CHAPTER 5

SURFACES AND GUIDEWAYS

Surfaces provide supports for vehicles traveling on transportation facilities.
Guideways, in addition to providing support, also provide lateral guidance. Roadway
surface types include treated soil, gravel or other aggregate surfaces, and asphalt
concrete and Portland cement concrete pavements. In addition, many low-volume
roads are completely unsurfaced. Airport surfaces include asphalt concrete and
Portland cement concrete pavements, as well as turf or aggregate-turf surfaces for
low volume airports used by light aircraft. Guideways include monorail, concrete
guideways for rubber-tired vehicles, and conventional duorail steel-on-steel railroad
track.
5.1 HIGHWAY PAVEMENTS
5.1.1 Components

Figure 6.1 shows cross sections for typical asphalt concrete and Portland cement
concrete pavements. Pavements usually consist of a surface course (of asphalt
concrete or Portland cement concrete), a base course, and a subbase constructed
on top of prepared subgrade material.
Surface courses usually consist of Asphalt or Portland cement concrete.
Concrete refers to any material consisting of a mixture of aggregates, such as sand,
gravel or crushed stone, fastened together by cement.
Asphalt concrete consists of asphalt cement and aggregate. A variety of
asphalt-bound materials are used to surface roadways. Asphalt concrete
usually refers to high-quality premixed material using in paving high-type
roadways.

Portland cement concrete consists of Portland cement and aggregate, usually

sand and gravel or stone. Portland cement concrete pavements may be
either unreinforced or continuously reinforced with conventional rebar.
Base courses normally consist of aggregates such as gravel or crushed rock. These
may be simply compacted (in which case they are known as aggregate bases) or
stabilized by means of lime, Portland cement, or asphalt.
Subbases are usually local aggregate materials. They may consist of either
unstabilized compacted aggregate.
In addition, geotextiles are sometimes used in constructing pavements. These are
to add strength, control moisture, and prevent the movement of fine materials in
drainage layers.
5.1.2 Pavement Maintenance and Rehabilitation
Pavements are subject to varying degrees of distress short of outright failure that
reduces their serviceability. Pavement maintenance and rehabilitation programs are
intended to restore ride quality and maintain the structural integrity of the
pavement over its full design life.
Asphalt concrete pavements are subject to a variety of types of pavements distress
or failure. These include:

Alligator cracking. A series of interconnected or interlaced cracks caused by

fatigue failure of the asphalt concrete surface under repeated traffic loading.
Block cracking. Cracks forming large interconnected polygons, usually with
sharp corners or angles. These cracks are generally caused by hardening and
shrinkage of the asphalt and/or reflection cracking from underlying layers
such as cement-treated base.
Transverse cracking. Cracks approximately at right angles to the pavement
centerline. These may be caused by shrinkage or differential thermal stress of
the asphalt concrete, or may be reflective cracks.
Longitudinal cracking. Cracks approximately parallel to the pavement
centerline. These are caused by poorly constructed construction joints and
shrinkage of the asphalt concrete surface; they may also be reflective cracks.
Ravelling. Wearing away of the pavement surface caused by dislodging of
aggregate particles and binder. This is usually a result of insufficient asphalt
binder in the mix or stripping of asphalt from particles of aggregate.
Drip track ravelling. Progressive disintegration of the surface between the
wheel paths caused by dipping of gasoline or oil from vehicles.
Bleeding or flushing. The exuding of bitumen onto the pavement surface,
causing a reduction in skid resistance. Bleeding is generally caused by
excessive amounts of asphalt in the mix and/or low air voids content. It
occurs when asphalt fills the voids in the mix during hot weather and then
exudes out onto the surface of the pavement.

Maintenance and rehabilitation actions for asphalt concrete pavements include

bituminous seal coats of various types which are intended to seal cracks and restore
skid resistance, asphalt concrete overlays, and recycling of asphalt concrete
pavements. In addition, failures confined to small areas, such as isolated potholes,
may be patched.

TYPE OF DISTRESS

POSSIBLE CAUSE

Fatigue (Alligator) Cracking

1. Excessive
loading

Maintenance
Suggestions
Full-depth
patch

2. Weak surface,
base, or
subgrade
3. Thin surface or
base
4. Poor drainage
5. Any
combination of
1-4
Block Cracking

1. Old and dried

out mix

Any surface
treatment or
thin overlay

2. Mix was placed

too dry
3. Fine aggregate
mix with low
penetration
asphalt &
absorptive
aggregates
4. Aggravated by
low traffic
volume
Edge Cracks

1. Lack of lateral
support
2. Settlement of
underlying
material
3. Shrinkage of
drying out soil
4. Weak base or
subgrade layer
5. Poor drainage

Improve
drainage.
Remove
vegetation
close to
edge. Fill
cracks with
asphalt
emulsion
slurry or
emulsified
asphalt
Crack
seal/fill

6. Frost heave
7. Heavy traffic or
vegetation
along edge
Longitudinal (Linear) & Transverse Cracking

1. Poorly
constructed
paving joint
crack
2. Shrinkage of
the asphalt
layer
3. Daily
temperature
cycling
4. Cracks in an
underlying layer
that reflect up
through the
pavement

Improve
drainage by
removing
the source
that traps
the water
Seal crack or
fill with
asphalt
emulsion
slurry or
light grade
of asphalt
mixed with
fine sand.
Provide side
drainage
ditches
Crack
seal/fill

5. Longitudinal
segregation
caused by the
improper
operation of the
paver

Reflection Cracking

1. Differential
movement
between the
asphalt and
concrete layers

Crack
seal/fill

2. Can deteriorate
further under
heavy traffic

Slippage Cracks

1. Lack of a good
bond between
surface layer
and the course

Partial or
full-depth
patch

beneath due to
dust, oil, dirt,
rubber, water
and other nonadhesive
material
2. Tack coat has
not been used
3. Mixture has a
high sand
content
4. Vehicular
turning or
stopping
movements in
pavements with
a low-strength
surface mix

Corrugations & Shoving

1. Mixtures too
high in asphalt
2. Low air voids
3. Fine aggregate
content too
high
4. Excessive
moisture or
contamination
in the granular
base

Deep or fulldepth patch

5. Smooth or
rounded
aggregate
6. Incorrect
asphalt grade

Rutting

1. Consolidation or
lateral
movement of
any of the
pavement
layers or the
subgrade under
traffic
2. Insufficient

Cold mill and

overlay or
thin surface
patch

design
thickness
3. Lack of
compaction
4. Weaknesses in
the pavement
layers due to
moisture
infiltration
5. Weak asphalt
mixtures
Settlement/Grade Depressions

1. Settlement or
failure in the
lower pavement
layers
2. Improper
construction
techniques

Upheaval/Swell

1. Expansive soils
(which swell in
the presence of
moisture)

Cold mill and

overlay
Thin surface
patch
Infrared
patch

Full-depth
patch

2. Frost heave (in

which ice lenses
grow beneath
the pavement,
causing the
pavement to
crack)

Utility Cuts/Patch Failure

1. A portion of a
pavement has
been removed
and replaced
2. A portion of a
pavement
where
additional
material has
been added
3. Poor installation
techniques such
as inadequate
compaction,
inferior or
improper
materials

Replace
patch with
deep or fulldepth patch

4. Failure of the
surrounding or
underlying
pavement

Pot Hole

1. Continued
deterioration of
another type of
distress, such
as thawing of a
frozen
subgrade,
cracking,
raveling, or a
failed patch
after pieces of
the original
pavement
surface have
been dislodged

Partial, fulldepth or
injection
patching

2. Poor surface
mixtures
3. Weak spots in
the base or
subgrade
4. Severity of the
surrounding
distress and
traffic action
accelerate
potholes

Raveling/Weathering

1. Asphalt binder
has hardened
excessively

Any surface
treatment or
thin overlay

2. Poor-quality
mixture
3. Usually requires
the presence of
both traffic and
water to occur

Bleeding

1. Improperly
constructed
seal coat
2. Too much

Chip Seals,
Sandwich
Seals, thin
overlay

asphalt in a mix
3. Too heavy a
prime or
bond/tack coat
4. Excessive
sealant in the
cracks or joints
under an
overlay
5. Traffic can
contribute to
bleeding if the
asphalt layers
become
overcompacted
and excess
asphalt is
forced to the
surface

Polished Aggregate
1. Soft aggregates
that polish
quickly under
traffic

Loss of Aggregate on Surface Treatments

1.

Aggregate n ot
spread
immediately

2.

Asphalt may have

cooled to much

3.

Aggregate too
dusty or too wet
when spread

4.

Not rolled
immediately after
placing it may
not become

Any surface
treatment
except fog
seal

Hot coarse
sand spread
over affected
areas
Rolled
immediately
after
spreading
with a
pneumatictired roller

seated
5.

Steel-wheeled
roller alone was
used for
compaction

6.

Weather too cool

when treatment
applied

7.

Fast traffic too

soon after
application

1.

Aggregate not

Longitudinal/Transverse Streaking
spread
immediately
2.

Improper spray
bar height
causing incorrect
overlap of the
spray fans

3.

Changing spray
bar height as the
distributor load
decreases

4.

Nozzle problems
(incorrect angle,
incorrect size,
different sizes,
plugged or
restricted
nozzles, or ones
with
imperfections)

5.

Nozzle control
linkage problem

6.

Inconsistent
pump speed or
pressure to the
nozzles, and
varying
distributor travel
speed

7. Improper

Re-seal
surface
using proper
procedure
and
adjustment
of
equipment

application
temperature
(allowing the
asphalt material
to cool); and
Improper binder
choice (viscosity
too high for
existing
conditions and
equipment)

Types of pavement distress affecting Portland cement concrete pavements include

the following:

Faulting. Elevation differences between adjacent slabs at transverse joints.

Faulting is usually the result of pumping, and is a major source of Portland
concrete pavement failure.

Settlement. Local sagging in the pavement caused by differential settlement,

consolidation, or movement of the underlying earth mass.

Blow ups. Localized upward buckling and shattering of the slabs at transverse
joints or cracks. Blow ups can occur when traverse joints are filled with
incompressible solid materials. They are especially common where pavement
is sanded in winter to counteract icy conditions and in areas subject to large
temperature changes.

Joint or crack spalling. The breakdown or disintegration of slab edges at joints

or cracks, usually resulting in the loss of sound concrete and the progressive
widening of the joint or crack.

Surface attrition or surface abrasion. Abnormal surface wear, usually resulting

from poor-quality surface mortar or coarse aggregate.

Surface polish. Loss of the original surface texture due to traffic action.

Maintenance and rehabilitation actions for Portland cement concrete pavements

include installation of edge drains to reduce pumping, grinding of slabs to correct
faulting, replacement of badly cracked or deteriorated slabs, asphalt concrete
overlays, grooving to reduce hydroplaning, and use of special thin concrete
surface treatments.
5.2 RAILROAD TRACK
Railroad track serves to provide guidance for rail vehicles and to spread wheel loads
so as to keep bearing pressure on the subgrade within acceptable limits. This latter
function is similar to that of highways pavements, and the design of railroad tracks
is similar in many ways to that of flexible highway pavements.
5.2.1 Overall Track Structure
The overall track structure typically consists of subgrade, ballast, ties, rails, and rail
fastenings. These are arranged as follows:

The ballast rests on the subgrade,

The ties are embedded in the ballast
The rails usually rest on tie plates and are fastened to the ties by spikes
Other track fastening include joint bars, which are used to fasten rails
together longitudinally;
Gage bars, which are steel bars used to maintain gage at critical locations
such as curve and switches
Rail anchors, which are used to resist the longitudinal motion of rails relative
to ties.

Railways must also include special provisions to handle intersecting, merging, and
diverging track. Traffic can be interchanged between lines only by means of
diverging and merging, since trains cannot turn sharp corners. Since the vehicles
cannot be steered, the track itself must be used to guide the train to the proper
branch at a merge or divert point, and this is accomplished by means of a switch.
5.2.2 Major Track Component: Ballast
Major track components include ballast, ties and rail. Ballast consists of a layer of
crushed stone, crushed slag, gravel, or similar material which is placed on top of the
subgrade and in which the ties are embedded. Ballast is not universally used; it is
rarely used on bridges or in tunnels, for instance, and in these cases the track is
usually anchored directly to the bridge structure or the floor of the tunnel. Ballast
has a number of functions. These include:

Distributing tie loads to the subgrade

Anchoring track against lateral, vertical and longitudinal movement
Providing for drainage of water away from rails and ties
In cold climates, reducing frost heave by preventing capillary action and
providing insulation for the subgrade
Facilitating maintenance, especially maintenance of track grade and
replacement of ties
Retarding growth of vegetation in the immediate vicinity of the track
structure
Providing some resilience to help absorb dynamic loads

In order for it to perform these functions effectively, it is important that ballast

consist of some type of granular material. Ideally, it would be strong, angular,
open graded aggregate, which will provide high strength and stability through
interlocking of the particles as well as high permeability to facilitate drainage.

5.2.3 Major Track Components: Ties

Ties are used to maintain gage and to transmit wheel loads from the rails to the
ballast. In North America, wood ties are the most common variety, with some use of
pre-stressed concrete ties. Elsewhere in the world, non-wood ties are fairly common.
Tie dimensions are usually as follows: depth, 7 inches (180mm); width, 8 to 9
inches (200 to 230 mm); length, 8 to 9 ft (2.4 to 2.7 m) for ordinary track, but up to
22 ft (6.7 m) for ties used in turnouts and crossovers.

Ties must be spaced a minimum of 10 inches (255 mm) face-to-face to allow

tamping of ballast under them; this means that for 8-in (200 mm) ties a center-tocenter spacing of 18 in (455 mm) is the minimum possible.
5.2.4 Major Track Components: Rails
Rails support and provide guidance for the flanged wheels on rail vehicles and
transmit wheel load to the ties. As previously stated, rails are designated in terms of
the shape of their cross sections (with certain standard designs available) and by
their weight per unit length, usually quoted in pounds/yard. Rail weights in common
use range from approximately 85 lb/yd (42kg/m) to 150 lb/yd (75 kg/m), with
weights of 110 lb/yd (55 kg/m) or greater recommended for lines used by 100-ton
cars.
Rails like ties, rarely fail because of excessive bending stress, but are subject
to a variety of types of wear and to failures from metallurgical defects. Most cases
in which rails actually break are attributable to defects, with transverse cracking
being perhaps the most dangerous type of defect.
5.2.5 Track Maintenance
Common maintenance tasks include restoration of horizontal and vertical
alignment, replacement of worn or defective ties or rails, and cleaning or restoration
of ballast. When possible, these are combined into a single operation, often referred
to as track resurfacing. This operation consists of jacking rails up to the desired
elevation, removing and cleaning dirty ballast, and replacing defective ties and rails.