The radio coverage
quality, channel capacity, and cell parameters are the internal factor to affect the
network quality. The traffic statistics analysis aims to look into these internal factors
through external factors. Since the mobile network is a complex system, you should

consider related DT information, signaling messages, and alarm information for the
overall analysis.
5.4.1 General Analysis Method
Traffic statistics analysis is performed from BSC overall performance to cell
performance, from primary indexes to secondary indexes.
First you should have a rough understanding of the network performance through
BSC performance analysis. Here the indexes such as THC traffic intensity, TCH call
drop rate, TCH congestion rate, and inter-cell handover success rate should be
considered. Attention that in addition to check the percentages of the indexes, you
should also check the absolute numbers of the indexes, because the percentages may
sometimes hide some cell problems.
After having understood the indexes about the overall network performance, you
should analyze the indexes for each cell if finding abnormal indexes. First you should
judge if the abnormal index is a common phenomenon or it is really an abnormal
one. If it is a common phenomenon, you should begin the analysis from the
perspective of coverage, capacity, frequency planning, and cell parameters. If it is
really an abnormal case, you should register the corresponding traffic sub-items and
analyze them in detail. In addition, you should also make an overall judgment
through collecting the information about alarm, engineers' operation, and other
external causes. If the traffic statistics analysis cannot contribute a correct judgment,
you should employ DT equipment and signaling analyzer for help.
5.4.2 High Call Drop Rate Analysis
If the uplink and downlink quality deteriorates to a level that cannot hold normal
conversation, the conversation will be disconnected. This is defined as call drop.
Since the user mobility and radio propagation is uncertain, call drop always exists in
a mobile network. However, optimization measures can be adopted to reduce the call
drop rate.
When the call drop rate of the BSC overall performance is found abnormal, you can
check TCH performance to judge whether the call drop is just a common
phenomenon or it is an individual phenomenon. After that, you can judge whether the
high call drop rate occurs in several cells or in all the BTSs. If the call drop is a
common phenomenon, you should make an overall check towards the coverage
planning, cell parameter planning, and frequency planning to analyze whether the
link budget meet the requirements, whether the configuration of the path failure
counter is rational, and whether the network interference is too great. In addition, you
should also check the BSC hardware, and then perform drive test to check the
network coverage.
If it the abnormality is caused by the severe call drop in individual cells, you should
confirm whether it is equipment failure that caused the call drop. Generally, alarm
messages are always come together with equipment failure, so you can take
equipment failure as a reference.

After the equipment failure is excluded, you can analyze the call drop rate from the
perspective of interference, coverage, and handover.
1)
Interference is divided into uplink interference and downlink interference. You
can analyze the uplink interference according to the number of interference bands
into which the idle TCHs drop. It is normal that the idle TCHs drop into interference
band 1 and interference band 2. For the network with aggressive frequency reuse, it
is acceptable that the idle TCHs drop into interference band 3. Here the frequency
hopping, PBGT handover and coverage control must be considered. If the idle TCHs
drop into interference band 4 or above, you should carefully check the interference.
Generally, the interference within the network increases with the traffic volume. The
increase of the Rxqual class can be seen through the Rxqual measurement task and
Rxlev measurement task. The poor handover ratio can be seen arising through intercell handover performance measurement. In addition, the handover re-establishment
failures will result in more handover failures.
2)
If the coverage is inadequate or it is unbalance on the uplink and downlink, the
call drop will also be resulted. You can judge if the Rxlev is adequate through the
mean Rxlev of the power control measurement task and the power class. If the Rxlev
is still low when the transmitter power reaches the maximum, there are areas with
poor coverage. Meanwhile, you can take the mean Rxqual and Rxlev during call drop
as a reference. The distribution of TA (timing advance) values can help you estimate
the radius of subscriber distribution. Through checking the received channel strength
of the neighbor cells, you can analyze the cell coverage. Generally, drive test is
needed for a detailed analysis.

If the uplink coverage and downlink coverage are unbalance, RF component

failure or cable connection problem will occur. The path unbalance can be seen
from the path balance measurement task, power measurement task, and call drop
measurement task. At this time, the alarm information and user complaint also
deserve your attention.
3)
Handover failure will prevent the MS from moving to the best cell. In this case,
call drop may be resulted. In addition, cross-cell handover and target cell congestion
may cause call drop. To solve this problem, you can add neighbor cell relationship and
balance the traffic within the cells.

The high SDCCH call drop rate analysis is similar to high TCH call drop rate
analysis. Acting as the point-to-point signaling channel, the SDCCH is more
sensitive to the interference than TCH. In this case, the common method to
reduce the call drop rate is to adjust the access threshold and reduce interference.
5.4.3 High TCH Congestion Rate Analysis
This section discusses TCH congestion, including the congestion caused by TCH
seizure all busy and the congestion caused by TCH seizure failure.
When the congestion rate of the BSC overall performance is found abnormal, you
can find out the cells with high congestion rate through checking the TCH
performance statistics. In this case, you can discover the problems through analyzing
each functional sub-item of the TCH performance statistics of this cell. In addition,
you should check whether there is transmission problem, clock problem, or hardware
problem through considering the alarm information.
It is a must to analyze the load according to the TCH traffic intensity and the
configured TCH capacity.

1)
Check if the THC congestion rate is caused by TCH seizure all busy through
analyzing the TCH performance measurement of the cell. If the congestion is caused
by heavy traffic, you should predict the real traffic of the cell and check if other cells
can share the traffic. If it is beyond the optimization capability to enable other cells
to share the traffic, you should consider expanding the capacity of the network. The
adjustment measures for traffic balance may not be consistent with the principle of
minimum radio path loss, so they are applied to emergent causes only. In most cases,
you can balance the traffic through adjusting coverage scope, adjusting access
threshold, adjusting CRO and handover threshold, or enabling load handover. If the
congestion is not caused by TCH seizure all busy, go on with the check.
2)
Check if the TRXs of the congestion cell work normally. The damage or
performance decline of the uplink channels may prevent the MS from accessing other
cells. In this case, many cells will be seized, which will cause congestion. The
incoming cell handover performance measurement will show that many handovers
towards this cell are failures. In this case, you should query the statue of each TRX
within each cell through querying the Rxlev performance measurement task or Rxqual
performance measurement task. In addition, you should find out which TRX is related
to the abnormality through querying the uplink and downlink measurement reports of
the same TRX.
3)
Check if the congestion rate is related to interference, namely, check if any
abnormality is present from the interference band 1 to interference band 5 in the
traffic statistics. If the interference is present in a cell, the call drop rate of the cell
will be high, and the SDCCH congestion rate will increase accordingly. Moreover, the
RACH in the random access performance measurement may be congested, and the
immediate assignment success rate will decrease.
4)
Under some conditions, the congestion of some cells is a result of large
coverage. In this case, you should analyze the relationship between TA value and
Rxlev through querying the power control mean level, the mean level during call
drop, and TA. In addition, you should also use drive test to define the coverage area
of the cell. Through querying the TCH availability of the neighbor cell, you can
confirm if the congestion is caused by neighbor cell failures. Through querying path
balance performance measurement, you can judge if the reason for the TCH seizure
failure is that the downlink power is greater than the uplink power.
5)
Frequent handovers can also cause TCH congestion. Through querying the ratio
of the handovers to the call seizure successes, you can check if the ratio is rational.
Through querying the incoming and outgoing ratio, you can check if the congestion is
caused by irrational handover.

5.4.4 High SDCCH Congestion Rate Analysis

The SDCCH congestion rate is mainly caused by heavy traffic. First you should
define if the congestion is a common phenomenon or if it is just an individual
phenomenon. If it is a common phenomenon, you should analyze if the location
update timer is irrationally set, and then calculate the SDCCH capacity to see if it
meets system requirement. If it is just an individual phenomenon, you should analyze
it from the perspective of equipment, location area, and interference.
1)
From the perspective of equipment, you should first check the TRX sound ratio
in the BSC overall performance measurement and the SDCCH availability in the SDCCH
performance measurement, and then check the TCH activation NACK/TIMEOUT in the
TCH performance measurement. After that, you can define if the congestion is caused
by board problem.
2)
Check the messages for SDCCH bearer location update. Irrational location area
planning will cause frequent location update, which will result in SDCCH congestion.
You are required to analyze of the edge of the location is set at the areas with a great

number of subscribers by checking the location area planning and actual drive test. In
addition, you are also required to check if the location update messages accounts a
too larger percentage of the SDCCH seizure requests at the edge. The method is to
query the ratio of the successful SDCCH seizures (location update) to the total SDCCH
seizure successes in the SDCCH performance measurement.
3)
Interference also causes SDCCH congestion. Especially for the networks in which
the distance between BTSs is small and the BCCH frequency is aggressive, the system
may receive more interference random access signals. The network will allocate a
SDCCH for each random access, which causes SDCCH congestion. In this case, the
immediate assignment success rate will decrease, the paging success rate will
decrease, and the RACH in the random access performance measurement may be
overloaded.

5.4.5 Low Handover Success Rate Analysis

The analysis for handover success rate is quite complicated, because it involves
capacity, coverage, clock, signaling, equipment, and even MS.
1)
If the handover success rate of all cells is low, you should check the problem
from the perspective of handover parameters, A-interface circuit, and BSC clock.
2)
Filter the cells with poor handover. If a network is run by the equipments of
different carriers, you should check if it interoperability problem by comparing the
inter-BSC handover success rata with the intra-BSC handover success rate in the
handover performance measurement. Generally, the inter-BSC handover success rate
is a little lower than the intra-BSC handover success rate. In addition, you need to
monitor the signaling messages and data configuration between BSCs and analyze the
radio link budget and clock of each carrier.
3)
Check if any problem is present at the Um interface through comparing the
handover success rate and radio handover success rate. The radio handover success
rate is equal to or greater than the handover success rate. If the handover success
rate is far smaller than the radio handover success rate, you should analyze the
ground link and capacity. If the difference between the radio handover success rate
and the handover success rate, you need to consider the interference.
4)
Analyze if it is incoming handover failure or it is outgoing handover failure
through querying the incoming cell handover success rate and outgoing handover
success rate in the handover performance measurement. After that, analyze the
outgoing cell handover performance measurement and incoming cell handover
performance measurement of the problem cell so as to find out the incoming
handover failure cells from the outgoing cell performance measurement. Confirm if
the poor handover is caused by target cell congestion through analyzing the "incoming
cell handover failures", "TCH traffic intensity", and "TCH congestion rate (all busy)" of
all the incoming handover failure cells.
5)
Check if any equipment fails through querying the TRX sound ratio, TCH
availability, and TCH activation NACK/TIMEOUT of the target cell. Analyze if the TRX
performance decreases through querying the Rxlev performance measurement of the
target cell.
6)
Check if any ground link equipment fails through querying the A-interface
failures and the ground link breaks during TCH seizure.

When the microwave is used for the transmission or during inter-BSC handover,
the clock deviation is another cause for poor handover. And this can be proved
by the intra-BSC handover failures. For the cells where the clock
synchronization is unavailable, the BSIC cannot be decoded, so the handover can
never occur. In this case, you need to check if the clock is normal and analyze the
call drop rate.

If these two causes are excluded, you need to make adjustment from the
perspective of coverage and interference.
To reduce call drop rate and enhance handover success rate, you can leave a
margin for the Rxlev and Rxqual during handover. If the Rxlev of a cell is lower
than -90dBm during handover, you should check the mean Rxlev and TA value
of TCH call drop in the call drop performance measurement and analyze drive
test to see if the coverage distance of the cell is too long and if the signal is not
strong enough.
For the networks in which better cell algorithms are enabled, you should check
the "attempted handovers (better cell)". It is better that the percentage it accounts
60% of the handover causes.
The interference will also affect the handover success rate. When the interference
is present, the voice quality will decrease and the call drop rate will increase.
Handover problems are rather complicated. To solve the problems arising in
actual work, you are supposed to integrate the methods introduce above, the
signaling analyzer, equipment condition, and drive test into consideration.

5.5 Network Problem Solutions

5.5.1 Coverage Problems
I. Solutuon Procedures
[Problem: the coverage is becoming smaller after the BTS is enabled]
After a BTS has run for a period of time (for example, half years), the coverage of
the BTS may become smaller or even dead zone may appear due to various causes.
In this case, the system performance will be affected. The shrink of the coverage is
not only related to the technical indexes (such as the BTS sensitivity and power), but
also related to the engineering quality, geographic factors, and the electromagnetic
environment.
The factor concerning the BTS problems are as follows:

Transmitter output power decrease

Receive sensitivity decrease
Antenna azimuth angle change
Antenna tilt change
Antenna gain change
Feeder loss
Coupler loss
Working band change
Propagation environment change
Diversity effect change.

You can check the problem according to the following procedure:

1)

Check the conditions around the BTS antenna

You are required to check if there are other antennas (such as micro antenna),
decorations, billboard, trees, or glass walls standing around the BTS antenna.
These barriers may exert a negative effect against the antenna reception and
transmission, thus affecting the coverage of the BTS. In this case, you can tune
the azimuth angel of the corresponding antenna or change the antenna height.
2)

Check the change of the propagation environment

The change of the propagation environment of the electromagnetic wave will

weaken the signals received by radio terminals. Especially for mountains, the
propagation of the electromagnetic waves depends on the reflection of
mountains. For example, the change in the vegetation of the mountain will
reduce the coverage of the BTS. In addition, the climate and other natural factors
also have some effect against the electromagnetic waves. The propagation loss
varies with wood intensity, season, and so on. The maximum loss can reach 30
dB. If new buildings prevent the propagation of the electromagnetic waves and
weakens the signals, the areas in the remote cannot be covered, so the
subscribers cannot enjoy the service. Especially the high buildings near the BTS
have a great effect against the propagation of electromagnetic waves.
3)
Check if there is standing wave alarm and main diversity reception alarm at the
operation and maintenance console

This problem can be checked according to the standing wave alarm messages
and the diversity reception alarm messages. If the alarms of this kind occur, you
should check the corresponding antennas and feeders.
4)

Check if the standing wave ratio is smaller than 1.5%

The tolerance of the standing wave alarm threshold of the CDU or EDU is great.
Therefore, after checking that the set-top power is normal, you can further check
if the standing wave is smaller than 1.5%. If the standing wave ratio is abnormal,
you need to check if the water has penetrated into the antenna or feeder
connector, or if it is lightening protector problem.
5)

Check if the tower amplifier work normally

Check if tower amplifier alarm is present at the operation and maintenance

console. Generally, the problems are the low noise amplifier was damaged or the
water has penetrated into the amplifier. The amplifier alarm always comes
together with the damage of the low noise amplifier. If the water has penetrated
into the tower amplifier, no alarm will be generated, but the RF loss is great. In
this case, the receiver sensitivity will decrease dramatically.
6)

Check the engineering parameters (including antenna tilt and azimuth angle)

The increase of the antenna tilt or the deviation of the azimuth angle will reduce
the coverage of the BTS. Therefore, antennas must be firmly fixed so that they
can stand strong wind and storms.
7)

Check the set-top output power of the transceiver

First you should check if the lines are well connected, and then check if the settop power is normal. If it not normal, you should replace the problem hardware.
8)

Check if the receiver sensitivity is normal

Check if the coverage distance is shortened by the low receiver sensitivity. In

addition, you can monitor the messages at the Abis interface and find out the
relationship between level and bit error rate. After that, you can get the value of
the level when the bit error rate is 2%. This means, however, only applies to the
situation that when the receiver sensitivity drops dramatically.
9)
Check if the parameters affecting the coverage are rationally set
10) Check if the high back noise in the coverage area is caused by interference and
poor electromagnetic environment.

[Coverage problem caused by BTS expansion]

If the coverage of the BTS shrinks after expansion, in addition to making the
previous checks, you are supposed to check the following items.
1)

Check if the combiner keeps the same before and after expansion

The loss of different combiners varies greatly Therefore, the combiner

configuration deserves special attention during BTS expansion. If different
combiners are a must, you should fully communicate with customers.
2)

Check if the antennas are rationally selected

Suitable antennas must be selected for project installation and network planning
so that the best coverage can be achieved. It must be pointed out that you should
use zero-point filling antenna or the electrical title antenna when the antenna
height is great. In addition, omni antennas cannot be widely used for the large
area coverage. In this case, the coverage problem can be solved by directional
antennas.
3)

Check if the installation of the newly-added antennas are qualified

You should first check if the design of the antenna height, azimuth angle, and
antenna tilt is qualified. Generally, the important coverage areas cannot be bared
by tower. Meanwhile, the important coverage areas cannot be perpendicular to
the diversity direction of the antenna. In this case, the antenna diversity effect
can be excavated to the maximum. To reduce the coverage shadow caused by the
tower, you should pay attention to the distance between the antenna and the
tower. Moreover, the pole of the omni antenna and the RF part of the antenna
cannot be overlapped.
4)

Check the position of the BCCH transmitter antenna

Since the tower effect is present, the BCCH transmitter antenna must be installed
at a side of the important coverage area. In this case, the coverage shadow can be
avoided. To prevent the assignment failure caused by the inconsistence of the
BCCH coverage and TCH coverage, you can use the concentric channel
allocation algorithm. In addition, the important coverage area cannot be
perpendicular to the diversity direction of the antenna.
5)
Check if the tilts and the azimuth angles of the directional dual transmitter
antennas are consistent with each other

If the tilts and azimuth angles of the directional dual transmitter antennas are
inconsistent, call drop, assignment failure, and handover failure will easily occur.
In this case, the coverage area of the BTS will become small. In addition, since
the tower effect is present, the BCCH transmitter antenna must be installed at a

side of the important coverage area. In this case, the coverage shadow can be
avoided. Moreover, the important coverage area cannot be perpendicular to the
diversity direction of the antenna.
6)
Check the set-top output power of various TRXs if the scheme for the maximum
coverage is used.

When the maximum coverage is pursued, the TRXs are required to be combined
in various ways. In this case, the coverage distance of the BCCH will be longer
than that of the TCH. As a result, the TCH assignment failure will be caused, so
the concentric technology is needed. The channel assignment failure caused by
low transmit level in the inner circle and the channel congestion in the external
circle can be avoided if the TA values of the inner circle and the external circle
are correctly set and allocated to the inner circle and external circle according to
the right priority.
[Coverage problems caused by BTS swap or construction]
1)
Check if the azimuth angle and the antenna height are the same before and
after the BTS swap

If all the antenna and feeder components are newly constructed, the old BTS can
only be swapped after the new antenna is installed. Therefore, the azimuth angle
and the antenna height may be different from that of the old antenna. In this case,
the coverage area may decrease. As a result, you should check if the azimuth
angle and the antenna height are the same before and after the bas station swap.
2)

Check antenna tilt problems caused by network swap

Generally, the tilt must keep the same. If you need to control the coverage area
due to new BTSs are added to urban areas, you can consider increasing the tilt.
3)
Check if the set-top power of the swap BTS is the same as that of the old BTS.
4)
Check if the receiver sensitivity of the BTS is normal.
5)
Check if it is the interference or the poor electromagnetic environment that
makes the back noise of the whole area too high.
6)
Check if any standing wave alarm message or diversity reception alarm message
is generated for antenna and feeder at the operation and maintenance console.
7)
Check the parameters that will affect coverage are rationally set.
8)
Check if the installation of the antennas is qualified after the BTS has been
enabled or swapped.
9)
Check if the right type of antenna is selected.
10) Check the position of the BCCH TRX transmitter of the omni dual transmitter
antenna.
11) Check if the tilts and the azimuth angles of the two directional antennas keep
the same after the directional dual transmitter antenna is used.
12) Check if the antennas and feeders of the cell are inversely connected.
13) Check if the tower amplifier works normally.
14) Check the set-top power for various TRXs when the configuration scheme for the
maximum coverage is pursued.

II. Problems Affecting Coverage and Solutions

[Antenna water penetration]
It is quite accidental that the water penetrates into the antenna. Water penetration
means that the water enters the RF internal channel. In this case, the voltage standing

wave ratio of the antenna will increase; the antenna loss will increase, the coverage
area will decrease; or event the power amplifier will be disabled.
[Antenna passive intermodulation]
The passive intermodulation of the antenna and various connectors will cause
interference. The exclusive method can be used for the check. That is, you can
connect the antenna feeders of the neighbor cells where there is no interference to the
test cell. If any problem is found, you should change the antenna.
[Improper antenna selection]
Generally, if the antenna height exceeds 50m and if the first zero point under the
main antenna beam is not filled, the "shadow under tower" may occur. That is, the
area under the tower cannot be covered by signals. In this case, you should select the
antenna with zero point filling function.
If three-sector directional antennas are used for vast coverage, the antennas must
have a high gain and their half power angle must be greater than 90 degrees. If the
half power angle is small, the gain of the two neighbor sectors will be low. In this
case, the coverage radius is small.
If the antenna tilt is great, the all mechanical tilt antenna is not a suitable choice. In
this case, you should select the fixed "electrical tilt + mechanical tilt" antenna or the
"continuous adjustable electrical tilt (0 to 10 degrees) + mechanical tilt" antenna.
As the frequency reuse becomes more aggressive, the front-to-back ratio of the
antenna may not meet the requirement of a single BTS or several BTSs. Therefore,
you should select the antennas with greater front-to-back ratio.
[Tower effect against Omni antenna radiation]
The tower effect against omni antenna radiation deserves enough attention. It is hard to estimate the
damage of the omni antenna directional diagram caused by the tower. The damage varies greatly with
the distance between the tower and the antenna.
If the antenna is installed on the tower and metal tube, you should pay special attentions to the
following items:
The metal tube and the effect radiation part of the antenna cannot be
overlapped.

Take measures to avoid installing the whole antenna on the metal tube.

If the antenna is installed on the tower, make sure that the distance between
the antenna and the nearest end of the tower is greater than 6 wavelengths.

The omni dual transmitter technology is not recommended.

The antenna must be perpendicular to 1/8 of the half power beam width at
least.

[Directional antenna installation problem]

Two problems may occur for directional antenna installation:
The antenna is inversely or wrongly connected.
The azimuth angles and the tilts of the transmitter antenna and the receiver
antenna are inconsistent and or the error is great.

Engineering causes are the explanations of the two problems. Generally, the error
scope of the azimuth angle cannot exceed 5 degrees, and that of the tilt cannot
exceed 0.5 degrees. If the error is too great, the coverage of the transit antenna

and that of the receiver antenna will be different. In this case, it is hard to make
calls the coverage edges.
Problems concerning the diversity distance between the transit antenna and the
receiver antenna or the isolation between the antennas and tower.

The coverage of the antenna will be affected if the diversity distance between the
transmitter antenna and the receiver antenna or the isolation between the
antennas and the tower is not great enough. For GSM 900MHz system, the
diversity distance between the transmitter antenna and the receiver antenna is
required to be greater than 4m. For GSM 1800MHz system, it is required to be
greater than 2m. The antenna mount must be at least 1.5m away from the tower.
Meanwhile, the antenna mount must be installed within the 45-dregree protection
areas of the lightening protector.

There are shadows in coverage areas.

When installing a directional antenna, you should make sure that there is no
shadow within the coverage area. Generally, if there are huge barrier, such as
high buildings and mountains, around the BTS, shadows may appear. If you
intend install the BTS on the roof of a high building, you should install it at the
edges of the building so as to avoid the shadow. Since the environment around
the roof is quite complex, the antenna height must be great enough. In this case,
however, you should consider the ability of the antenna to stand the wind and
storm.
[Omni antenna installation problem]

The radiator of the omni antenna is barred by antenna pole.

The coverage will be affected if the radiator of the omni antenna is barred by
antenna pole. Generally, there is a jacket installed at the bottom of the omni
antenna and the jacket is used to connect the omni antenna and the antenna pole.
From the perspective of installation, the top of the jacket must be at the same
level with or higher than the top of the pole; otherwise the radiation will be
affected.
The problems concerning antenna diversity distance and isolation between
antenna and tower.

If the antenna diversity distance or the isolation between antenna and tower is
not great enough, the coverage will be poor. If the antenna diversity distance is
too small, it will reduce diversity gain. In this case, the receiver sensitivity will
reduce. Though the tower effect against the omni antenna radiation is
unavoidable, you can increase the isolation between the antenna and the tower to
reduce the effect.
It is suggested that the isolation between the omni antenna and the tower is
greater than 2m, the horizontal diversity distance of the 900MHz omni antenna is
greater than 4m, and the horizontal diversity distance of the 1800MHz antenna is
greater than 2m.

The omni antenna is not perpendicular to the horizontal plane.

If the omni antenna is not perpendicular to the horizontal plane, the antenna
directional diagram will be distorted in the coverage area. In this case, the
coverage of the antenna will be affected.
It is suggested that installation plane of the antenna mount be perpendicular to
the horizontal plane. If the mount extends beyond the tower, make sure that the
mount is still in the protection areas of the lightening protector. Generally, the
areas 45-dregee under the lightening protector top are the protection areas.
[Connection problems of antenna and feeder, combiner and splitter, and CDU]
If various connectors of the antenna and feeder system are not connected
according to requirement, the performance of the antenna and feeder system will
be affected. In this case, the coverage area of the BTS will also be affected.
Water penetration occurs at the various connectors of the antenna and feeder
system.

If water has penetrated into the connector and feeder, the standing wave ratio
will increase. In this case, the coverage area will be affected.

Various connectors are not tightened.

If the connectors for set-top jumpers, for the cables from TRX boards to
combiner and splitter, and for various RF cables are not tightened, both the
reception performance and the transmit performance of the system will decrease.
In this case, the coverage area and the conversation quality will be affected.
The transmitter antenna and the receiver antenna are inversely connected due
to inconsistent configuration of the set-top jumper and data.

The connection between the jumper and feeder is not tight, which results in
high loss and standing wave ratio. In this case, the coverage will be affected and
interference will be caused.

[Tower amplifier problem]

Water penetration will increase the loss, deteriorate the standing wave ratio,
and decrease the receiver sensitivity.

The damage of the LNA (it is in the tower amplifier) will decrease the gain or
even decrease the gain to a negative value.

The input end and the output end of the tower amplifier are inversely
connected. In this case, the tower amplifier will be short-circuited. If the short circuit
lasts for a long time, the front module will be damaged.

[BTS front module problem]

Isolator problem
Duplexer and other filter damage
Standing wave ratio error alarm
LNA (low noise amplifier) damage
Low TRX or amplifier output power

[Parameter configuration problem]

The parameters affecting coverage are listed below:

TRX power class

Tower amplifier attenuation coefficient
MS maximum transmit power control power
MS minimum Rxlev
RACH minimum access threshold

III. Coverage Cases

Case 1: Use down tilt omni antenna to improve coverage
[Problem description]
In a suburban area, the omni antenna with a gain of 11dBi is used for the BTS. This
coverage distance can reach 9km in plain environment. However, the coverage in the
area near the BTS is poor. The Rxlev in the small town 800-1400m away from the
BTS is about -90dBm.
[Problem analysis and solution]
On-site survey shows that the antenna height is too great. The height of the tower on
which the antenna is installed 50m. Moreover, the tower is established on a small
mountain, so the town is 120m below the antenna. The first judgment is that the
phenomenon of "shadow under tower" has been caused.
Further analysis of the collected data finds that omni antenna is used for the BTS.
The antenna gain is 11dBi, and the vertical half power angel is 7 degrees. If the valid
antenna height is 120m, the half power points of the antenna major lobe are scattered
in the area about 2000m away from the BTS. Therefore, this town is not in the
coverage area of the BTS.
Through checking the fluctuation of the Rxlev according to the drive test map,
engineers found that this town locates within the radiation area of a zero power point
of the BTS. However, the town is too far away from the mountains around, so it
cannot get the signals reflected by the mountains. Therefore, the Rxlev in this town is
quite slow.
After having replaced the antenna with an omni antenna with 5 degrees of the down tilt angle,
engineers retested the Rxlev and found that it increased by 15-20 dB in the areas 3km within the BTS.
In some areas, the Rxlev is increased by 30 dB. Therefore, the coverage has been improved remarkably.
Case 2: Improper installation of omni antenna has effect against the coverage

[Problem description]
A new BTS has been enabled for a local network. Users complain that the coverage
area become smaller after that. For the low narrow areas 2km away from the BTS,
the Rxlev is already lower than -90dBm.
[Problem analysis and solution]
Through surveying the environment around the BTS, engineers found that the major
transmitter antenna and the diversity receiver antenna are installed in a plane parallel
to the road. Apparently, this kind of installation does not meet the criteria.
The correct way is to install the major transmitter antenna and the diversity receiver antenna in a
plane perpendicular to the road. In addition, the major transmitter antenna must be located at one
side of the road.

Case 3: Improper configuration of data causes poor coverage

[Problem description]
During the optimization for a place, engineers found that the signals at a section of
the road in the suburban area are quite poor. The measured Rxlev is -95dBm.
[Cause analysis]

This section locates in the suburban area and is about 3km away from the urban area.
There is no abrupt change in terms of landform within this section. Theoretically, the
Rxlev here should be about -80dBm, so the difference between the theoretical Rxlev
and the measured Rxlev is great. According to the frequency sweep test, the strength
of the Fa signal is about -95dBm, and the strength of the Fb signal is about -80dBm.
For this section, it is covered by three cells of the BTS A and BTS B that are installed
in the urban area (the BCCH frequencies are Fa and Fb). In addition, a cell of the
BTS C installed at the remote suburban area also covers the section (the BCCH
frequency is Fc).
Through checking data, engineers found that the Fb is not included in the neighbor
channel numbers of the A-3 cell in the BA1. When the MS moves from the urban
area to the suburban area, it will choose A-3 cell to camp on, because the Fb is not
configured in the neighbor channel numbers. In this case, the MS cannot reselect the
B-3 cell to camp on. In the cell neighbor relationship list, the A-3 cell and B-3 cell
cannot work as the neighbor cell for each other, and the Fb is not configured in the
neighbor channel numbers of the A-3 cell listed in BA2. Therefore, in conversation
mode, the MS cannot keep the conversation in A-3 cell. When it arrives at this
section, it cannot hand over to the B-3 cell. Therefore, the signals are poor, so is the
voice quality.
[Solution]
Enable the A-3 cell and B-3 cell to work as neighbor cell for each other.
Case 4: Irrational BTS swap affects coverage
[Problem description]
In an urban area, a BTS must be swapped for the building on which the BTS was
installed were to be moved. Considering that coverage for the scenic spot 2km away
(the scenic spot locates behind a hill) is poor, so engineers intended to install the BTS
on the top of the hill. On the top of the cell, the whole city and the scenic spot can be
seen. However, after the BTS swap, users complaint that there were no signals in the
indoor environment of the cells near the site where the old BTS was installed.
[Cause analysis]
The buildings of the resident area are densely distributed and the average height is
8m. Before the BTS swap, the cell used for this area is only 100m away, and the
antenna height is 15m. Therefore, the indoor conversation quality can be guaranteed.
After the BTS swap, however, the cell used this area is 1.8km away, and the antenna
height is 30m. In this case, the signals are quite weak when arriving at the bottom of
resident area, though the signals falling at the top of the building is good. To solve
this problem, you can only increase the output power of the transmitter antenna or
increase the antenna gain. However, the coverage is still not to users' satisfactory
even increase the antenna height to 30m. Therefore, when swapping or constructing a
BTS at the densely populated area, you should pay attention to the following items:
It is suggested that the distance between the BTS and the resident area is equal
to or smaller than 150m, otherwise the coverage for this area will become weak
dramatically.

The antenna of the swapped BTS cannot be too great. If the BTS is installed
among resident buildings, the antenna height is suggested to be 7-10m. If the BTS is

installed beyond the resident buildings and the buildings are high, you can increase
the antenna height accordingly.

You can solve the problems concerning cross area coverage can through
controlling the power class of the BTS, tuning the azimuth angle of the antenna, or
tuning the tilt angle of the antenna.

[Solution]
According to on-site survey, engineers found that the indoor signals of this area are
too poor to hold the conversation. This area can be seen clearly from the tower on
which the BTS is installed. The distance between the BTS and the area is only
1.8km, and between them are vast farmlands. To solve this problem, you can attempt
to tune the azimuth angle and the tilt angle of the antenna. If the coverage is not yet
improved, you can use the following methods:
Replace the common antenna used for this cell (its gain is 15dBi) with the highgain antenna used for the scenic spot (its gain is 18dBi)

There are 4 TRXs in this cell, all in SCU mode, replace the SCU mode with the
dual-CDU mode.

After the above methods are done, the antenna gain for this area can be increased by
6dB. After the antenna replacement, you need to tune the antenna tilt for the best
coverage.
Through retesting the indoor signal level, engineers found that it increased by 612dB. And even the common MS can keep normal conversation.
5.5.2 Interference Problems
Interference is a key factor affecting network performance, including conversation
quality, call drop, handover, congestion, and so on.
I. Interference Sources
In the mobile telecommunication system, when the BTS is receiving the signals from a remote MS, it
will not only be interfered by other telecommunication equipments, but also it will be interfered by
the other BTSs and MSs within the system.
Hereunder introduces the interference sources affecting the GSM system.

Intra-network interference

If the frequencies are improperly planned, or the frequency reuse is too

aggressive, intra-frequency interference or neighbor cell interference will be
caused.

Repeater interference

At the early stage of network construction, repeaters are widely used for
extending the coverage distance of the network. However, if the repeaters are
improperly planned, the network will be interfered.
If the repeaters are not installed according to requirement, that is, there is not
enough isolation left between the donor antenna and the subscriber antenna, the
BTS to which the repeaters attach will interfered.
For the repeaters enabling broadband non-linear amplifier, the intermodulation
indexes are far greater than that required in the protocols. In this case, the greater

the power is, the greater the intermodulation will be. Therefore, the BTS near the
repeaters will be interfered.

Interference from other big-power telecommunication equipments

These equipments include radar, analog BTS, and other telecommunication

equipments using the same band.

Hardware problems

TRX problem: If the performance of the TRX decreases, the system may be
interfered.
CDU problem or splitter problem: Active amplifier is used in the CDU splitter
and splitter module. When any problem occurs, the system may also be
interfered.
Stray and intermodulation: If the out-band stray of the power amplifier or the
TRX of the BTS go beyond requirement, or the isolation of the transmission and
the reception of the CDU duplexer is too small, the connection channel will be
interfered. Meanwhile, the passive equipments, such as the feeder and the
antenna, will generate intermodulation.
II. Interference Positioning and Elimination
[Positioning and elimination procedure]
1)

Find out the interference cell according to KPI

If the call drop rate, handover success rate, traffic volume, congestion rate, and
interference band of a cell deteriorate to a bad level abruptly, it means that
interference may exist in the cell.
In this case, you can also check the historical record of operations made in this
cell. For example, check if the hardware and software of the BTS has been added
or increased and if the data of the BTS has been modified. Generally, the
appearance of interference is related to these operations.
If these parameters are not adjusted, the interference may be from the hardware
itself out outside factors. In this case, you are suggested to check if it is hardware
problem. If it is not, you should check outside factors.
2)

Check OMC alarm

Sometimes high call drop rate, low handover success rate, and high congestion
rate may be related to equipment problems. In this case, you can check OMC
alarm records. These records are related to the deterioration of these indexes.
3)

Check frequency planning

If the interference is doubt in a cell, you can check the frequency planning for the
cell and the neighbor cells of the cell. For this check, you are required to make
clear the distribution of the antennas, find out the azimuth angle of each cell,
draw the topology, and mark the BCCH/TCH channel numbers. Meanwhile, you
are also required to compare the planned channel numbers with the configured
channel numbers in the BSC.

According to the accurate frequency planning topology, you can make sure if the
intra-frequency interference or neighbor frequency interference is present in the
network.
4)

Check cell parameter configuration

The cell parameters, such as CRO, threshold, handover duration, neighbor cell
relationship, and so on, may have interference against the system.
If the CRO is set to a great value, the MS may be guided to an idle cell whose
level is lower than its surrounding cells. Once the conversation is started but the
C/I cannot meet the threshold requirement (12dB), interference will be caused.
If neighbor cells are missing, the MS cannot hand over to a cell with better signal
level and quality. In this case, the interference will also be generated. If the
handover threshold and the P/N are too great, the handovers between cells are
unavailable. If the P/N is too small, however, it will result in frequent handover.
In this case, both the call drop rate and the system load will be increased.
5)

Drive test

Drive test is an effective method to position the interference. There are two drive
test methods: idle mode test and dedicated mode test.
For idle mode test, the test equipment can test the signal level of both the signal
level and the neighbor cells. In addition, the test equipment can also perform the
frequency sweep test for the designate channel numbers or bands. In this case,
the interference caused by cross-cell coverage signals can be discovered.
For dedicated mode test, the test equipments can test the signal level of the
service cell and neighbor cells, the Rxqual, the TA, and so on. If the Rxlev is
equal to or greater then -80dBm and the Rxqual is equal to or greater than 6 in an
area, it can be confirmed that the interference exists in the area. Some test
equipment can display the FER (frame error rate). Generally, if the FER is
greater or equal to 25%, the conversation will not be continuous. That is, the
interference exists.
6)

Interference elimination

You can eliminate the interference according to the above checked results, and
then evaluate the elimination through KPI and drive test.
[Hardware problem positioning and elimination]
When the interference is doubted in a cell, you should first check if the BTS where
the cell locates works normally. In the remote end, you should check if there is
antenna alarm, TRX alarm, or BTS clock alarm generated. In the near end, you
should check if there is antenna problem, water penetration, feeder (jumper) damage,
CPU problem, TRX problem, wrong jumper connection or clock problem occurred.

Antenna performance decline

Antenna a passive component and its damage probability is small. However, if

the antenna is damaged or its performance declines, the voice quality will
become poor.

Antenna connector problem

GSM RF signals are micro wave signals. If the connections between TRX, CDU,
feeder, and antenna have any problem, both the standing wave ratio and the
intermodulation will increase. In this case, the interference will be resulted.

Inverse antenna connection

The inverse antenna connection is a commonly seen problem. If the antenna is

inversely connected, the channel numbers used by the cell and the planned
channel numbers are completely inconsistent. In this case, intra-frequency
interference, inter-frequency interference, and handover difficulty will be
resulted. Especially for the networks that have inadequate frequency resource,
the inverse antenna connection has great effect against network quality.

Jumper problem

Many jumpers locate between antennas, so they are often wrongly connected. In
this case, high call drop rate will be resulted.

TRX problem

If TRX problems occur, the interference will increase, the coverage distance area
will decrease, and the access is difficult.

Clock failure

If the clock deviation is too great, it is hard for the MS to lock the frequencies of
the BTS, so the handover failure always occurs, or the MS cannot camp on any
cell of the BTS. In addition, if the clock deviation is too great, the BTS cannot
understand the signals of the BTS, which will result in bit errors. However, the
clock failure will not really introduce interference, but it is the transmission
errors that make the voice quality decrease.

Conclusion

Any problem concerning the TRX, CDU, feeder, antenna, jumper, and connector
may cause interference or call drop. Therefore, if interference appears, you
should check the hardware of the BTS. In addition, BTS clock failure will also
cause interference and call drop.
It is easy to solve the hardware problems through changing the boards or
adjusting traffic data. If there is spectrum analyzer available, you can position the
problem more efficiently. Especially when the interference appears without any
modification of network data, you should focus on checking the hardware.
[Intra-Network Interference]
The intra-network interference is mainly from intra-frequency interference and
neighbor cell interference. When C/I is smaller than 12dB or the C/A is smaller than
-6dB, the interference is unavoidable. However, the aggressive frequency reuse
technology will increase of the occurrence probability of interference.

Same-frequency and neighbor frequency interference

In GSM system, the frequency reuse is unavoidable. When the frequency reuse
distance of two cells using the same frequency is smaller than cell radius, samefrequency interference will be easily caused. Past experiences show that the
frequency reuse must be avoided in many cases.

The interference against the uplink channel numbers can be judged by the
interference band data in the traffic statistics.
For the interference against the downlink channel numbers, the existing drive test
equipments can be indirectly used to measure if the same-frequency interference is
present. First you should lock the test MS in the service cell and enable make the MS
work in conversation mode during drive test. If you find that the Rxlev in an area is
high but the Rxqual is low, it is likely that the same-frequency is present in this area.

Interference caused by cross coverage

In a properly designed network, each cell covers the areas around the BTS only
and the MS camps on or holds conversation in the nearest cell. Cross coverage
means that the coverage of a cell is too large and the cell can cover the areas
under the control of other BTSs. If cross coverage occurs, irrational traffic
absorption, interference, call drop, congestion, and handover failure may arise.

Interference caused by aggressive frequency reuse

Capacity and quality always contradicts to each other. In urban areas, the
aggressive frequency reuse technology must be used for the number of
subscribers in urban areas are great. In this case, the network quality will surely
decrease. In the areas where BTSs are irrationally distributed, the aggressive
frequency reuse technology may cause the collision of same frequency and
neighbor frequencies.

Interference caused by repeater

It is convenient to use repeater for special coverage. However, if a repeater is not

qualified or it is not properly installed, it will cause interference.

Interference caused by outside environment

Outside environment, such as TV station, big-power radio station, micro wave,

radar, high voltage wire, analog BTS, and so on, will cause interference.
III. Interference Cases
Case 1: Interference cause by antenna performance decline
[Problem description]
There are 5 BTSs in a county. The configuration type is S4/4/4 or S6/6/6. The
interference band 5 reaches 15 according to the TCH performance measurement of
the most cells. There is no alarm found at the OMC.
[Problem positioning and solution]
1)
Through monitoring and registering the interference band traffic statistics for
the problem cells all day, engineers found that the interference band 5 mostly
appeared at day time, and it seldom appeared at early morning.
2)
Through sending the idle BURSTS of all the BTSs, engineers found that the
interference bands of these cells appeared in the early morning. If the sending of
these idle BURSTS stopped, these interference bands disappeared. Therefore, it can
be proved that the interference came from the network. It is not related to other
telecommunication equipments.
3)
The frequencies and other data were not adjusted before the interference
appeared, so the interference is not related to the frequency planning.

4)
Through surveying the RXM test interface of the CDU using the spectrum
analyzer during the traffic peak at day time, engineers found that the broadband
interference was strong and the back noise was rising.
5)
There was no interference in one cell, but the interference in another two cells
was strong. Through replacing the antenna feeder of the cell with no interference
with the antenna feeders of the cells with interference and sending idle BURSTS,
engineers found that the interference went with the antenna feeder. Therefore, it can
be decided that the problem occurred at the antenna and feeder system.
6)
Through changing the antenna, engineers found that the interference went with
the antenna. Therefore, the problem is likely present at the antenna.
7)
Through replacing the antenna with dual polarization antenna, engineers found
that the strong interference disappeared immediately. Through replacing the old
antenna of another BTS with a new one, engineers found that the interference also
disappeared.

Case 2: Call drop caused by intra-network interference

[Problem description]
Customers in a place complaint that call drop happen frequently.
[Problem analysis and solution]
1)
Through a careful test, engineers found that there were 12 channel numbers
gathering at the call drop spot and Rxlev reached -73dBm. When the MS seized
channel number 11, the interference from channel number 112 caused the call drop.
2)
Through testing the CGI of channel number 12 using test MS, engineers found
that this channel number was one of the BCCH number of D3.
3)
Through surveying BTS D, engineers found that the antenna of D3 is installed at
the top of a building. In addition, a house made of glass was found 8m away and 4m
under the antenna. Engineers tested that the signal strength near the antenna was
about -45dBm, and the signal strength at near the glass was -30dBm, which was
beyond the expectation of engineers. In fact, the cause was that the signals reflected
by the glass were reflected to the call drop spot.
4)
It is suggested to change the antenna installation place and channel number. You
should interchange the channel number 111 and channel number 114 of BTS A and
increase the down tilt angle of A3 cell. In addition, to avoid the interference caused
by channel number 111 after the interchange, you should adjust the direction of
channel number 113 of C1 cell.
5)
Test shows that everything is normal after the adjustment. The channel number
113 of BTS C has no effect against channel number 114. And the call drop disappears.

Case 3: Interference caused by repeater

[Problem description]
Users in an area complaint that the MS cannot seize a channel to hold conversation,
or the noise is great after channel seizure and the channel and the MS signal is
strong. Two BTSs are installed in this area. The antenna azimuth angle of cell1
rightly directs to the north. Before user complaint, the BTS in this area ran normally
and the network indexes met the requirement. After the problem arisen, the traffic
volume of the two BTSs dropped sharply from the perspective of traffic statistics
indexes. In addition, the traffic volume of cell1 and cell3 also dropped sharply.
Though the signals for the conversation were strong, the voice quality was quite
poor. According to traffic statistics, the interference bands of the four cells were of
level 3, level 4, and level 5, and 95% of the channels were interfered. In addition,
other channels were interfered to some extent. However, no alarm messages were
generated at the OMC.

[Problem analysis and solution]

1)
According to user feedbacks, the possible reasons include transmission problem,
antenna feeder problem, hardware problem, intra-network interference, and outside
interference.
2)
The uplink interference signals in the northwest direction might strong.
Therefore, cell1, cell2, and cell3 of the two BTSs were interfered, in which cell1 and
the cell3 were seriously interfered.
3)
Through on-site dialing test, engineers found that it was hard to make calls in
the areas covered by cell1 and cell3. Even if a call was put through, the voice quality
was quite poor. In addition, the voice was discontinuous and the interference was
strong. Through using MS to call a fixed phone, engineers found it was hard to hear
the voice clearly. On the contrary, they could hear the voice from the fixed phone
clearly. This has proved the above analysis. That is, the interference might be from
the outside, or the standing wave problem was occurring at the antenna (from this
perspective, it can be judged that the interference existed on the uplink only).
4)
Through using antenna feeder analyzer to perform on-site test, engineers found
no problem was existing at any BTS. A new repeater was found in this area, and it was
located two kilometers away from the BTS in the northwest direction. Moreover, the
interference appeared just when the repeater was enabled. On-site test found that
the BTS became normal state once the repeater shut down, and the interference
bands also became normal, so did the call. If the repeater was enabled, however, it
was hard to make calls and the interference was strong. At last, the agreement to
shut down the repeater was reached. After that, the conversation became normal.

Case 4: Microwave interference

[Problem description]
During network maintenance, through analyzing BSC traffic statistics, engineers
found that the call drop rate of the cell2 and cell3 of a S2/2/2 BTS arisen abruptly,
and the value even reached 20% at some time.
[Problem analysis and solution]
1)
Through checking BSC traffic statistics, engineers found that the number of idle
TCHs was increasing at the interference bands 3-5 around 8:30. Around 10:00, the idle
TCHs were found at the interference band 4 and interference band 5. Around 22:00,
the idle TCHs were found at the interference band 1. Therefore, it could be judged
that the interference existed.
2)
Because the BTS ran normally, the problems cannot be related to frequency
planning.
3)
According to the TRX management messages, engineers found that the
interference existed at the four boards of the cell2 and cell3 of the BTS. Because the
probability for the four boards to be damaged simultaneously is quite small, the TRX
problem can be excluded. However, one board was changed in case of abnormal
conditions, but the interference was not eliminated.
4)
Through checking all the BSC traffic statistics data, engineers found that cells of
the BTSs near the BTS and the cells of the cell2 and cell3 of the BTS were interfered
to some extent. In addition, engineers also found that the SDCCHs (16 SDCCHs in
total) of the seriously-affected cells were seized at sometimes. However, the number
of subscribers determined that the probability for all the SDCCHs to be seized
simultaneously is quite small. Therefore, it could be judged that the uplink was
interfered by outside factors. However, the interference might be related to direction
only.
5)
To further position the problem, engineers interchanged the jumpers of cell1
and cell3 at the set top. In this case, the interference was found at cell1, but the

interference was disappearing from cell3. Therefore, the interference was not related
to channel number.
6)
Because the interference was not related to channel number, it might be the
big-power signals that caused the interference.
7)
Through using the spectrum analyzer to perform the measurement at the output
interface of the BTS splitter, engineers found that the big-power signals existed at the
904MHz channel number (it has an interval of 5M between the used channel number.
For the BTS where the interference was strong, the signal level can reach as high as
about -25dBm. For other BTSs, the signal level was about -50dBm. Therefore, it could
be judged that it was this signal that affected the BTS.
8)
Through using the spectrum analyzer to scan the areas near the BTS, engineers
found that there was a microwave antenna outputting big-power at the channel
number 904.
9)
The interference disappeared after the microwave equipment was shut down.

5.5.3 Call Drop Problems

For the GSM network, call drop is users' major worry and the call drop rate is an
important index evaluating network quality.
I. Call Drop Resasons and Solutions
i) Call drop due to coverage reasons
[Reason analysis]

Discontinuous coverage (dead zone)

For a single BTS, the quality of the signals at the edge of the station is quite
poor, so the MS cannot hand over to another cell. In this case, the call drop
occurs.
If the landform of the coverage areas is complex or fluctuates greatly, or the
radio transmission environment is complex, the signals will be barred. In this
case, the coverage is discontinuous and call drop will occur.

Poor indoor coverage

If the buildings in an area are densely populated, the signal attenuation is great.
And if the walls of the buildings are thick, the penetration loss is great and the
indoor signal level is low. In this case, the call drop may easily occur.

Isolated island effect

As shown in Figure 8-13, the service cell forms an isolated island due to various
reasons (for example, the power is too great). In this case, the MS still seizes the
signals of the service cell A after moving to cell C, but the cell A does not define
the neighbor cell C. At this time, if the MS still performs the handover according
to the neighbor cell B provided by neighbor cell A, it cannot find a suitable cell.
In this case, the call drop will occur.

Small coverage

If the coverage is too small, the hardware equipment of a cell may fail. For
example, the antenna is barred or the TRX failure occurs (the power amplifier
part).
[Judgment methods]

First you should find out the areas where the coverage is inadequate according to
user complaints, and then you should perform the drive test in a larger scope to check
if the signal level and the handover are normal and if the call drop exists. In addition,
you can employ the traffic statistics recorded at the OMC to check the BSC overall
call drop rate and find out the cell with great call drop rate. Furthermore, you can still
make the analysis and judgment by referring to other traffic statistics items.
Hereunder lists some ones:
Power control performance measurement (to check if the mean uplink and
downlink signal strength is too low)

Rxlev performance measurement (to check if the ratio of the low Rxlev is too
great)

Cell performance measurement/inter-cell handover performance measurement

(to check if the level class and the mean Rxlev are too low)

Call drop performance measurement (to check if the signal level is too low
during call drop and if the TA value is normal before call drop)

Defined neighbor cell performance measurement (to position the cell with low
mean signal level)

Undefined neighbor cell performance measurement (to check if the undefined

neighbor cells with high signal level exist)

Power control performance measurement (to measure the greatest TA value

between the MS and BTS)

[Solutions]
1)

Check the areas where the coverage is inadequate

You can find out the area where the coverage is inadequate through drive test.
For an isolated BTS or the BTSs installed in mountain areas that cannot form
seamless coverage, you can add BTSs to these areas for seamless coverage. Or
you can improve the coverage through other means. For example, you can
enhance the maximum transmit power of the BTS, change the antenna azimuth
angle, change the antenna tilt, change the antenna height, and so on. In addition,
you should also analyze if the call drop is caused by landforms. Generally, call
drop can easily occur at tunnels, big shopping market, underground railway
entrance, underground parking lot, and low-lying places. In this case, you can
use the micro cell to solve the coverage problem.
2)

Ensure indoor call quality

To ensure indoor call quality, you should make sure that the outdoor signals are
strong enough. To strength the outdoor signals, you can increase the maximum
BTS transmit power, change the antenna azimuth angle, change the antenna tilt
angle, and change the antenna height, and so on. If the indoor call quality is still
not improved remarkably, you can consider adding BTSs. For improving the
indoor coverage of office buildings and hotels, you can consider using the indoor
antenna distribution system.
3)
For the cells having no neighbor cells, you can configure the neighbor cells for
the cell so as to reduce the call drop rate. To eliminate the isolation island effect, you
can reduce the tilt angle of the BTS.
4)
Eliminate hardware problems

You can check if there are hardware problems and if the coverage area is too small
through drive test. If the call drop rate of a cell arises dramatically but all other

indexes are normal, you should check if the neighbor cells of this cell work normally.
(Generally, the downlink problems may occur. For example, TRX problem, diversity
unit problem, and antenna problem are commonly seen. If the uplink fails, the
outgoing handover failure rate of the old cell will be high.)
ii) Call drop due to handover reasons
[Reason analysis]

Irrational parameter configuration

If the signal level at the cross-area of two cells is quite low, the level of the
handover candidate cell is too low, and if the handover threshold is too low, some
MSs will hand over to the neighbor cell when the signal level of the neighbor
cell is higher than that of the service cell. If the signal level of the neighbor cell
deteriorates dramatically just after the handover, the call drop will occur if no
suitable cell is available for the handover.

Incomplete neighbor cell definition

If the neighbor cell definition is incomplete, the MS will hold the conversation in
the existing cells until it moves beyond the edges of the cell but cannot hand over
to a stronger cell. In this case, the call drop will occur.

Neighbor cells with same BCCH and same BSIC exist.

Traffic congestion

If the traffic is unbalance, no TCH will be available in the target cell. In this case,
the handover failure will occur.

BTS clock lost synchronization

If the BTS lost synchronization, the frequency offset will go beyond the
requirement. In this case, the call drop will occur if handover fails.

T3103 expiry

The T3103 will be started when the network sends a handover command. Upon the
reception of the message to complete the handover or the message to remove the
command, the T3103 will stop. T3103 is used to hold the channel long enough for
the MS to return to the old channel. If the T3103 is set to a too small value, the MS
cannot necessarily return to the old channel. In this case, call drop may occur during
handover.
[Judgment methods]
You can judge if the cells with low handover success rate, frequent re-establishment
failures, and high call drop rate through analyzing traffic statistics indexes. After the
judgment, you can find out what causes the handover. For example, the uplink and
downlink Rxlev can cause the handover; the uplink and downlink Rxqual can cause
the handover; power budget can cause handover; call direct retry can cause handover;
and also handover can be initiated by traffic reasons.
To check if the BTS clock runs normally, you can check if the any alarm is generated
for the BTS clock. If necessary, you must correct the BTS clock to eliminate clock
problem. You can check if there is handover problem through drive test. If there is a
problem cell, you should perform drive near the cell for several times. Hereunder
lists the indexes concerning call drop:

Inter-cell handover performance measurement (frequent handover failures,

frequent re-establishment failures)

Inter-cell handover performance measurement (frequent handovers, high reestablishment rate)

Undefined neighbor cell performance measurement (the undefined neighbor cell

level and the number of measurement report go beyond the standard)

Outgoing cell handover performance measurement (find out the reasons for low
outgoing cell handover from the handover target cell)

Low incoming cell handover success rate; the cell handover parameters are
improperly set; the target cell is congested.

TCH performance measurement (the handover times are not proportional to the
TCH call seizure successes; the handover happens too frequent)

[Solution]
1)
Check the parameters affecting the handover. For example, you can check the
hierarchical and level setting, each handover threshold, each handover hysteresis,
handover time, handover duration, the minimum access level of the handover
candidate cell, and so on.
2)
If the call drop is caused by unbalance traffic volume or if the call drop occurs
due to no handover channel is available at the target BTS, you can solve the problem
by adjusting the traffic volume. For example, you can adjust the project parameters,
such as antenna tilt and antenna azimuth angle, to control the coverage scope of a
cell. To balance the traffic volume, you can use CRO to guide the MS to camp on other
idle cells, or you can set the hierarchical and level priority to guide the MS to hand
over to the idle cell. In addition, you can solve the problem by expanding the TRX
directly.
3)
Calibrate the problem BTS clock to enable the synchronization of the clock.

iii) Call drop due to interference reasons

[Reason analysis]
If the MS receives strong same-frequency interference signals or strong neighbor
frequency interference signals in the service cell, the bit error rate will deteriorate. In
this case, the MS cannot demodulate the BSIC code of the neighbor cells accurately,
or it cannot receive the measurement report from the MS correctly. As a result, the
conversation will be interfered, the call quality will become poor, and call drop will
occur.
[Judgment methods]
The interference may be from the network itself or the outside network, or it may
exist in the uplink signals or downlink signals. The following methods can be used to
position the interference.
Find out the cells might be interfered through checking traffic statistics.
Perform the call drive test for the areas that might be interfered and check the
uplink and downlink interference according to user complaint. You can find out if
there is a place where the signal is strong but the call quality is poor through drive
test tools. In addition, you can use a test MS to perform dialing test to check if a
channel number is interfered.

Check the frequency planning to see if same-frequency interference and

neighbor frequency interference occur in the area where the frequency is improperly
planned.

Adjust the channel numbers that might be interfered to see if the interference
can be avoided or reduced.

Exclude the interference caused by equipment.

If the previous methods fail to eliminate the interference, you can use the
spectrum analyzer to scan the frequencies to find out the interfered channel number
and the interference source.

Hereunder lists several traffic statistics indexes used for interference analysis:

Interference band

You can check the uplink interference through analyzing the interference band in
the traffic statistics. If an idle channel appears at the interference bands 3-5, the
interference is present. If it is intra-network interference, it will increase as the
traffic volume grows. Generally, if it is outside interference, it is not related to
traffic volume. It must be pointed out that the interference bands are reported to
the BSC by the BTS TRX channel (when in idle mode) through RF resource
indication messages. If the current channel is busy and cannot report RF resource
indication message, you must consider the traffic volume for the measuring the
interference bands.

Rxlev performance measurement

The Rxlev performance measurement provides the matrix relationship between

the signal level and quality. If the signal level is high but the quality is poor, it
means that the interference (same-frequency interference, intra-frequency
interference, and outside interference) is present at the channel numbers of the
TRX board.

Poor quality handover ratio

The cell performance measurement, inter-cell handover performance

measurement, or the outgoing cell handover performance measurement records
the outgoing handover attempt times. If the frequent handover is caused by poor
signal quality, it means that the interference is present.

Rxqual performance measurement

It is related to the mean Rxlev and Rxqual during call drop.

Call drop performance measurement

It records the mean Rxlev and Rxqual during call drop.

Frequent handover failures and frequent re-establishment failures

It means that the interference may be present in the target cell.

[Solutions]
1)
Check the interfered road and the distribution of signal quality through dive
test. As far as the actual conditions are concerned, you can adjust the BTS transmit
power and antenna tilt of the related cells or adjust the channel number planning to
avoid the interference.
2)
Use DTX technology, frequency hopping technology, power control, and diversity
technology

These technologies can be used to reduce the system noise and enhance antiinterference capacity of the system. DTX is divided into uplink DTX and
downlink DTX. In this case, the transmit time can be reduced and the
interference level of the system can also be reduced. However, you should adjust
the DTX according to the actual radio environment and the neighbor cell
relationship. When signals received by the MS are poor, the use of the DTX will

result in call drop. If the downlink DTX is enabled, the BTS will increase its
transmit power after the call is established. During the conversation, however,
the BTS will reduce its transmit power. In this case, the interference against other
BTSs will be reduced. If the interference is present near the BTS, the downlink
DTX will deteriorate the conversation quality. When the BTS reduces its
transmit power, the conversation quality will decrease or the call drop may even
occur in the areas where the Rxlev is low but the interference signal is strong.
3)
Solve the equipment problems, such as the self-excitation of TRX boards and the
antenna demodulation interference.
4)
Exclude the outside interference.

iv) Call drop due to antenna feeder reasons

[Reason analysis]
Engineering problem may be one of the reasons. For example, if the transmit
antennas between two cells are inversely connected, the level of the uplink signal
will be far poorer than that of the downlink signal. In this case, the call drop, oneway audio, and call difficulty will be found in the areas far away from the base
station.

If polarization antennas are used, a cell had two sets of antennas. If the tilt
angles of the two antennas are inconsistent with each other, the call drop will occur.

If a directional cell has a master antenna and a diversity antenna, the BCCH and
the SDCCH of the cell may be transmitted through the two antennas respectively.
If the tilt angles of the two antennas are different, the coverage scope of the two
antennas will be different. In this case, the MS can receive BCCH signals but
cannot seize the SDCCH when starting a call. Thus the call drop is resulted.
If the azimuth angles of the two antennas are inconsistent with each other, call
drop may also occur. That is, the MS can receive the SDCCH signals, but it may be
assigned with the TCH. In this case, the call drop will occur.

The problems concerning antenna feeder will also cause call drop. For example,
if the antenna is damaged, or water penetrates into the antenna, or connector
problem is present, the transmitter power and the receiver sensitivity will decrease.
In this case, the call drop will occur. To confirm the problem, you can check the
standing wave ratio.

[Problem positioning and solution]

1)
Check if any alarm concerning the combiner, CDU, tower amplifier, and standing
wave is generated and check if the BTS boards are normal in the OMC.
2)
Analyze if the path balance is realized according to traffic statistics.
3)
Further analyze if the path balance is realized through monitoring the messages
sent across the Abis interface.
4)
Perform drive test and dialing test. During drive test, you can check if the BCCH
numbers of the service cell are consistent with the planned ones, namely, if the
transmit antenna of the antenna is correctly installed.
5)
Check and test the on-site BTSs. Here the installation of the azimuth angle and
the tilt angle of the antenna must be checked. In addition, you should also check if
the feeder and jumper are correctly connected, if there is connector problem, and if
the feeder is damaged. Furthermore, you must still check if the standing wave is
normal.
6)
Judge if it is BTS hardware that causes path unbalance and call drop. To solve
hardware problem, you can either change the components that may have problems or
disable other TRXs in the cell. To find out the problem TRX, you can position the
problem through dialing test. Once a problem hardware component is found, you must

replace it with a sound one. If no sound one is available, you must shut down the
problem hardware component to prevent it from affecting network quality.

Hereunder lists several traffic statistics items for path balance analysis:
Path balance measurement (to analyze if the path balance is realized)
Call drop performance measurement (to analyze the uplink and downlink level
and quality during call drop)

Power control performance measurement (to analyze mean Rxlev on the uplink
and downlink)

v) Call drop due to transmission reasons

If the transmission quality across the Abis interface and A-interface may be not good
and stable, call drop may occur. The following methods can be used to solve the
problem:
1)
Check the transmission alarm and board alarm and analyze if there is
transmission intermittent and board failure.
2)
Check the transmission channel, test the bit error rate, check 2M connectors,
and check if the equipment grounding is rational to ensure stable transmission quality
and reduce call drop rate.
3)
Check the traffic statistics to see if the frequent call drop is caused by
transmission problems. Especially you should check TCH performance measurement,
because it can indicate if the A-interface failures during TCH seizure is normal, if the
TCH utilization is normal, and if the ground link call drop times are great.

vi) Call drop due to parameter reasons

Here you should focus on checking if the parameters related to call drop are
irrationally set. If the following parameters are not irrationally set, the call drop may
be resulted.

Radio link failure counter

This parameter acts on the downlink. When the MS fails to decode the SACCH,
it will use this parameter to decide when to disconnect the call. If this parameter
is set to a too small value, the radio link failures will easily occur and cause call
drop. For dead zones or the areas where the call drop frequently happens, you are
recommended to set this parameter to a greater value.
When changing the radio link failure counter, you should change the
corresponding T3109. The T3109 must be set to a value great enough for the MS
to detect a radio link failure. For example, if the value of the radio link failure
counter is 16 (about 8 seconds), the value of T3109 must be greater than 8
seconds (you can set T3109 to 9 seconds or 10 seconds).

SACCH multiframe number

This parameter acts on the uplink. The BTS uses this parameter to notify the
radio link connection failure message to BSS. The BSS side judges the radio link
failure according to the bit error rate on the uplink SACCH. If this parameter is
set to a too small value, the radio link failure will happen frequently and the call
drop rate will be resulted.

Access control parameters

The access control parameters include the Minimum RACH Rxlev, RACH busy
threshold, and so on. If the access control parameters are irrationally set, the call
drop will be easily resulted.

T3101, T3107

T3101 is started when the BSC sends a CHANNEL ACTIVATE message to the
BTS. It stops when an ESTABLISH INDICATION message is received. This
timer monitors the immediate assignment procedure. If T3101 expires, the
allocated channels will be removed.
T3107 is started when the BSC sends an ASSIGNMENT COMMAND message
to the BTS. Once the BSC receives the ASSIGNMENT COMPLETE message
from the BTS, this timer will reset. T3107 is used to hold the channels long
enough so that the MS can return to the old channel. Or it can also be used by the
MS to release a channel.
If the two timers are set to a too small value, the system will not have enough
time to send the ASSIGNMENT COMPLETE message to the BSC. In this case,
the call drop will occur if the timer expires.

T200; N200

T200 is an important timer used for the LAPDm (Link Access Procedure on the
Dm channel). It prevents the deadlock from occurring when the data is
transferred across the data link layer. In GSM system, the messages transferred
across radio interfaces can be divided into two types: the messages needing
opposite acknowledgement and the messages not needing opposite
acknowledgement.
For the messages needing opposite acknowledgement, a T200 must be started
once the message is sent. If the opposite acknowledgement is not received after a
period of time, the message should be retransmitted. In this case, the timer must
be restarted. If the retransmission times exceed the maximum allowed times, the
message will no longer be retransmitted and the link will be released. That is,
this call drops. N200 is the maximum retransmission times allowed. T200 and
N200 have different types depending on channel types (TCH full rate, TCH half
rate, and SDCCH) and service types (signaling and messages). The given
channel type and service type matches a pair of T200 and N200.
The call drop rate can be reduced if the message is retransmitted as early as
possible before the opposite acknowledgement is received. That is, the value of
T200 must be set as small as possible and the value of N200 must be set as great
as possible. However, the T200 cannot be set to a too small value and the N200
cannot be set to a too large value. If the opposite party has acknowledged that the
link had been removed, the retransmission will make nonsense.
Therefore, to reduce the call drop rate, you can adjust the T200 and N200
according to actual radio conditions.
II. Call Drop Cases
Case 1: Call drop caused by frequency hopping collision
[Problem analysis]

A BTS uses 1 x 3 RF frequency hopping. After capacity expansion, the TCH

allocation failure rate is still high due to radio link problems. In addition, the TCH
call drop rate and incoming handover failure rate are high. The SDCCH call drop rate
is normal.
[Problem positioning and solution]
Because high call drop rate and high incoming handover failure rate come together
with the TCH allocation rate, it can be judged that the problem may arise during
TCH assignment or the channel numbers or timeslots seized by the call are interfered
or unstable. Because the SDCCH call drop rate is normal, it can be judged that the
probability for the BCCH carriers and BCCH numbers to the interfered are small, but
the non-BCCH carriers and non-BCCH numbers may be greatly interfered.
Through checking the hardware, antenna feeder, and transmission, engineers found
no problem. According to drive test, engineers found that the signal level was high
but the quality was poor. Through on-site dialing test, engineers found that the
conversation quality was poor. Through checking engineering parameters, engineers
found that the MAIO of the new carrier was the same as that of the old carrier.
Therefore, it can be judged that the call drop was caused by the frequency hopping
collision. After modifying the MAIO, engineers found that call drop rate became
normal.
Case 2: Call drop caused by isolated island effect
[Problem description]
Users complained that call drop always occurred above the fifth floor of a building.
[Problem analysis]
1)
Through on-site test, engineers found that call drop and noise existed here. As
far as the test MS was concerned, it was always in the service area of the other BTS
(hereunder called BTS B) other than the local BTS (hereunder called BTS C) before the
call drop.
2)
It is estimated that the service cell belongs to BTS B, which is 3-4 kilometers
away from the building. Therefore, it can be judged that the signals from the BTS B
are reflected signals. As a result, an area similar to an isolated island is formed.
3)
Through checking data configuration, engineers found that only the cell 2 of BTS
A has the neighbor cell relationship with BTS B. Therefore, when the MS is using the
signals in cell 2 of the BTS B, if the signals in cell 3 of BTS A were strong, and if the
cell 2 of BTS B has no neighbor cell relationship with the cell 3 of the BTS A, the
handover cannot be performed.

The signals from the cell 2 of BTS B are reflected many times. Therefore, when
signals (from BTS B) received by the MS became poor dramatically, emergent
handover may be initiated. In this case, however, either the cell 2 or cell 3 of the
BTS A is not an ideal candidate cell for the cell 2 of BTS B. As a result, the MS
may hand over to other BTS (hereunder called BTS C), but the MS cannot
receive the signals from BTS C. Therefore, call drop occurs.
[Solution]
You are recommended to change the data in the BA1 (BCCH) list, BA2 (SACCH)
list, and neighbor cell relationship list. For example, you can configure the cell 3 of
BTS A as the neighbor cell of cell 2 of BTS B. To eliminate the isolated island effect,

you should also further optimize the engineering parameters. After that, the call drop
problem can be solved.
Case 3: Reduce call drop rate through optimizing handover parameters
[Problem description]
The drive test in an area found that the call drop rate at a cave near the BTS high
because the handover cannot be performed in due time.
[Problem analysis and solution]
The cave is near the BTS. The signal level of the target cell is about -80dBm in the
cave, but the signal level of the old cell drops below -100dBm. The downlink power
of the two cells outside the cave is good, so the handover cannot be initiated.
However, the signal level deteriorates dramatically in the cave, so the call drop
occurs before the measurement time is arriving.
To reduce the call drop rate, you can optimize and adjust the handover parameters:
1)
If no ping-pong handover is present and the conversation is continuous, you can
make the PBGT handover happen as easily as possible.
2)
Set the threshold to trigger the emergent handover rationally so that the
emergent handover can be triggered before call drop.

For the parameter modification, see

Handover parameter optimization
Parameter Name

Before Modification

After Modification

PBGT handover measurement time

PBGT handover duration

PBGT handover threshold

72

68

Uplink quality threshold for emergent

handover

70

60

Minimum downlink power for handover

candidate cell

10

15

Case 4: Call drop caused by clock problem

[Problem description]
The cell A of an 1800MHz network has been cutover. After the establishment of a
cell at site B, the calls made in the cell handing over to the GSM900 MHz cell that
shares the same BTS site drops in the GSM900 MHz cell. And the call drop rate is
great.
[Problem analysis and solution]
Engineers find that the clock of the GSM900 MHz BTS and that of the GSM1800
MHz BTS are asynchronous. When the calls established on the GSM1800 MHz cell
intend to hand over to the GSM900 MHz cell, the drive test data shows that the FER
arises dramatically first, and then gradually disappears to none. If the handover is

from a GSM900 MHz cell to a GSM1800 MHz cell, this phenomenon is also present.
Through monitoring signaling, engineers find that the conversation held several
seconds before the call drop is just process for call re-establishment. However, the
test MS shows that the call has been handed over to the GSM900 MHz cell.
Therefore, it can be judged that the clocks are seriously asynchronous. To solve this
problem, the carrier concerned and the GSM900 equipment provider cooperate with
each other on clock calibration. After that, the abnormal call drop disappears.
Therefore, for dual-band handover, the clock of the GSM900 MHz BTS and that of
the GSM1800 MHz BTS must be synchronous.
5.5.4 Handover Problems
The MS is always moving during conversation. To ensure channel quality, the MS
must measure the quality of the channels of the surrounding channels without stop,
and then send the measurement report to the BSC through the service cell. The BSC
will perform radio link control according to the signal level and quality contained in
the measurement report. If the MS moves to another cell, the new cell will replace
the old cell to ensure the continuity of the service. The handover enables each cell to
form a seamless network.
I. Handover Problem Positioning Steps
1)
Find out if the problem occurs at an individual cell or all cells and find out the
characteristics of the problem cells. For example, if the cells are the neighbors cell of
a cell, or if they are co-BSC cells, or if they are co-MSC cells.

If the handover between two cells fails, you should focus on checking if the data
of the two cells is correctly configured. In addition, you should also check the
hardware of the two cells.
If the problem is found in all the neighbor cells of a cell, you should focus on
checking of the data of this cell is correctly configured. In addition, you should
also check the hardware of the cell.
If the problem is found in all the cells under the same BSC, you should focus on
checking the data configuration between the BSC and MSC.
If the problem is found in all the cells under the same MSC, the cooperation
between the local exchange and the opposite exchange may fail. For example,
the signaling is incompatible and the timer setting is irrational.
2)

Check if the data has been modified before handover problems occur.

If the problem is found in an individual cell, you should focus on checking if the
data configuration for this cell has been modified.
If the problem is found in all the cells under the same BSC, you should focus on
checking the data configuration for the local BSC and the opposite MSC has
been modified.
If the problem is found in the cells under the same MSC, you should check if the
data configuration for the opposite MSC has been modified.
3)

Check if it is the hardware failure that causes the handover problem.

4)
Register the related traffic statistics items, such as the handover performance
measurement and TCH performance measurement.

Check if the TCH seizure of the problem cell is normal. For example, if the call
drop rate is high.

Check if the outgoing handover success rate is normal.

Find out the causes for the handover failure.

Check if the radio handover success rate is normal.

5)
Perform drive test for the problem cell and analyze the drive test signaling.

Check if the uplink and downlink of the problem cells are balanced, because
unbalanced path may cause handover problem (BTS problem may cause the
unbalance).

Check if the measurement report for the problem cell contains correct
neighbor cell list.

Check if a call can hand over from a problem cell to a neighbor cell correctly
and check if it can hand over from a neighbor cell to the problem cell.

Analyze if the signaling procedure for the handover is normal.

II. Handover Problem Analysis Methods

i) Handover cannot be initiated
If the MS is in a cell where the signal is poor, it cannot hand over to another cell. In
this case, you should consider of the handover conditions are met and if there is an
outgoing cell available.
Hereunder details the possible reasons:

The handover threshold is set to a low value

For edge handover, the handover triggering condition is that the Rxlev must be
smaller than the handover threshold. If the edge handover threshold is set to a too
small value, the signal level of the neighbor cells will be far higher than that of
the service cell. In this case, the handover cannot be initiated. As a result, the
conversation quality will be affected, or even the call drop will be resulted. The
setting of the handover threshold depends on the coverage scope of the cell. You
can change the size of the service area of the cell through changing the handover
threshold.

Neighbor cell relationship is not set

Though the signal level in the neighbor cells of the service cell is high, the MS
will not report the neighbor cells if the neighbor cell relationship is not set. In
this case, the MS cannot hand over to a neighbor cell. Through performing cell
reselection or dialing test, you can check the neighbor cell list reported by the
MS. If the MS has moved to the major lobe of a cell but this cell is not found in
the neighbor cell list, you should check if the correct neighbor cell relationship
has been correctly set. During the drive test, you can use another MS to scan the
BCCH numbers to check if the strong BCCH numbers are in the service cell or
in the neighbor cell list.

Handover hysteresis is irrationally set

If the difference between the signal level of the handover candidate cell and that
of the service cell is greater than handover hysteresis, the cell can work as a
target cell. If the hysteresis is set to a too great value, the handover is hard to be
initiated.

The best measurement time "N" and "P" are irrationally set

During normal handover, the MS uses N-P rules to list the handover candidate
cells in a certain order. If a candidate cell is the best cell within P seconds out of
N seconds, it will be treated as the best cell.
When there are two cells become the best cell alternately, the MS may find it
hard to select a best cell through N-P rule, which makes the handover difficult. In
this case, you can adjust the values of N and P and reduce the measurement time
to make the handover decision more sensitive to level change.
If the landform and the ground objects of the service cell are quite complicated,
the signals received by the moving MS will fluctuate greatly. In this case, the
handover candidate cell cannot meet N-P rule, which will make the handover
difficult.
ii) Handover problem caused by hardware failure
If the data configuration for the problem cell and the neighbor cells has not been
modified recently but the handover problems occur abruptly, you should first
consider if the problems are caused by BTS hardware equipment.
If the cells sharing the same base station with the cell have similar problem, you
should consider if the problem is caused by the common hardware of the cells.
If the problem is found in only one cell under the base station, you should
consider if it is the hardware of this cell that causes the problem. For example, if
some of the carriers are damaged. To test the problems of this kind, you can
disable some of the carriers. If the handover success rate returns to normal state
after a carrier is disabled, you can check if the problem is present at this carrier
or if the CDU and antenna feeder part related to this carrier fails. If signals of a
cell on the uplink and downlink are seriously unbalanced, frequent handover will
be caused and the handover success rate will decrease.
To check if the signaling flow of the cell is normal and if the uplink Rxqual and
downlink Rxqual are good, you can monitor the messages sent across the Abis
interface. If the Rxqual is poor, it means that the hardware equipment of the fails
or serious interference is present in the cell. In this case, the signaling exchange
is unavailable and the handover problem will occur.
iii) Handover problem caused by irrational data configuration
For stand-alone networking mode, if the outgoing MSC or incoming MSC
handover is abnormal, you should check if the signaling cooperation of the two MSCs
is correct. In addition, you should also check if the data configuration for the opposite
MSC and the local MSC has been modified recently.

For co-MSC networking mode, if the handover is performed within the BSCs of
different providers and the inter-BSC handover is abnormal, you should first check if
the signaling cooperation between the BSCs is normal, and then check if the data
configuration for the BSCs has been modified.

If the abnormal handover is found at a cell only, you need to analyze the
abnormal handover according to actual conditions.

If the incoming handover of a cell is abnormal, you need first check if the
incoming handovers to this cell is abnormal. Generally, when the handover is
abnormal, the handover success rate is low, or even the handover does not occur.

If all the incoming handovers to this cell is abnormal, you should check if the
data configuration for this cell is correct. Here the data configuration includes
both the data configured for this cell and the data configured for other cells but is
related to this cell. For example, the CGI of this cell may be correctly
configured, but it may be wrongly configured in other cells.
If there is only one incoming handover to a cell is abnormal but other incoming
handovers to this cell are normal, in addition to checking if the data
configuration for this cell is correct, you should also check if the data
configuration for the neighbor cells is correct. Furthermore, you should also
check if the hardware equipment of the cell is normal.
The methods to analyze the abnormal outgoing handovers are similar to the
methods to analyze the abnormal incoming handovers.
Check the timers (such as T3105, Ny1, T3103, and T3142) related to the
handover.

T3105 indicates the interval for continuous PHYSICAL INFORMATION to be sent

to the MS. The network will start T3105 for the sending of the PHYSICAL
INFORMATION. If the timer fails before receiving any correct frame from the MS,
the network will resend the PHYSICAL INFORMATION and restart the timer. A
piece of PHYSICAL INFORMATION can be sent Ny1 times to the maximum. Here
the product of Ny1 and T3105 must be greater than the sum of T3124 and delta
("delta" indicates the interval between the expiry of T3124 and the reception of the
Handover Failure message of the old BSC), otherwise the MS cannot perform
successful handover.
T3124 is a timer waiting for the PHYSICAL INFORMATION from the network side
during asynchronous handover. When sending the HANDOVER ACCESS message
on the DCCH for the first time, the MS will start T3124. Upon receiving a piece of
PHYSICAL INFORMATION, the MS will stop T3124. If the channel type allocated
in the HANDOVER COMMAND message is SDCCH (+SACCH), the T3124 is set
to 675ms. For other cases, the T3124 is set to 320ms.
III. Handover Cases
Case 1: No handover candidate cell is available due to CGI error
[Problem description]
The handover in an area is abnormal. When the MS moves from cell A to cell B, the
signals in cell B are stronger than that of cell A, but the handover does not happen.
After the MS moves from cell B to cell C, the MS hands over from cell A to cell C.
[Cause analysis]
If a cell can work as a service cell and can hand over to other cells, but the incoming
handover is unavailable, you can check if the CGI, BSIC, BCCH number of the cell
are correct.
[Problem solution]
1)
Use the test MS to lock the BCCH numbers of cell B. The call is normal. The MS
can hand over to any other cell by force.

2)
Make a call after locking the BCCH umber of any neighbor cell of cell B, and
then force the MS to hand over to cell B, but the handover does not happen, because
no handover command is seen in the drive test software.
3)
The handover procedure requires the MS detecting the neighbor cell signals and
reporting the detected signals to BSC with a measurement report. Upon receiving the
measurement report, the BSC must make the handover decision. If the handover
conditions are met, the BSC should activate the TCH of the service cell, and then send
a handover command to the MS.
4)
If the signals of cell B are far stronger than that of cell A and the handover
conditions are met (the PBGT handover threshold is 70), but no handover command is
sent, it means that errors occur during the activation of the target cell TCH.
5)
If the cell B works as the target cell but the TCH cannot be activated, the data
may be incorrectly configured for the cell. In this case, the BSC that contains the cell
cannot find the target cell, so the TCH cannot be activated and no handover
command can be found in the service cell.
6)
The CGI error is found in cell B through data checking. The handover is normal
after the CGI is changed to correct value.

Case 2: Unbalanced path causes low handover success rate

[Problem description]
The incoming BSC handover success rate is quite low for the two cells under a BTS,
ranging from 10% to 30%.
[Cause analysis]
Generally, if the data problems, such as CGI error or intra-frequency interference,
exists and if there is dead zones in heavy-traffic areas, or if it is hard for the MS to
access the cell due to poor uplink signals, the incoming BSC handover success rate is
low.
[Solution]
1)
The cell data is found normal.
2)
Through checking traffic statistics items, engineers found that all incoming cell
handover success rates were low.
3)
Through drive test, engineers found that frequent handover attempts were
made in the area 2km away from the BTS, but the handover always failed. Even if a
successful handover was made, call drop occurred immediately. During the handover,
engineers found that the downlink level was about -85dBm. Engineers made 10 dialing
tests with frequency locked, all the originating calls failed. For the answering calls,
they can be connected but cannot be called out.
4)
It is estimated that the CDU uplink channel loss is great, or the jumpers are
incorrectly connected at the BTS top. In this case, the uplink signals will be poor,
which causes the problem.
5)
After changing the CDU, engineers found that the incoming handover success
rate increased to 95%.

Case 3: Improper antenna planning causes low handover success rate

[Problem analysis]
The handover success rate among the three cells under a BTS is quite low according
to traffic statistics. For the handover from cell1 to cell3 and the handover from cell2
to cell3, the success rate is lower than 30%.
[Cause analysis]

Generally, low handover success rate is caused by board failure, handover data error,
or improper antenna planning.
[Solution]
1)
The BTS hardware is normal and no alarm concerning handover parameters is
generated, so the hardware problem and parameter setting problem can be excluded.
2)
The BTS locates at the eastern side of a south-north road and is 700m away from
the road. The azimuth angles of the three cells are 0, 80and 160. They three cells
direct to the two directions and the open resident areas lying under a hill in the east
respectively. Among the three cells, the down tilts of two cells are 7. To make the
coverage as specified as possible, engineers concentrated the antenna azimuth angles
of the three cells in design. In this case, however, the cells of the BTS are seriously
overlapped in the east. For the areas just in the west, the coverage is provided by the
side lobes and back lobes of the three cells. Therefore, when the MS is moving on this
road, first it is covered by cell1. When it moves to the west, the signals of the three
cells are poor and fluctuating greatly. In addition, since the handover measurement
time and the handover duration is set to a small value, the handover is rather
sensitive, and that's why the frequent handover failure occurs.
3)
After setting the azimuth angles of the three cells to 60, 180, and 350,
engineers found that the handover success rate of among the three cells increased to
95%.

Case 4: Problems concerning the cooperation of different carriers' equipment

cause low outgoing BSC handover success rate
[Problem description]
There is a dual-band network in which the GSM900 MHz network and the GSM1800
MHz network are stand-alone. After the two networks completed cell reselection and
handover parameter setting, engineers found that the dual-band handover success rate
was low; especially the success rate of the handover from the GSM1800 MHz
network to the GSM900 MHz network was low, ranging from 60% to 80%.
However, the success rate of the handover from the GSM900 MHz network to the
GSM1800 MHz network was higher than 92%.
[Cause analysis]
For a dual-band network, if the problems concerning the cooperation of different
carriers' equipment are found, you must know the data configuration of the
equipment. For example, if the equipment supports Phase 2+ and EFR.
[Solution]
1)
Through using signaling analyzer to analyze the message flowing across the Ainterface and E-interface, engineers found that the MSC of the GSM1800 MHz network
would send back a Handover Reject message to the BSC of the GSM1800 MHz network
when the BSC sent a Handover Required message to the MSC.
2)
The MSC of the GSM1800 MHz network sent a Prepare Handover message to the
MSC of the GSM900 MHz network. Upon receiving the message, the MSC of the GSM900
MHz network sent back an Abort message.
3)
Because the success rate of the handover from GSM900 MHz network to the
GSM1800 MHz network was high, engineers found that the voice version carried in the
Prepare Handover message (from the GSM900 MSC to GSM1800 MSC) is half rate
version 1, but the voice versions carried in the Prepare Handover message (from
GSM1800 MSC to GSM900 MSC) are full rate version 1, full rate version 2, and half rate
version 1, which belong to PHASE 2+. However, MSC of provider A does not support the
PHASE 2+, so the handover failure is caused.

4)
Through modifying the MSC data of the circuit MSC data at the A-interface and
selecting the full rate version 1 only, engineers found that the voice versions carried
in the Prepare Handover message (from GSM1800 MSC to GSM900 MSC) are full rate 1
and 2. After that, the dual-band handover success rate was greatly increased.

5.5.5 Congestion Problems

This section introduces the methods to handle SDCCH congestion and TCH
congestion, in which TCH congestion indicates SDCCH seizure all busy. The TCH
congestion has two cases. One is TCH seizure all busy. For this case, the real
channels cannot be allocated to the MS, so the MS will fail to request the channels.
The other one is that the TCH assignment fails after an assignment is sent due to
various reasons.
I. Congestion Problem Solutions

Congestion caused by heavy traffic

You can check if the SDCCH traffic and TCH traffic are normal through viewing
traffic statistics. If the congestion is caused by heavy traffic, the most efficient
method to solve the problem is to expand the capacity of the network. In
addition, you can adopt traffic sharing technologies to ease the congestion. For
example, you can modify the CRO, enable direct retry or load handover function.

SDCCH congestion caused by burst traffic

If the SDCCH congestion rate is high and the traffic is heavy but the TCH traffic
is normal, the SDCCH congestion may be caused by burst traffic. The SDCCH
congestion always occurs at BTSs along railways and tunnel exits, because the
BTSs are installed in remote places and the capacity of a BTS is small. As a
result, when the train moves fast along the railways or stops at a railway station,
most of MSs failing to capture a network will perform location update, which
will result in SDCCH congestion. In addition, when short messages are sent at a
concentrated time, the SDCCH congestion will also occur easily. SDCCH
congestion cannot be completely avoided, but some measures can be taken to
ease the congestion. For example, you can add the number of SDCCHs, or
enable the dynamic conversion between SDCCH and TCH.

Congestion caused by TRX problems

When a carrier configured in a multi-TRX cell cannot provide services, the

channel congestion will also occur. To solve the problem, you should replace the
problem TRX with a sound one. If the TRX problem cannot be positioned, you
should check if the antenna feeder connection is correct and if the antenna
standing wave is normal. If yes, recheck the TRX where the problem may be
generated.

Congestion caused by interference

The interference present across the radio interfaces will also cause congestion. In
this case, you should solve the interference problem first.

Channel assignment failure caused by inconsistent coverage

If the concentric technology is not used, the transmit power of the TRXs within
the same cell will be inconsistent, which will result in inconsistent coverage. In
this case, the channel assignment failure will easily occur. To position this
problem, you can check if the connection between the splitter and connector and
if the connection between CDU and SCU are correct.
When a cell uses multiple transmitter antennas, inconsistent coverage will be
inconsistent, which will result in channel assignment failure. To solve this
problem, you should make the coverage of each transmitter antenna as consistent
as possible through engineering adjustment.
In addition, if the transmitter antenna and the receiver antenna of a cell is not in
the same plane or the antenna tilt angles are inconsistent, the channel assignment
failure will also be caused. In this case, you can calibrate the antennas to solve
the problem.

Congestion caused improper data configuration

If the congestion is caused by improper location area planning, you can reduce
the SDCCH congestion rate by planning the location area properly.
If the congestion is caused by the problems concerning SDCCH dynamic
allocation, you can reduce the SDCCH congestion rate by enabling the SDCCH
dynamic allocation function.
For dual-band network, you can properly set the parameters (such as CRO, CBA,
and cell reselection hysteresis) to reduce the SDCCH congestion rate.
If the timers, such as T3101, T3103, T3107, T3122, T3212, and T3111, are not
properly set, SDCCH congestion will also be caused.
Hereunder are the solutions to the previous problems.
You can ease the congestion caused by SDCCH dual allocation through reducing
the T3101 to a smaller value. If the T3101 is set to a large value, the radio
resources will be seized for a long period of time. To fully use the radio
resources, therefore, you can reduce the T3101 value.
You can save the TCH resources through reducing the T3103 and T3107 to a
rational value. Generally, T3103 and T3107 are set to about 5 seconds.
The T3122 must be stopped once the MS receives an IMMEDIATE ASSIGN
REJECT message. Only after the T3122 expires, the MS can send a new channel
request message. If the MS sends channel request messages frequently, the
RACH load and CCCH load will increase. To solve this problem, you can
increase the T3122 to a larger value.
T3212 stands for the time limit value for periodical location update. You can ease
the SDCCH load by increasing the T3212 to a larger value.
T3111 is related to release latency. It is used for the deactivation of the latency
channels after the major signaling link breaks. T3111 can be initiated during
either TCH release or SDCCH release. The value of T3111 must be consistent
with that of the T3110 at the MS side. Generally, it should be 2 seconds. If the
T3111 is set to a large value, great SDCCH congestion rate may be caused.

II. Congestion Cases

Case 1: SDCCH congestion caused by wrong LAC configuration
[Description]
A BTS is configured as S1/1/1. It is found that the SDCCH congestion rate for 2 cells
reaches as high as 8%.
[Problem analysis and solution]
1)
Through checking the measurement indexes for TCH and SDCCH, engineers found
that the TCH traffic was not heavy. The traffic volume for each cell during busy hours
is lower than 2.2Erl. However, the requests for SDCCH seizure are great, reaching
3032 times during busy hours. The SDCCH traffic reaches 1.86Erl, and the congestion
rate reaches 8%.
2)
The main reasons for SDCCH seizure include the messages sent before call setup,
the messages sent during handover, the location update messages sent under the idle
mode, and other short messages.
3)
The TCH traffic is normal, the requests for TCH seizure (including handover) are
normal (318 times), and the handover requests are also normal (146 times).
Therefore, the SDCCH congestion may be caused by a large number of location update
messages or short messages.
4)
The LAC of the BTS is 0500, and the LACs of other cells of the surrounding cells
are 0520. After changing the LAC of the BTS to 0520, engineers found that the
requests for SDCCH seizure during busy hours were 298, the SDCCH traffic was
0.27Erl, and the congestion rate reduced to 0.

Case 2: SDCCH congestion caused by burst location updates

[Problem description]
The radio connected ratio of a local network is lower than average level. According
to traffic statistics analysis, it is found that the SDCCH congestion happened at
several BTSs.
[Problem analysis and solution]
1)
Through analyzing traffic statistics, engineers found that the SDCCHs of the
congested cells were seized for 300 to 400 times during busy hours. Here the BTS was
configured as S1/1/1 and each cell was configured with 8 SDCCHs. Therefore, the
SDCCHs can be seized by 400 times, but the SDCCHs were congested for tens of times
during busy hours.
2)
As far as the registered traffic statistics items were concerned, most of the
SDCCH seizures were caused by location update. Taking the BTS location into
consideration, engineers found that most of the BTSs were installed at the
intersections of two railways. Therefore, it might be the burst location update that
caused SDCCH congestion.
3)
To verify if it was the burst location update that caused the congestion,
engineers registered the traffic statistics items in 5 minutes and found that most of
the location update happened within the five seconds. Through querying the train
time table, engineers found that there were 4 to 5 trains passing by within the five
seconds. When the trains passed the intersections, a large number of location updates
were generated in a short time. In this case, the congestion was caused.

Therefore, if the BTSs are installed at the railway intersections, you are suggested to
enable the SDCCH dynamic allocation function and configure a suitable margin for
the SDCCH.

Case 3: Great TCH congestion rate caused by the inconsistent tilt angles of two
antennas under the same cell
[Problem description]
It is found that the TCH congestion rate of a cell is great (greater than 5%) according
to traffic statistics.
[Problem analysis and solution]
1)
Through checking BSC traffic statistics, engineers found that it was the TCH
seizure failure that directly caused the great TCH congestion rate.
2)
Generally, TCH seizure failure is caused by TCH assignment failure. Through
monitoring Abis interface, engineers found that most of the TCH assignment failure
occurred at the No.4 TRX and No.5 TRX, and the probability for the assignment failure
rate for the No.4 TRX was near that for the No.5 TRX.
3)
Through checking the antenna feeder part, engineers found that the tile angle
corresponding to the transmitter antennas of the two TRXs were too great (it is 10
degrees than that of the antenna for BCCH, because the antenna nuts were found
loosen. Therefore, if the MS is far away from the BTS, it can receive the BCCH signals
but cannot receive the TCH signals. If the TCH is assigned to the MS when the MS
starts a call, the TCH seizure failure will occur.
4)
To solve the problem, you can enable the tilt angel of the TCH antenna and that
of the BCCH antenna to be consistent with each other. In this case, the TCH
congestion rate can be reduced to 2% or lower.

Case 4: High TCH congestion rate caused by downlink interference

[Problem description]
A cell of BTS is responsible for covering a large area of sea surface along the coast.
According to the registered traffic statistics items, engineers found that when the
traffic volume was lower than 1Erl, the TCH congestion of the cell reached 10% at
some time. However, no alarm was generated. All the interference bands fell within
the interference band1 and the hardware and RF connections were normal.
[Problem analysis and solution]
Because all the interference bands fell within the interference band1, the uplink
interference is impossible. Considering that the coverage distance reaches 60 to 70
kilometers and multiple normal cells are present along the coast, the probability for
the channel numbers of the downlink areas and the cell to be interfered is high.
Through modifying the channel numbers of the cell, engineers found that the TCH
congestion rate was improved. Through further optimizing the channel numbers,
engineers found that the TCH congestion rate was lower than 1%. Therefore, it can
be judged that the 10% of congestion rate is caused by the downlink interference of
some areas.
5.5.6 Other Problems
I. Subscriber Is Not in Service Area
When a subscriber is not in service area, the MS works as the called party when the
signals received by the MS are good and the calling party hears a voice saying that
the subscriber is not in the service area. If the coverage, operation, and data

configuration of a network are good, the occurrence probability for the problem must
be lower than 1%, otherwise it is other causes that result in the problem.
Generally, if a subscriber is not in the service area, the following causes may be
present:

Coverage problem

If the subscriber complaint happens at cell edges, the problem may be related to
coverage. In this case, the probability for the calling party failure is equal to the
probability for the "subscriber is not in service area".

Parameter setting

If the subscriber is not in service area, the parameters concerning the paging, access,
and immediate assignment may be not properly set. In this case, you can check if the
messages concerning RACH overload, PCH overload, and SDCCH overload are
generated through querying traffic statistics and alarms. If yes, the subscriber may
not in the service area.

System capacity limit or overload

If system capacity limit or overload occur (for example, HDB overload, CPU
overload, or capacity overload during busy hours), the system may fail to read the
subscriber information, or subscribers cannot access the radio network. In this case,
the subscriber may not in the service area. To solve this problem, you can take
measures to expand the system capacity.

Transmission problem

If the links between systems (such as the LAPD link of the Abis interface and the
links of the each network entity) and the links within a system (such as the link
among the modules of BCS/MSC) are not stable, the messages sent through these
links may be missing. In this case, subscribers may not in the service area. To
position the problem, you can check the alarms.

Equipment causes

If the designs concerning MSC and BSC are incomplete, the probability of
"subscriber is not in service area" will increase.

MS causes

If the RF parts or the software parts of the MS have problems, for example, the
reception capability of the MS is poor; the frequency deviation goes beyond the
requirements defined in the protocols; and the dual-band performance of the MS is
poor, this problem may also occur.
II. Signal Fluctuation
Signal fluctuation indicates that change of the MS signal strength. The following
factors may cause signal fluctuation.

Radio wave propagation

The strength of the signals received by the MS is the amplitude of the sum of the
vectors of various propagation paths. Because the propagation environment is everchanging, the attenuation of radio channels is ever-changing. Therefore, even if the
MS does not move, the strength of the received signals will change.

Cell reselection and handover

When the MS moves from the old cell to the new cell through handover or cell
reselection, the signals of the MS will fluctuate because the signal strength of the old
cell and that of the new cell are inconsistent.

Antenna shake

When the antenna shakes, the antenna gain will change, so the signals will also
fluctuate.

Location update or channel assignment occurs at non-BCCH TRX

If the SDCCH is assigned to a non-BCCH TRX during location update and power
control is available on SDCCH, the signal strength may fluctuate.
III. Voice Discontinuity
Voice discontinuity stands for pauses or words loss occurs in conversation. If the
voice continuity is remarkable, the conversation quality will be affected.
The following factors may cause voice discontinuity

Frequent handovers

Only hard handover is available in GSM system. Therefore, when the MS hands over
from the source channel to the target channel, the downlink frames may loss at the
Abis interface. As a result, the voice continuity is unavoidable during handover.
Generally, frequent handovers may occur at cell edges or during cross coverage. In
this case, the voice discontinuity will become a headache of subscribers. To avoid the
frequent handovers, you can adjust the antenna tilt and height and configure the data,
such as uplink and downlink quality threshold and restriction properly.

Radio link interference

Radio link interference will increase the bit error rate, which will cause voice
discontinuity. In addition, the signals always fluctuate greatly at cell edges, so the
conversation quality at the cell edges is bad.

Poor network coverage

If the network coverage is poor, the Rxlev and Rxqual will become poor, thus the
conversation quality will be affected.

BTS transmission problem

BTS transmission problems will affect conversation quality. For connectors, you
should check of the connection among the connector is good. For optical
transmission, you should check if the optical headers are clean and if the
transmission errors are great. For micro wave transmission, it may be affected by
weather. If there is large amount of dust in the equipment, the conversation quality
may also be affected. If both micro wave transmission and optical transmission are
used, you should pay attention to the cooperation of the transmission impedance at
the equipment interfaces.

TRX board failure

Hardware problem will result in poor conversation quality. In this case, you should
replace the problem hardware with the sound one.