خديعة التطور

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ARAPCA EVRIM (001-008) pdf
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jN
QdG
QdG jd dG QfG
LdjjCG JNh
dJ
j hQg
LJ
GQjH S
LGe
Y NQhG
S R MCG .O
MUC IZELER ZINCIRI ARAP2 pdf
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dD G M
J fCG CG H ,1956 Y IfCG j hQg QG SG j dG JdG dh
QGUEH GC H fdG h ,SG eL S Qe eL GOBG SQO ,IfCG fdGh FGHG
ITG Jbd VJh jhQGdG MJ dG JHH Qe Jc j hQg . jdGh SdG c
.IeG jedG LdjjEG e
Ibe icP ''j''h ''hQg'' SG e ,QG hCG dG SG j
ec dG Y dG G j H ,OEGh dG HQM jnsdG sd
CG EG dG G j .G Gg dG g j dG G JQ
N g Sh Y dG U kG f CGh ,jhdG dG NBG g dG BGdG
jOEG SCG f ag JdG Vh dGh BGdG AV h .dG
c d d ,jd jOG cG Y J dG YGG c HEGh cdGh
.g aGgCG Y YEG H c H e dG G Ggjh ,INCG G
EG Y Jh ,SdG EG fBGdG dSdG f gh MGh g M dDG c L QhJ
.NBG dGh dEG OLdGh fEG YVH dGh dH
EG GfEG eh ,jeCG EG dG e AGdG e SGh jd Ic H j hQg c J
fCGh jfEGh fdG EG c H LJ bh ;fSEGh jRGdGh SdGh GdHh fhfCG
.fhfCGh ShdGh fdCGh HdGh jOQCGh dJdGh
SCa ,eDG EG jJh ,dH EG EG eDG Z IYO JFa dG g KCG d
e .QdG Y dGh jdG KCdG fe kFf j dG g H J dG Gh dG
GfCG e f C ke j CG L H gG jh dG g GC j Qb CG Y G
dG g C ,H WY e e dP a ,Y adG AGd j MCG H dh .jOG dG
dG MOo b dG OLh GH J dG LdjjEG L EG .SSCG e dG J J
.j hQg c EG Oj dGh
g f AGQh e JdG gh ;MVhh BGdG M e Ie FG g CG T
,IdG hCG dG dh ,dG EG Ud dG jdG Y j jdG dhCG eN g dG
.g c f AGQh e Oe g Lj fCG Y IhY
Hbh YCG J dG ,dG g IAGb Y jNBG j jdG Ea ,FG g AV Yh
.H QJ eN ej ,d jOdG jW EG gTJh
Va EG fEG OJh QdG gP jdG e kYf J dG dG bJ j ,iNCG L e
VGdG a dG g eCG ,Gh bd e ,SdG b e dG MGREG KDJ h ,LdjjEG
edG dG e cCG Jd HOCG IdG Y cJ fc d QdG Y dG KCG Gg d J fCG
dG g g j hQg d MdG dG CG ij CG dH j eh ,dEG j dG
MUC IZELER ZINCIRI ARAP2 pdf
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.ffEG dG jJh
EG d Gg ej eSEG dG j dG YGdGh dG dG CG EG IQTEG e H
e EG IOdH EG j d Ggh ,IadG LdjjEG f LdGh G dG jO Y OHG f
d dG dN d VY dG fBGdG FGdGh dG EG LdGh ,G gG J Y dGh EG
FGOCG e H LGh g ,QedGh OdG jhg f H J dGh jOG dG dM EG dHh .kGQSO d
.SG bdG f b ...EGh
g S dG Hh ,FdG QhdG Gg JY Y NCG b j hQg Y EG :b GPEG df
BGdG H Yh dG IOdGh dGh dG dN e jdG dG T S dG SdG dG
.dG
Y jhQGdG JL dG QGdG ,fSGh jOdG ,jG SG dG :JdG YCG J
G dG ,gQEG aj SEG ,TdG :jhQGd jedG LdjjEG ,TeCG Y YdG ,dG
S ,3-2-1 YVG ,BGdG n b ,ScddG OGM AGQh ,gQEG OGM AGQh ,SdG
hC ,IFdG CG , ,QdG jPcCG ,QdG YN ,dG EG j dG ,2-1 FM fehdG :dG
dG ,Sj dG ,Se dG ,jQdG Y bO HLEG ,kGDS jY QdG jf QfG ,dCG
dG ,dG jW BGdG ,dG Gg IM M ,e c dG ,GdCG dG RYEG ,gdG
,dG N , ,ka CGH b jedG ,GG Y dG e FGQ Ph dG H ,dG
Ie ,dG IG ,YG RG Ie ,G IG ,IQdG Ie ,QdG Mh OG ,gJ
UCG ,dG IG ,dG f IG ,VdG IG ,dG IG ,JdG G
cdG AGG IG ,dG oj dH ,GG e S ,G QdG ,Id G
. DNA QGSCG ,JhdG IG ,FdG
FbUCG Y ,GhdG Y ,GG Y ,!jhQGO c WCG jCG :WCd JdG ch
.SOdG :IG G IH ,JEH N j dG ,dG ,QdG
npdG ,BGdG SSCG gG :fBGb YVe hJ dG iNCG JdG YCG Jh
dG ,G :eDd G ihCG ,gG g ,3-2-1 Ed jS a ,BGdG bNCG
,dG ASCG ,aG QGSCG ,BGdG aG T ,dG S IdG ,BGdG Y ,BGdG fMhdG
,SdG ce ,QdG H ,BGdG e HLEG ,BGdG SSCG gG ,BGdG dOGh dSdG J
,BGdG YdG gCG ,BGdG IdG ,dG J ,gG jO ,KdG ,dG :oG fEG hY
,BGdG dG gCG ,gG fEG T ,G BGdG MCG ,kGHCG J ,dG j
N ,eDG MQ ,SQ J ,J CG b ,eG EG ,gGdG dG M ,BGdG e eY Qe
SQe ,3-2-1 dG dL e Y ,BGdG IG G ,mGB Y dG ,dG SHc ,dG
j c ,f J GP ,dG c JG gCG ,jQdG Y SEG d VJ dG GAGaG ,Sj
j jdG dhCG ,BGdG dGh dG ,e c j dG ,BGdG QGSCG H ,BGdG dG
.BGdG EG
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GdG AGdG GE
g QdG jf gh MH - iNCG c e Z h dG Gg - egG AGQh edG dG EG
a G J dG jhQGda.jd gG dG IYdGh SSCG J jdG g CG
jdG g a c Gd .eY 140 e SdG e dG OG AGQh dGh YdG fc dG dH
Uh QhdG e ch .fG JLGh gCG e Jh jN iS d fCG Y gdGh gJh
e MGh c IAGb iS H j CG G e c h .f ShCG Y fgL EG dG Gg
.c e c c VG Gg M ILe UN J SG e jGQ ,c
dDG c L IOLG fG VGG EG. dG i j MjEG Of dG NBG AdG

L dGh jG g a EG L SdG YJ dG gh .fBGdG jG AV Veh Mhe
.QdG gP OOJ hCG T G g J H dG jBH G VGG L T d .dJ
GQU G b e dG g a j dG g dG e G UdGh dGh dG SCG EG
Mh .JAGb G b cJ CG J c dG g L dG gh ,HU CG hOh dH GQch
.H gKCJ QfG j h ,dG g IQcG FH hKCj jd VQe be GhJG jdG
H JAGb j a ,OGfG Y dDd iNCG dGh dG Gg IAGb AGdG j ch

JNh jGQ Oa c fh YL H dG g IAGb EG .dM edGh H a be hCG ,YL
.GL e eCG jNBG EG
H gfh -JVh J dG Ld EG dDJ dG -dG g jJ gG Ea Gg Y IhY

c Gd ,eh GL jb dG g dDG gOQj dG gGdGh dOCG C .Ic fEG eN J SdG
.e IOSGh JAGd jNBG jJ jdG Gg eN jj e c Y
GC j dG QdG C ,dG Gg N dDd iNCG dG jJh GQOG AGQh e SCG g

f GGh UGG IjY iNCG c OLh gS -j CG ef dG - dG Gg
e IOSG j dG dG e Z QOeh IK He OLH Y Y jh ,dG Gg IOLG
.SdGh fEG VGG
MhT iJ h ,dDd T Yb e iNCG dG H GJ e dG g iJ d

PJG LGdG bdGh OCG SCG Qb hCG f CG h ,ge QOe EG Ie MjEGh
.dGh SCdG EG hCG OOdGh IG EG QdG j e h ,SG VGGh gG
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jG
jG
8
.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0 gQEd UG G jOG dGh jhQGdG:Ne
?QdG jf GP:ee
23 .0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0 dG QaCGh MCG e Qf d :hCG dG
29 .0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0 QdG jf Y jQJ If :fdG dG
38 .0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0 Qd e
s dBG :ddG dG
45 .0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0 QdG jf Mj GdG S :HGdG dG
51 .0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0 HdG dEG AdG e fEG jM:edG dG
55 .0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0 jdGh QdG UCG :SOdG dG
67 .0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0 Gd YOdG jhCdG :HdG dG
70 .0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0 jQdG jJ :edG dG
75 .0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0 fEG QJ jQS :SdG dG
104 .0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0 QdG jd jdG RCdG :TdG dG
140 .0.0.0.0 QdG jf J jQGdG ejdG fGb :Y OdG dG
148 .0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0 aOH dG J dSEG :Y fdG dG
155 .0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0 FdG eCG QdG YGe aJ :Y ddG dG
168 .0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0 jOdEG jOe IQhV: QdG jf :Y HGdG dG
176 .0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0 QdG jd N Je YEG:Y edG dG
180 .0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0 YN QdG :dG:Y SOdG dG
184 .0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0 dG M :Y HdG dG
203 .0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0 IOG AGQh c G dG
q
238 .0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0 QdG Mh edG f
249 .0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0 QdG jf jH G Yd fCG
20
.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0
01
ARAPCA EVRIM (009-020).
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Ne
jOG dGh jhQGdG

gQ
E d UG G
,QdG jf bG e hCG g Charles Darwin jhQGO dQJ CG dG e j
jhQGO CG a ,dP eh .Y Qh Meh dOCG EG JJ jdG g CGh
jJ Y J fCG dP .Y S CG Y J jCG jdG Ea ,jdG SDe d
,Y acG CG YJ jdG CG e ZdG Yh .dG jOG d dG
.jOG dG SH YCG GjCJ J fEa
QfG EG aVEH fCG dP .T QGc hM dG Gg J bh
.''?fEG g e'' :GDS Y HLEG J a ,YJ dG jOG dGh jhQGdG
Od ah Gj CG Y jh dG N g dG'' :j Gfc jdG da
OLdG M EG JCG b fEG'' CG BG hj GhCGH ''gjEG Y dG G bNCG
gH K g .''AdG LCG e GdG H QJ GM Y IQY fCGh ,adG
,jdG e - dG LdjjCG CG dP .IG YG g He aO j
SG b - GdG Y J gZ Ic g Y gGeh ,YdGh ,TdGh
.YG g e IdG L
,gQEH U Jh dH jhQGO CG dG KQdG g dG g QJh
.Gg fY dG G gCG iMEG jo dG
''Gf IG'' :jhQGdG Hhc

C G
G FdG QJ j'' :g SSCG e ee e jf jhQGO fG d
dH dG Y jo M ,GdG dG Rjh .AdG LCG e GdG Y
.''dGh
jh .dG HCG Gfh AdG LCG e mb GU Lj ,jhQGd ahh
Gg jCGQ jhQGO s V bh .QdG hM EG ODj e Ggh ,dG Y FGO dG
hCG dG AfG SGH GfCG UCG'' ,GfCG UCG Hc Y WCG dG YdG GdG
8
01
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gQEd UG G jOG dGh jhQGdG

The Origin of Species, "The''
IG LCG e GdG G LCG Y G
Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection or the Preservation of Favoured Races

in the Struggle for Life".
Y jCG j ''AdG LCG e GdG'' CG jhQGO YR a ,dP Y IhYh

.GdG ''HgG LCG'' fG ,G YdG Gd ahh .jdG LCG
LCG eCG ;dG HhQhCG ,jhQGO CGQ ,J HgG LCG fch
jhQGO iO bh .AdG LCG e GdG AKCG cdG Y J a jSBG hCG jaEG
,cCH ''AdG LCG e GdG'' S e YS LCG g CG EG CGh FGQBG
.#S dHh
LCG CG GcDe j Oj ,hdG IH d ,G e Ia ''
AfCG c Gh dG LCG SG e S dG e IG
Sh .T H UDSG b fEH dG IOdG S ,bdG f h .dG
EG g j dG h ,YJG cCG dEG FdG bCGh fEG H UdG IdG
CWhCG g dG HdG GfCG e IOb K ...HhQhCG GYCG e M f cCG GYCG
(1)''UCG dGSG S eh fdG e
jf eb c Lalita Vidyarthi KQja d jdG LdHhfCG Y Jh

:YLG dG Y jdG #H jhQGd QdG
AY b e GQM MJ UCd AdH UG (jhQGO jf) jf b d''
e Ye je GM b dG CG GhYG jdG ,dG dP YLG dG
dG e dG dG Hh .HCG LdG IQM LhCG EG Uh QdG
(2).dG AY e dG ZCG id de M jdG UCG ,Y SdG
IdH UG de jf :jhQGO dGE Qe

eJ jdG ObG c VG Gg jhQGO dEG Qe d
An Essay on the
dG GC e M e :GY j dG Thomas Malthus de
GhOGR b - fCTh GcoJ PEG - dG S CG de Qs b M Principle of Population.

QGdG g dG OY Y S dG SSCG GKDG CG iCGQ bh .jS IOjR
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QdG jN
CG H c ,MdG YdG Gd ahh ,QNHh .#GeCGh ,YGh ,hG e
.''FGdG G'' j AdG UCGh .NBG dG j c dG H
e dG dG e jCGh .SGh b de AGQBG b ,Y SdG dG h
jdG dG ILCG'' de h .SdG QaCG g ,"G Lh Y ,HhQhCG
de AGQB Y SdG dG HhQhCG YCG dG gCd dG UdG OQh ,''jRd
:dG M
L e cG dG AYCG LG ,Y SdG dG e hCG dG
,de QaCG d S OjEh ,jM G ''fdG G'' b ,HhQhCG AfCG
f CG j ,adH AGdG UJ e H'' :AGdG H adG e IOjH dPh
dG e Gje fh ,fGH QGdG f CG Y j ,Gd .bG GOdG Y
,IcGdG dG b fGb f CG j ,jdG h .YdG IOY Y fh ,RG
(3).dGhO Ggh '',dG Z G SG "G Lh Y fh
jdG dhCG eh AdG e dG j S ,SdG SdG d fh

.dG OY jdG IOjdG RGJ S G h ,AdG LCG e GdG hj
dPh ,Y SdG dG N fjH a J ''AGdG OVG'' SS J bh
S dG Y SdGh edG S WCG QLEG L YU f Vh H
dG hd f e BG e EG iOCG ,dG L dG YS
je Y ,jf de H dW dG ,''AdG LCG e GdG'' #a d .gdG
.IfH e IM Gj CG fjdG
iCGQh ,cCH dG Y g GdG Ia jhQGO W ,QaCG H KCd Gfh
s j e CG YOG ,dP Y ah .J AdG M e Ge j UCGh dG CG
f EG dG YO ,iNCG Mf eh .HdGh IQG dG fGb MCG c AdG GU
dG bNCG dG L SG a K eh ,G QfEG N e jdG JGe
.''AdG LCG e GdG'' Ib eCG FY J CG
dG FGdG QaCG g Qf f gH K jdG dG jdG aO d
.MdGh IdG EG OGaCG aO
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TdG :''dG fb'' dGE aGC e

LdjC SSCG T a ,Y SdG dG jdG jhQGdG Z e
.jRdG :gh jdG dG AedG e H dG bZCGh QJ
d QGdG EG PEG .jRdG LdjjCG jb jhQGO GKCJ Mf CG h
,Adolf Hitler and Alfred Rosenberg fRhQ jdCGh g dhOCG T dG ,jdG
H AdG LCG e GdG''h ,''QG hGdG''h ,''dG AfG'' e GQaCG Oj S
WCG eYh .GfCG UCG c GG GY QJ dG QaCG gh ,''LCG
e jhQGdG GdG Ia e QaCG MSG ,(Mc) Mein Kampf SG Hc Y g
H GdG Y "G Lh Y bh .UCd dG GC e eh AdG LCG
:LCG
,d e H J IjL dCG jQWGeEG LhCG EG jQdG j S
(4).''JGP dG QJ LCd jL J EG Jh
G'' CG g YCG ,1933 Y Nuremberg epQf TG LG h

MhCG G QYG h dG Gf M gh ... fOCG G d oj YCG
.''GQOEd HdG
.G Gg SG NQDG e jJ j M jhQGdH jRdG KCJ EG
:JBG dG Y g Y jhQGdG KCJ Hickman g QDG j PEG
YCG dG Y fc jCGh .H Geh QdH SGQ eDe (g) c d
Mein
,Hc ... (C d dH e fc GdG Ia) CG cDG e Ea ,"YCGh
Y cDJ dG J UNh ,jQdG QaCG e GOY VH j ,(Mc) Kampf

(5).aCG fE AdG IOHEGh ,UCd AdGh ,GdG
e e d j Y EG dG L ,QaCG H X dG ,g J d
gQ Ib EG ,OdG UNh ,SdGh bdG YG e jdG VJ a .b
,fdG dG d K JM T e 55 aOh .jRdG YG Ge
dG g ''AdG LCG e GdH'' FdG jhQGdG IdG EG .RdG hdH CGH dG
.dG jQJ ISCe cCG Y
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QdG jN
YdGh jhQGdG :eGdG ddG

YdG j ,YLG jhQGdG e CG G TdG j M
.jhQGO jf Y aGG TCG H e YdG c dh .jCG G
a .''gG'' jg rnSDe EG YdGh jhQGdG H bdG g jQJ Ojh
O jhQGd GfCG UCG c ,YdG uSD e ,Engels EGh
Marx
cQe CGb
L dG SGG VhCG bh .JG dG ''G OG'' SCH GfGh ,QhU

Yd SCG Y '' jhQGO jf CG Y CGdG bJG EGh cQe H
c dG ,The Dialectics of Nature d G G Hc h .''dG jQdG
dG jdG eSEG j CG hMh ,jhQGO Y G EG ZCG ,jhQGO KCJ
The Part'
''fEG EG OdG e dG dG d dG QhdG'' :GY j dG

Played by Labour in the Transition from Ape to Man'.
eCG e ,EGh cQe N Y GhQS dG hdG YdG JG bh

e CGdG ,Stalin dSh ,Tretsky JhJh ,Lenin dh ,Plekhanov fH
cQG j ,ShdG YdG SDe j dG ,fH ch .jhQGd QdG jf
(6).''YLG dG jhQGd J''
IOG G d f YCG jhQGO cG j'' :JhJ bh

(7).''cCH jdG
S a .YdG QOGdG J FQ GQhO ''jhQGdG dG'' d bh

c H Ge UCG dh ,HT je c dS CG M NQDG M ,G
(8).jhQGO
je bh dG YdG G SCG bCG dG ,Mao h dH eCG

jfh jhQGO a Y J dG cGTG'' CG MGU YCG a ,"TCG
(9).''QdG
James Reeve Pusey SH jQ L Yj OQaQg eL QDe #N bh

dG OcCG Hc dPh ,dG YdGh he Y jhQGdG KCJ M cCG UJ
(10)China and Charles Darwin. jhQGO dQJh dG GY j
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YJ PEG .YdGh AJQGh AdG jf H J HGQ g ,QNHh
Gdh .OEd eYe Y GS Jh ,aOG f g G FdG CG jdG
Y IhYh .jhQGdG Hh ,jOEG LdjCc ,YdG H e HGQ LJ ,dG
IQY h) GdG H dG QdG CG AJQGh AdG jf YJ ,dP
cQCG e SSCG cQ dG ''G G'' Ia jDJh (''AdG LCG e GdG'' iNCG
.YdG dG
GW T e 120 f b dG - ''G Gd'' YdG G fYG GPEGh
CG dG KQdG M aCG H f CG M ,''d dBG'' - jdG dG
.cH jhQGdG
gQ
E Gh jhQGdG
T dG dG LdjjCG e jd SSCG jhQGdG J ,BG M jCGQ c
EG aVEH ,jhQGdG OM a ,dP eh .jdG dG dG d QGc
IG AGQBG e jY KDj CG ''e''h ''N a'' ,LdjjCG g
Gd jdG dhCG HQ'' jQcG Gh dG AGQh SSCG IdG Jh .dG
.''e
ah ,AGQBGh ,Ge g :ddG jdH S e f CG h
dG H EG Ghj CG dGh AGQBGh GG g h .dG Gg
:jW iMEH
GQGM Gj CG Gdhjh ,e hj jdG jNBG OLh Gej CG
.H e e GSH ,e
N e fC Ie GueD j CG Gdhjh ,jNBG HQ GhQj CG
.GG e Gaj CG ,iNCG IQY h ,geJ
.fdG jdG Y J EG g e gQEG Y f dG YdG EG
UH fEG'' Ia CG Qf CG ,G jg H NG Qf eYh
eh ."N H IKDe e Yh hO dG Y jhQGdG Va dG ''HQ fGM
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QdG jN
jhQGdG Y S b GdG jW QJ dG YGh OGaCG j CG G
SSCG j CGQ e eCG jf J dh .WEG Y LdjCG g Oeh
Gg H OYG EG YG Jh OGaCG ADg aj e EG .jhQGdG EG dG
dG''h ,''ibCd AdG ,dG Gg '' :e jhQGdG Y FdG GQdG g CGdG
SG .''G H j fEG''h ,''Ib G''h ,''dG dG J IdG
.ZQa GQT g jd S e ch ,`jhQGdG
fjdG CG dP .''Gd'' a jCG J d ,jhQGdG fSG GPEG ,bGdG h
jOdGh ,Gh ,SEG ,dG dG e H eDj dG dG jhdG
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QdG jN
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dG JM GS aCG jJ "TCG e BG GY e dP SG
SGQOh) G SGQd cGG OG g c f bh ...GG NGO G
fch .!G dG :J IOM ,VGh ,dY NU (jG iG Y IG
YCG V s J CG #G e c H gCGh VdG e dG g
JQG Y j jZ U MCG -dP e kH- dh .dG jQJ GREG
?pgG cG Gg b EG dG G j GP dh .d QdG dH
Ia b CG g WQdG J ?ja GRH G dG e J j GP
.(3) dG OLH dG EG kM ODj ,G cdG dG
QdG Ad SDG VdG S e jh
Y ggJh G gGJ jdG jG
.c FQb e J b jdGh ,jdG TT
AdG ADg H b dG dG dG L CG dP
GUCG AdG ADg CG nH ,kdN g CG d gJ
dG G OG dG H MEG eh kYo
.gQfEG Y hj L LQd HJ
FdG QGSH oj jdG "TCG jh
"TCG EG dG OLh Y VGdG gGdGh
.QdG jf H e ,chO OQjQ
dG Sf fh .ke MEG e
iMEG jCJ EG eCG H j a ,SMEG J H G Y G dH
OQjQ dG QdG Y dP Y eCG aCG eh .M fCG Y adG
d M Ie GhgT b fCH SH GYj CG dG e j dG chGO
b dG GQP GQdG c CG OJ Q :jCGQ a ;H d u j k GhgT
!(4) dh ,dH V MG fEG ...MGh BG G f c
:JCj c dG BGdG Uho bh ,jQdG e Y adG f Lho d
G ofnc en ko ob mA
r nT
s oc r pr nYn nfr
n M
n hn nJr n rdG o o n snchn nnpFn rdG o pr ndGpE n rds nf sfGnC r ndhn }
.(111 fCG IQS) |.n onrnj rognnrcGnC spndhn osdG nAnnj rGnC GpE G operD opd
26
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G QaCGh MCG e Qf d
UCG jW d QdG Ad G dG Ea ,jBG g VJ ch
e QdG Y H Oj dG QaCG J ,bGdG h .d Iu jW M h ,dG
cCG Y e Y G L O g EG ,AT jG dG dG
.FGH KdG G
:iNCG fBGb jBG dG GP jJ bh
r Hn nfQo nHr GnC

r n uS
o n sfGpE G od nnd .nL
o o r jn ppa Gtn na pAn
s dG
r pe kH Hn r pr nYn n
r n na r ndhn }
.(15-14 G IQS) |.hoQ orne lr nb ornf
QdG jd YG dG
FM jDhQ e dG dG SCG MCG Ea ,YCG H nG jBG J c
SCG oY dG Gg jh .gJ bYEH j dG e f j gOLh
G dG g dH fh .QdG jd dG SGh dG dG Y j dG
LQd QdG jf U M e J d dG NEG j PEG ;dG jW Y
.a OLG jdG M cQj
p jh
CGj eCG jf h .dG nen ujo dG Y kS kGKCG dG Gg L
.gjEG J c H g c d FG QJ G d j dG ,dG
ke kJ "TCG MCG J GPEG :ka .iNCG eCG IgdG g bGe h
G dG L H fEa ,IQS Y IQY g Y j dG jdG CG J h
ka gGj fC kGL fYh e dCG g CG j fCG c ,IQS jdG CG Qj
cDJ dG) eCG g e Jh .GU Y fCG T fOCG jd dh jdG H
e d M OY jW Y JKEG Y FM (Jbh dG dBG da Y
Y ch dG d edG OGdG dGh ,dG HOCG bJ dG QdG
.dG
GSH edG Y #oJ Y J dG jOG dG IdGh QdG jf EG
jf d e H Vj jdG) "TCG Y Qj PEG ;g dG dSCG
d db CG GcQj CG (dG HGh OcCG LGGh YEG FSh QdG
ICWh kjCG AdG jh .d SSCG OG HCG e -bGdG - #Qj jdG
27
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QdG jN
J OGOj dG e S JJ dG HdG ASCG CG dP .dG e dG GP
GH QdG AY e jY aG Hh .bdG Qhe e cCa cCG jOG dG Id
dG fdG Z QdG GAYO Y cCJ Y j AdG ADg j ,dG
e dG dOCG L MO dGh ,Y SdG dG gQX e edG Y Y
.jW Ia
.jOG QaCG Gjh QdH GeDj CG Y AdG kjCG aVEG dBG gh
hCG ,bdG d j M jG H j CG dG Y j ,HdG GdG a
jdG dG JCjh .dG G Je f hCG ,OcCG GYG Y G
c Ab M EG AdG ADg aH dG Gg jh .jG g CGQ Y QdG jd
.e OYG LCG e dG eh JM
jf :CH FdG cCd kSSCG J GJ dG d kG VdG Gg jh
b QdG jf AHEG dG Ea ,K eh .dG fO kb J dGR e QdG
e b b iS Lj h .kLdjjCG keGdG fd H dG b EG Lj IG
CG Y J jdG g CG EG IQTEH aRG G H oG AdG
!dG e M SCG
QfG EG OCG dG jG dG FdG #S ,dG Gg a H h
CH QdG Sh .dG OLh Y VGdG dOCG #S c QdG jH OYG
dh gj IN c dG e bJ YN ;YN -bGdG - g QdG jf
dG e j CG g QdG e Lf eh .G M Y QdG GSEG H joCG
jhS a jH a jo CGh ,dG Y JQb jh dG Y j dG
.dG Gg
CG hOh ,jMh ,VH jh dG Gg e f j CG QdG SG GPEGh
,G G g Jh .dG Vh VGdG G S e Ya ,
H adG jW Y LJ IG CG ,fGL c kjCG jG dG KCG dG
c eCj eY dH G M ij CG Ad h .G d f AL
.NBG M Fc c OLG dG hCG ,Ae Ib e N
28
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dG dG
jf Y jQJ If
QdG
ke kGOYG UH dPh ;dG QdG EG QdG Y FdG dG QhL LJ
Ia Y dG fdG KdG SdG e aGO a .G dG hj
OdG J AJQGh AdG Ia CG ,dG jQJ Y If f eYh .QdG
.KdG dG e d dG
kG kGQhO d dG g ,dG KdG dG g ,dH EG Ea dP eh
O OjQ kGce GMG jdG "TCG dZ dG OLH eBG a .QJh jG dG Oe
dG N dG dG cG EG GS ,dG SQj Gfc Hh ;jG dG kj
hOQfd eCG e) dG AY ep gh .N UJh eGd QJ Vh H
Y FGQh ,ac dG GG Y FGQh ,JCdZh ,ch ,fHch ,aGO
Y Y Y YCG UH dEG Qj dG Jf SEGh ,hd GGh dG
c dG CH jCG dh dG OLH a d eDe gh dG SGQH Geb ne #QCG
YCG j dG- kjCG jjBG dCG c c.(5)d Jh fS f Lho
CG SCG :JBG dG MU gh ,dH eDG AdG V e -fY IbY
:JBG IQdG N e VdG Gg Y dG h .Y EG hO kM kdp Y QJCG
.(6)YCG Y jO H dG
Y j fEG ,fH ce CG FjdG ,jG AjdG SDe MCG b bh
,EH
s
n nJ :dG e H Y HG JBG IQdG CGj CG jH dG Qj e c
.(7) pdd IG SSCG dG e Ea
dG AMEG Y dG Y X dG jOG d kLf QdG jf Jh
O OG Ea ,b e fTCG ch .Y SdG dG SGh f Y fGh dG jOG
M -jGdG e- J fCG h .dG jOG eGdG N e dG d J j
d f d X b ,kGOL hCG kM kFc c AGS ,AT c CG Y cDJ fEa ,G
29
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QdG jN
ce dG dG dh .kef kHW dP H cG dG adG jW Y H G
HC dG ,jOG dG RaCG bh .kef iCGQ c e IOGQEG OLh j CG Y
dG SGhCG (AJQGh AdG hCG) QdG jf ,dG dG SSCG dG
.Y SdG
phQr GO N
W pdY g dG Y AdG H aGj dG dG Y QdG jf b en EG
.rphrQGO HhQ dQJ Yj mhg fEG
dG V gG dh ,AMCG Y SQ J CG hQGO
s j h
Y aSG MQ EG fG Y gG Gg Mh ,IGdG gG G FdGh
HLh 1832 Y GfEG e HCG (H.. M. S. Beagle) H EG .EG .JEG J S e
GfCG kGc kGQfG hQGO dG fGh .GS N I dG e We
ZHZ QL ggT dG (SG) adG e e H UNh ,AMCG
.We e J EG inoj adG be dG CG hQGO YGh ,(Galapagos)
e dG Ia j GfCGh IG UCG CG #aG ,Y IdG g OLHh
fEG H ,e H AMCG GfCG j dG Ea ,hQGd ahh .dG
.dG hd f dG H Y NGh e S e QfG
Qhe e- ds M dh ;Y H hCG cG CG Y hQGO Va J h
e J dG dGh YdG N e ,J gCH M jf EG -bdG
e J dG OGaCG CG jdG Ia Jh .Y jOG AMCG AY TCG
dG g cGJ bh ,JBG LCG EG JU f aCG dG Y We
UCG j h) .aSCG Y kec kaNG j f EG OdG dMh bdG e IG
Qe f cCG fEG ,hQGd ahh .(bdG dP kahe IG dG g
.dBG d
UCG cG fCG Xh .dG AfH QdG :SG dG g Y hQGO WCGh
UCG GY j dG Hc AGQBG g fh .NBG f g e f UCG CG CG ; GfCG
30
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QdG jf Y jQJ If
1859. Y dG AfG SGH GfCG
H YG bh ,Ic e e J jf CG kGL Qj c hQGO dh

HdG g CGQ Y JCjh .jdG HU GH a Hc G
e) adG jW Y
s j CG dG AMCG AYCG Jh ,GG S
SGH HdG g Y dG eCj hQGO ch .AMCG FGZh (dG
kGHCG FG Z GdG e OY J Y bj dP dh ;IjG acG
:dH hQGO HU Y d jeCG FjdG Y bh .HdG g d
dG c K bCG c f hQGO CG GfCG UCG c CGb eY
-ke- jdG HU GY j dG dG Vj PEG ;MCG ZCG fhQq j
JJ "N H JQKCG a ,kqFja UHh .dH dG Y e H j kGQb
.(8) dG QX c M
eDG HdG AMCG AY e jH fG ,jf j hQGO c eYh
f a ,Qe CGQ Mh .(9) Qe fdG AMCG Y NCG Yh ,QdH
QJ IQdG Hh ,L EG L e JM AKCG cG dG dG G FdG
Y MdG dH T fGM e aGQdG QJ :G S a .FdG g
L EG L e ka kT bYCG dWEG jW
YCG ZCG EG UdG h fc eY
hQGO SG JBHh ,bGQhCG cC YCa
MbG dG G dG jQJ Va
.QJ AMCG L dG edG UH Qe
,k c hQGOh Qe e vc dh
IG SGQO IdG J k j fCG dP
Z ih kGL FGH LdJ SGH EG
Y e Y g J h .kGHCG Fe
SG j H ,jG AdG Yh KGQdG
jf J CG H c nK eh ;kGOLe M
. Ib Y kec kGOYG
31
jhQGO dQJ
02
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Page 32
jhQGO jY
M fhQGdG J a ,IG
EG dh YLG dG
.YLG fhQGdH j NBG e
CH YLG fhQGdG YJh
bGe IOLG jdG LCG
H ,QdG dG LQO e
keJ LQdG cCG HQhCG G MG
LCG e jdG CGh ,WEG Y
.IOdG ee j GR e iNCG
1 Benjamin Farrington, What Darwin Really Said?

London: Sphere Books, 1791 pp. 54-56
2 Charles Darwin, The Descent of Man, 2nd ed., New
York: A.L. Burt Co., 1874 p. 178
hQGO T fGL gCG MCG j

;jY dG H kYT bCGh
cCG dG HQhCG j c fCG dP
.iNCG jdG LCG e keJ
e QJ fEG CG hQGO #aG Hh
H CG qN ,OdH T b
NBG dG e cCG QJ LCG
ee j GR e NCG dG Gg CGh
dG) fEG dS Hc h .IOdG
UCG GY j dG Hc H f
dG hdG Y ICGH Y (GfCG
h .(1) jG LCG e dG H
OdG H hQGO ihS dG Gg
,jQdG Hh UCG dGSCG Sh
Y AdG S ADg CG SG K
.bdG Qh IG LCG SGH
:hQGO b bh
IH d e Ia
LCG CG kGcDe j Oj ,hdG
SG e S dG e IG
c Gh dG LCG
S bdG f h .dG AfCG
H UDSG b fEH dG IOdG
(2) .T
,G Y ,hQGO QaCG dh
EGh ,a jf T VJ
aJ CG H YSG fe jCG MG
CG #GaHh .jd Y Qe gCG
LCG e f QJ G FdG
02
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QdG jf Y jQJ If
QjZ SG h f Y cG ,jhe hQGO c AGUCG fc Hh
hdG H j e acG CG e ZdG Yh 1865. S KGQdG fGb e
Y IOh T dG jdG dG FGhCG Y gCG cG fEa ,dG NGhCG M
iOCG ,G h .ehRedGh G cJ pocG ,M Ia h .KGQdG
QdG jf jEG EG (KGQdG eG Y j dG) "DNA" AL cJ cG
MbG dG QdG dBG Hh Id gG dG EG dP Ljh .Ic eRCG
.hQGO
Gg dh .jQdG He hQGO jf AdEG EG ODJ CG GQdG H kjq M ch
He EG H JQGh gjh jdG J Y e FGhO QGUE kGf j
e cCG LdjjCG kVGZCG jdG AGQh CG cQOCG GPEG EG OG g ie f dh .dG
.Y egG fc
IjG fhQGd FdG hG

e hCG HdG KGQdG fGb cG H Ic eRCG hQGO jf NO
CG hQGd Fh Y GhUCG jdG AdG e Y dhM ,dP eh .jdG dG
G f LG AdG ADg dGh .eRCG d Se M EG UJ
e) KGQdG AY -jdG - jW GQhe Hh 1941, S jeCG LdG
je fQEG eCG e) GG AYh (fgHhO ShOKh S OQjd eCG
Zh S OQjZ QL eCG e) dG GG AYh (cg dLh
JG EG UdG (jGQ Sh a dfhQ eCG e) VjdG KGQdG AYh (ppL
.fhQGdG bd SG dG M
fCG #G e dG IG GdG UCG dCe Y AdG e jdG Gg cQ bh
hM dd ,gJ f hQGO j dCe gh) G FdG QJ J b
M Qhj AdG ADg J BG GC Hh .(Qe Y kGe j CG -WHQd jG cdG jdG SG IjG jf Y GWCG bh ,FGdG GdG
EG IdG Ia aVEH jJ dG ,(The Modern Synthetic Evolution Theory) cdG
SG jdG g Y pWGoC ,b bh Qhe Hh .dG AfH UG hQGO Va
33
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QdG jN
.OG fhQGdG SG geb jdG "TCG Y pWCG c IjG fhQGdG
KEG EG eGdG FdG hd M H IdG d JBG OdG UCGh
KM dG (aOG hCG) GdG CG b e kahe ch .IjG fhQGdG U
Gej CG GdhM OG fhQGdG d ,kFGO QdG H J fc G FdG L
c dh ...GdG Y QdG BH dG N e Ie IW OLh Y kfgH
!jQdG dH AH Jh
h adG jW Y Cf b hCG G FdG CG KEG kjCG GdhM c
.kjCG QdG g nnMU dG f dh ,jdG Vd kah FGH VQCG hX
M KCGh ,adH CJ CG IG CG KEG EG J H c M dG ch
Y j CG (Id SSCG IMdG gh) MGh Jhd M fCG MG
adG jW Y X b fCG #G e dG) d dH eCG .adG jW
M cJ G Z e Ea (QdG Ad kah a dG Qj FGH VQCG hX
.jdG dG kGQJ GG cCG
oj PEG ;kjCG GG S npb e dH IjG fhQGdG jf oe bh
QdG oJ CG #G e dG dfG TCG e CG Y dG e H jCG b
jf YJ M eG GfCG EG FGdG GfCG e G Fd jQdG
fCG #j dG GfCG CG QG jdG c ,bdG f h .OG fhQGdG
Z e fCGh ke jJ H -bGdG - J H e H QJ
.dG d AN hCG kaSCG J CG kGHCG G
EG) kLdjjCG GC e fc H ,kGHCG Y jf J IjG fhQGdG dh
e ZdG Y Y aGj QdG jf QfCG X dG Gdh ;(!fjdG e kYf J
e CG :gh CG ;Y JG Gj AT g ,dP eh .d bG dOCG c
PdG g gCG MCG jh .dG PdG g QdG d MG G PdG
.G RGdG SH hG G jQdG
Gb Y QdG
QdH G OG fhQGdG jf j QdH eDj jdG AdG e EG
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hQGO eR d FGdG iG
Y dG SGQdG J h
cG H GE G
eR a .hd
E G G
gG GSHh ,hQGO
,IQdG gGf dG FGdG
Ige iS k j
.d LQG dG
J JVGaG hQGO b eY
G Y e) aG ha
(jG AdGh HhGh
CG b acG CG dh ,IOLe
CG -dH- QOC jf hQGO qj
,WEG Y Y Z fc jf
g jhdG hd c e FYh
CG dP .G Y GAYOG
IOLe LCG O dG eG
AfG Y jh G
e IjL kSLCG qdj CG dG
.G GJ hM N
dG fO e c ,Hh
Xhh G cJ Y jCG J
S a .Vf Zh kS
G gj CG hQGd UdG
b d hdEG G GSH
Z cdGh dG dG Y qWG
,d jdG jd OdG
fCG Y CH iCGQ b dh
GJ nf C nj CG G dG Gg
VjdG OLH j c dh .W
G Z e fCG QOCG b d jG
gf ,MGh JhH A M dh)
C j CG (ec N Y
.adG
02
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QdG jN
SH oj P GbG INCG OdG N a ,dP eh .jQdG AdG
hM CH fhQGdG Ia PdG Gg ajh G RGdG hCG Gb Y QdG
Ic GH b QdG CG -dP e kH- ijh ,jQJh cGJ H QdG
.beh
Y c a .dG jGH IdG g Y NdG aGG hCG Xh
fhQGdG jf YGe CG kGL cQj ,dZ Sh OQdEG jf ,q jeCG GG
CJ G FdG CG KCG GG C ,ke GG S Mj OG
GdGR eh - OG fhQGdG Yh .jJ eH ICa X H jQdG QdH
e ZdG Yh .e kej S IOG dfG TCG CH jY eCG Y - j
e j fEa ,dG e d SCG eCG Gg CG cQj fc OQdEGh dZ CG
Gg Yjh .G RGdG : g kGjL kLP eb Gd ,QdG gOYG Y dG
.Ic Fa GJ f H IU aNG f j QdG CG PdG
GG Y YR ,G S a .N P iS PdG Gg j h
iMEG H e N FW hCG CG (dZh OQdEG f Y QS dG) dhjT HQhCG
Mh !(10) G cdG KM V aOe f CG ,Fg Ic MGhdG
VJ GPEG V M EG jdG fGG H J CG G e c ,JGP jdG
AjdGh KGQdG Y fGb ke dG) GAYOG g h .eT Fa d
M QhJ dG dG dG dG dG fG f (jG AdGh jG
QdH eDG GG AY H Yf f ,dP eh !AGeCG EG OdG
dG jdG H AdG ADg
n ,OG fhQGdG o r L H c dG eRCG e
.f IjG fhQGdG e M HGZ cCG fCH J fc
S IOLG Gd J aJ PdG Gg e MdG #dG jh
e j Oj ,dP eh .gJ e OG fhQGdG P j dG GG
jW Y QdG QJ IOLG GG Ga d dh CG G Z
NBG f EG f QJ CG dP ;MGhdG iMEG H e ICa N b FdG CH AYOG
.KGQdG eG eh V J hM -fCG QdG AY GYH- j
ee dEG J hCG KGQdG eG
q CG fc kjCG IW jC ,dP eh
GdG Ea K eh .KGQdG eG OaEG EG iS ODJ GdG CG dP ;IjL
36
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QdG jf Y jQJ If
QdG jf h qj ,HQhGC h IG jdG kUN ,dG M AdG e

B G GY Lj Gg ej
.dP Y eGC H hJ gh .jdG H M dG e jdG H ejh
,c CG ,Fg JEGh VEG Z Y j d G RGdG P J dG FdG

.KGQdG eG
edG Y JQb Y H IN hCG e G QdG QfG a ,dP Y kah
eh .jGdG e OG fhQGdG P MJ dG dCG GP gh ,IG UCG dCe e
e Lj a ,adG jW Y MGh JhH M dh j CG G Z e GO
MG e b JhdG fJCjJ e fG G FdG fc GPEG e M Gd
.jQJ hCG e QJ
gdG EG QOj dG PdG g IjG fhQGdG dGR a ,dP e ZdG Yh
fhQGd se dBG -khCG- QS ,JBG dG h .dG QdG be Y
dG S dP Hh .e d GG S Y If S K IjG
QdG e iNCG QdG P ch IjG fhQGdG J dG IG UCG dCe
.GdH
LGS dG G CH QdG ucf CG G e j b ,dP f CG bh
e ke #QJ YNh dN b EG g e eH QdG jQS CG Me c
Hh ,S HQCGh e e dG G jQdG Gg oSG bh .bGdG dG
.Y adG QGSG -kGNCG- G e UCG INCG dG acG
37
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ddG dG
Qd s e dGB
CG (dG Qd IFdG jdG UH dhS dG) IjG fhQGdG P hj
.IdGh dG AfG :g W dBG N e QJ b IG CG Y gj
.ee dBG IdGh dG AfG oj :JCj a jd SSCG cCdG jh
,G Fd G cdG FGY GW EG QdG GQ UCG Ljh
QJ Ggh ,dG AfG dBG jW Y GdG Y dG dG AfG jh
.G FdG
dBG jCG b Lj fCG f ,bdG SGQdG e je EG jdG g NEHh
AYOG YJ Qb CH J GdG h dG AfG fC ,dG Gg e QJ
.iNCG GfCG EG dh QJ b G GfCG CH FdG
dG AfG
Ad dH kadCe kGeCG -dG dG MCG UH- dG AfG c
dh .gOaEG hO GfCG K Y a dBG fCG Y aqY jdG ,hQGO b AMCG
Y cCH jf bCG bh ,jjJ Ib d dG g CH j T hCG c hQGO
SCG j dG AfG CG EG Hc Y WCG dG SG jh .G Gg SCG
.dG AfG SGH GfCG UCG :Y WCG PEG ,hQGO jf
g dG AfG CG Y ,dG M hQGO Y e ,sj dO fOCG CG Z
e GG AY c ,SJH dc cDjh .G FdG QJ dG
kGMCG CG Y ,(kjCG QdG IYO TCG MCG -SH- gh) GfEH dG jQdG
:QdG J Ib dG Afd CG kGHCG Mj
Qhjh e MCG j H ,dG AfG dBG SGH kYf MCG CG pj
(11) .dCG g M IjG fhQGdG QWEG G GG e
WG dG hdG e kJ cCG AMCG OJ CH dG AfG jh

38
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Qd s e dBG
,ka .dG Y IQOdG Z J J H ,AdG d j dG jQdG EH
cdG J dG dG CG kW j ,jdG fGG OJ dG dG b
d fEa dG g SG e dh ,U Gg .AdG d S dG g SCG
.kFGO kGZ GdG a ; AMCG e NBG f EG dG q
ShQe eCG UH QdG IYO bj dG dG OGG Y If AdEG Yh
.Gd H dh O e cCG d fCG if ,dG Afd
YdG UG
dG Gg jh ,QdG LdH GH kHc Ja ZhO f 1986 S
TCG ch .dG AfG SGH QdG jf jT VH J dG QOG MCG
kb kfd J fCG GH dG TGdG e f d M Qhj VG Gg bS e
.GfEG YdG IQdG N
M QTCG A d c GfEH YdG IQdG jGH a ,dG jGhd kahh
iJ dG QdG Y dG e c ,dG Gdh .c M EG ka fe e
,QTCG J Y dG edG dG GP TGdG Me TGdG g Y
N Qhe H dh .Ad b Ua iS TGdG Gg eCG kMe j JBHh
g- dG a TGdG QUh ,dG f keZ QTCG A d UCG S
dG a TGdG OY bJ ,dd fh .d VY TGdG GfCG cCG -IG
.dH INCG Me G e j fC dG eZ TGdG OY OGORG H
j ,iNCG Mf eh .jf Y kY kdO QYH G Gg QdG IYO jh
Qq J b dG a TGdG CG jEG jW Y FG j AGY QdG IYO
.dG eZ TGa EG
dc GMCG e M CH bG Gg GSG fCG kGL VGdG e dh
CG PEG .b e kGOLe j jL f Y j dG AfG C ;QdG jf Y
J h ,YdG IQdG b TGdG YL IOLe fc dG eZ TGdG
TGdG J ,PEG .YG IOLG TGdG GfC dG OGYCG iS
e NBG f EG TGdG J dh .jL f QX Y j b kGjL kGY hCG UN
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GfGC jGC oJ dG
C ;QdG Y kdO -cC dH- YdG UG e j
.ka IOLG Gf
C G H iS j AfG GC dP ,dG TGdG e IjL
,iNCG IQHh .G Y IjL aVEG AGLEG e H c ,ke FW EG ,AMCG

jG "GG Y ee j ke e L efH e H c
.Fd
Fc EG jL Y aVEG Y IQdG dG AfG :S e UNh
gj dG IQdG Y Y) NBG f EG M Fc f J hCG ,e dGREG hCG M
e Gg ej EG hQGO eR e J dO YCG j h .(gdG EG QdG IYO
.GfEG YdG IQdG TGd YdG UG e HCG G
?AY
C G J J dG AfG j g
CG dBG d kGHCG fC ,QdG jf AT CH dG AfG j
; NBG f EG GfCG MCG CG c , hCG GfCd KGQdG eG jJ
dG h ,V EG dG h ,S EG dG CG -ke- gQh a
,G QdG Ia Y aGe cCG ,dZ b bh .FW EG dG h , EG
:kFb dG AfG LGj dG OhG jdG Gg EG IQTEH
d YGHEG IdG g dG AfG :IMGh IQY fhQGdG gL j
e dG kS kGQhO S dG AfG CG j MCG h .QdG Y FdG
IQOb UY N kjCG J fhQGdG jdG dh ,dG Y IQOdG Z UdG
(12).dG Y
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Qd s e dBG
AfG dC YbE QdG IYO j dG iNCG G dSCG eh
dG AfG CG Z .YdH j u e fCG Y dBG g QXEG o dh dG
Gdh .gj eh G FdG j e QJ CG IOGQEG fC ;Yh CG jd d
e QH J dG G AYCGh LddG dG j CG dG AfG j
gh ,AGLCG e c OY hJ f AYCGh dG g Jh .J Qj dG
Y J CG :ka) ke QU hCG e MGh Y dh oa GPEG dG Y J
dG IOGQEG J CG #G a JBHh .(UJ H IOLe J e fEG
ITe Jh e H G GC J CG Y IQOb ke AGLCG g c L
,IOGQEG hCG kYh dG AfG dBG CG h .INCG MG S dG IG
e QdG jf J dG G g OCG bh .dG Gg e AT CG J CG a
:b dG ,hQGO f dG IQKEG EG SSCG
jW Y sJ b j CG sLoj e Y CG OLh KEG G e c GPEG
(13) .kec kGQfG jf QJ a ,Wh dGeh IjY GQ
IQOdG Z hCG dG hCG gG dG OGaCG OSG dG AfG QhO ij h
CG ;IjL AYCG hCG IjL KGQh ee hCG IjL kYGfCG j CG h ,dG Y
AfG j :dH G g hQGO b bh .Qj AT CG j CG Qh d
VG dG Gdh ,(14) JGe aNG h UdG oJ e kT j CG dG
EG IG GdG dG UH GdG i JQG EG IjG fhQGdG
iS GdG J CG ,b H iS ch ,dP eh .dG AfG ie
.IQdG GdG S
Y a bGh Ib fGE .Gf

C G MGC f AdG OGa
C G OS dB c dG AfG j
.NGB GE f jd IQb jGC jd d ,dP Hh .OdG e IOLG Gf
C G
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QdG jN
GdG
N IGf OLG "DNA" AL j lGSG hCG lnb fCG Y GdG soJ
f GSG hCG dG Gg jh ,KGQdG eG c j dGh G FdG
ueoJ CG eEGh ,aoU IW c Jh .FdG YdG hCG TEG e LQN GKCJ
g J G e h .ceCG J hCG "DNA" A fu G GJcdG IdG
.MUEG Y G e J LQd QdGh edG e c Qb GdG
Y (MCG ZCG QdG IYO gAGQh j dG) IdG EG f CG h
TG KCdG C ,kch kGQJ cCG T EG G FdG jS Y fCG
dd He T iS GdG Y dG GdG NCJ CG h .QV Gd
ah bYEGh adG CG ;HfJh cGRZfh Thg dG e fY dG
!dG
GKCdG CGh kGL e "DNA" cJ CG :g GL H S EG dP Ljh
:dH dP ffGQ Vjh .cdG GH QdG EG Z AT EG ODJ d FGdG
aCG Jh ,KhM IQH J gh .IQVh FGYh IU GdG EG
CG GdG CG EG HQCG dG g qJh .IKDe Z fc MG
Y QH j M Fc FGY J hM EG .QdG U Y J CG EG ODJ
dG YS FGdG dG CG dP ;kGQV hCG KDe Z j CG eEG dG e
MCG Y a KDj d hCG H q S dG Gg CG dG ZCG H ,YdG AGOCG j CG
(15) .QedG d j H jG j Gdda .jJ
.IQV fCG GdG c KCG a ,BG M Ie IW jCG QX Y He dh

jQdG TCd G GKCdG Y QOdG jdG Y jh Qhn QdG Y Yh
eG jhdG SCG Y f b J CG dG GdG SGQd oT dG)
:kFb (fdG dG G
IQY g IW HUCG dG kjJ ahG G c CG M e hdG S
a ,QdG Y e kjQhV kGAL J GdG CG j da ,IQV L Y
IQV c GW e (IG TCG e YCG T EG QdG CG) L KCJ j CG
(16) ? kjJ
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IQV GdG L
Eye
Antenna
Leg
.(aShQdG) jOY ca HHP :QdG Y

IW ;SGC Q e Jf LQC H ca HHP :dG Y
. T
E d #dG S
.dG G Y Gd QGV
C G Oa KC J
OM V g idG G OLG dG
.HfH hdG bdG e QfG
IYO b PEG .Ie IW jJ LCG e dhG OG c e dG c d

g C ,cdG HP GW fE QdG e c AGLEH ,IY Od ,QdG
Y GdG NOoCG bh .YH GdG a J K eh Ic YH KJ GG
KGQdG Y c bh .b Ie IW jCG M
n J dh ,L H kL HdG Gg
:kFb VG Gg QjJ hOQZ ,QdG
AfCG L gDhGLEG dG cdG HP fEG EG eGdG QdG BG H e
fEG M hCG ...e jL f QX kGHCG lMCG Mj ,S N e cC dG
(17) .jL
HP Y jLCG dG QdG NEG Y ,H je g ,NBG MH jh
:dH cdG
e LCG jH KGQdG AY e gZh deh TdZh ZQe b d
OGH Gh ,dGh ,IAVEGh ,IOhdGh ,IQGG e Sb hd cdG HP
aJ kjJ c fc dh ,GdG GfCG L c dP Y a .TEGh jhdG
Z Lj fC ; bGdG ?fEG U dG QdG g Gg g .QdG IcDe hCG
dG jQGdG QN j CG feEH c KGQdG AY U dG MdG e b OY
43
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Page 44
QdG jN
EG IOdG hCG ,dG hCG ,G ge j CG eEG GadG g EG ,bGdG h .a fCG
(18) .UCG W
fEG Y X dG GdG c XCG a .fEG Y f VdG jh

dhj H ,NdG e kGQS QdG IYO Y j dCG g J eYh .IQV Ff
c Jh .QdG Y kdO UH IQdG GdG g e Y eCG J M
hCG ,hGO eRe hCG ,dG e gYh ,jL gJ fEG dG GdG
dBG KCG Y eCc QdG c GdG g s oJh ...WdG hCG ,eGdG hCG ,G
dBG J CG Ve hCG be dG J dG dG EG f C YGO h .QdG
.(AdG Y IQb cCGh aCG kTCG QdG jo CG #G e PEG) QJ
Sc GdG GSG feEG d SSCG SCG KK LJ :S kGRjEGh
:gh ,QdG IYO GcCJ Yd
J kFGO OJ fEa ,kFGY GdG CG :QV Gd TG KCdG .1
eh ec cJ YGdG Z NdG CH G jh .d #j dG G FdH
.kGHCG Ie IW jCG hM Mj ,bGdG h .S H cdG Gg
q j d
eEa :G FdH "G "DNA" AL EG IjL ee jCG GdG J .2
,geJ EG hCG ,ceCG e KGQdG ed fG G f EG GdG ODJ CG
kGjL kGY G FdG J CG Gd h . ceCG EG IY f EG hCG
hN hCG ,dG e dG RhH e IPdG G Z T Y j h .IjL UN hCG
.dG e PCG
SdG jG KM b J CG H ,MdG G EG IdG J d .3
j CG G Y hCG N kVY j FGY J CG C :G Fd
KCJ H cJ J dG fEG Y QJ d :G S a .JBG G EG
.MdG LCG EG NBG S C hCG TEG
dBG jCG OLh d kGf ,QJ b G FdG J CG j ,QNHh
GG S IOLG dOCG e CGdG Gg jh .gQJ EG ODJ CG dG
.G Y dG c H jQdG Gg CG VH j dG
44
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Page 45
HGdG dG
QdG jf Mj GG S
dG ,bdG Qhh .nnS e Cf b M f c Ea QdG jd kah
.OLdG M EG NO b GfCG c J jdG Hh ,NBG f EG kUCG OLG
.dG je N kjQJ Hj dG Gg Ea ,jdG OQh Mh
TY dG SG GfCG e jdG LJ CG #G a ,dc G c GPEGh
.jdG dfG IdG g N
MGhR NBG fh SCG f Fc g J CG #j :G S a
SCG "GN EG aVEH MGhdG "GN e kH cGh VG TY b
cG dG ,QdG MGhdG H TY b J CG #j hCG ,ka H J dG
IYO jh .ka H J dG MGhdG "GN EG aVEH QdG "GN e kH
TCG :SH ,VG TY b fCH eDj dG ,dG FdG g EG QdG
.dfG
e LJ CG -PEG- #a ,dH TY b fGG g e fc GPEGh
g jH J CG #j ,dP e gCGh .dGh OdG M e ,jdG H ,jG
TCG g OY j CG #j c ,GG S IOLe jdG FdG
gjH LJ CG #jh ,fGG e dG GfCG OY e H cCG dfG
:dH dP hQGO a ,GfCG UCG c h .dG AfCG L
TCG e d M kYGfCG g CG cDG a ,U jf fc GPEG
YG d HdG GfCG sc ke GfCG g HJ PEG ,VG TY b SG
jH H EG VG gOLh Y dOCG aJ CG ,JBHh ...kGL Kh HH
(19) .GG
eCj c dh ,dfG TCG g e H jGQO Y f hQGO ch

jf jW IY M cCG CG QOCG a ,deBG e ZdG Yh .G Y QdG
HU a GfCG UCG Hc c dd ;IOG dfG TCG g g
:JCj e jdG
45
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Page 46
QdG jN
-PEG- GPa ,bdG dG jW Y iNCG GfCG e QfG b GfCG fc GPEG
c dG J GP ?dfG TCG e d M kGOGYCG e c if
kah ,dh ?kVGh kGj IO -gGf c- GfCG J CG e kH ,NG dM
-PEG- GP .dfG TCG e Ff OY g j CG j ,jdG g OQh
G BG GP ...?#QCG Ib h J OGYCH IQe Y f
TCG bO H HJ Se kYGfCG ,Se JM hH J dG ,SG
(20) .bdG e jW Ia e HdG g JM d ?eG TCH FGdG
G #GYG Gg LG ej CG hQGO SG dG MdG dG nqnJh

Y fCG cCGh ,kac j bdG dP M cG dG GG S CH FdG
.IOG G cG S dH GG S SGQO
hjh GG Y q j GdGR e hQGO IAH QdG IYO EG fh
ZdG Yh .IOG G Y MH Y SdG dG e e #QCG H c
GG c KCG bh .dfG TCG jCG BG M J ,G gOL e
#QCG Y X b IG Ea -QdG IYO j e Y Y- fCG G AKCG
n G
hO- GJ ,jf Gj CG dhj QdG IYO c Hh .ec jJ ICa
!gQfG -b
ZdG Y G H ,LBG jjO ,QG fEG GG Y YG bh
:kFb QdG IYO MCG fc e
ie Y AGS ,dH GG S a GPEG fCG G f J
Fa QfG H ,jQJ QJ OLh Y -kGQGJh kGQGe- a ,GfCG hCG JdG
(21) .iNCG M Y IMGh Y
Gg Y ,fQGS Qe GG Y g ,QdG IYO e NBG GO jh

:kFb VG
GfCG QKBG CG ;GG S J jdG KEG SSCG G EG
QKBG jCG b dG Gg j h .#QCd aGG jdG XG VG
.ICa Jh LCG J dP Y kVYh ,hQGO VaG dG SG TCd
(22) .dG N b GfCG CH FdG G IYO M PhdG Gg Yjh
46
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M Ge
H Qf eY dh ,iNCG GfCG EG QGSH QJ GfCG CG QdG jf YqJ
G g qJh .dG j qJ hO H fCG JGeh G FdG
.QdG IYO M Mj kVGh kdO
Y G dG f J
je gY j dG Je
.dG
gY j dG dG HHP Ie
JGf Y J S e 135
.jdG
e ddG dG Ie J
fGC GE S e 100 dG
.edG Y J Y jC H
03
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Page 48
GG S gj
dfG T
C G GC
GC h ,b IOLe J
GC h ,j QdG
N
C G L
o b Gf
T IM Y c
.ec
TCG QX QfG e ihG Y e edG EG kjCG QdG IYO VG bh

,SZ eH GG Y PSCG VhCG M dPh ,G IOG dfG
:QL f
Oj LQd kZ dG Gg UCG a ;GG S a Y QGYd YGO
S GR e ,dP eh ...edG j a cG UCGh ,Y IdG e Qj
(23) .Ga e SSCG H j GG
Ie TGC h IC a #Q
C G Y X IG
X b G FdG c CG j ,GG Sh #QCG W SGQO Y
g M Fd Ge a cG #QCG W e W bCG Jh .MGh bh
.S e 550-500 H gY Qj dGh edG dG fJ dG J
S ICa edG dG W cG dG G FdG X d
QdG cG dG GG Jh .HS SCG d d CG ;GG
eg kcSCGh VQCG kfGjOh SEGh "dG KK fGMh bGb jedG
G FdG e SGdG G Gg X bh .IG jQadG e gZh ,jH abh
G Gg CG LQd kGL Fa H IG FdG e dG jdG Gg e e fG
(Cambrian Explosion). edG QfG SH LdG HOCG dEG Qoj gG
,dG e cdG Ie ooH dG g nG IG TCG e Jh

Y J dG eG LddG cdGh ,jedG IQhdG ILCGh ,TGh
G "dG KK fGG Y cJ j :G S a .jG JGf
LdG PSCG ,hQ jO jh .dG Ie LhOe SY e fGh
j J "dG KK Y EG : ZTh JhQh OaQg eL
48
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QdG jf Mj GG S
(24) .GL jQJ Qeh Ic Hb hP Ue jH e iS H JEG
Uh M CG hOh ec T ICa cdG Ie jQadG g X d

cG b- fc dG ,G IMh FdG Hh H Hj fG T hCG
.#QCG Y IG TCG e MdG dG -jQadG
TCG iMEG J dG #QCG Y QG ,SSfe OQjQ bh
H AL dG edG QfG Y JCj e VH ,QdG OCH UG YG
:QdG IYd Ic ICLe
J dGh dG gGf dG fGG TCG -ICa- X ,S H f b
,dH #QCd edG dG jGH Y ,dG g Jh .dG e d a QH
Fc hCH QdG
C e dG QdG QfG Y eY ,S e 550 GM b CG
FGhCG dH IOLe dG gGf dG IdG fGG T fch .dG Ie
"dG KK Y
X dG "dG KK J
jZ Y cH ICa edG dG
e dG g q d kGfh .dG
J dG IdG G je
,SdG hOe fh dG "b T
jH e IN j d G J Ea
jO c M Ic IN h GL jQJ Qe
.LdG Y PSCG hQ
dM S e 350 b dG g X d
dG Gg FdG QdG CG a T h .ec
.G bGh j gh ,QdH J FGdG
J dG "dG KK Y cJ Ea ,dP ah
Y CGj CG hO Gg ej M H b dG "b T
HHPh dG e) GG H Jh .MGh J
Gg jh .(*)"dG KK Y cJ H (dG
QJ G FdG CG YqJ dG jQdG VdG VdG
.dG EG FGdG e kjQJ
(x) R.L.Gregory,
Eye and Brain: The Physiology of Seeing, Oxford University Press, 1995, p.31
49
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Page 50
QdG jN
H Y H J dG QdG H dG H Y J fch ,edG dG
(25) .dG dG
ch ?fGG GfCG e dG OdG Gg ICa J #QCG UCG a
e ?e S OLh hO X b AMCG GfCG e IG CG g J CG
e chGO OQjQ ,GG Y bh .QdG IYO id HLEG Y J SCG g dGR
G g Y dH ,dG QdG dG QfCG cCG MCG gh ,OQcCG eL
:dH Y aGj c dG G d SSCG QhG J dG
e 600 GM gY j dG) jedG QdG W J ,G S Y
fY dh .SSCG jQadG Y e a fLh dG dG bCG (S
fCch eCG hjh .a X Ie hCG QdG e e T e jdG Y
QdG Y e CG dG Y Zh .QJ jQJ CH CG hO g gd YQoR
(26) .H eDG SCG b Gg LG
G C ,G Y b dO edG QfG CH GYd chGO VG bh
ZhO b bh .ec T #QCG Y IG QX d IMdG SdG g
CG eEG :kFb G H kjCG GYH ,QdG IYO e T AMCG Y gh ,Ja
GPEGh .J fCG eEGh QdG ec gh #QCG Lh Y X b G FdG J
e IOLe fc GfCG e QJ b fCG Ha ,QdG ec T X b J
b fCG H a ,QdG ec T X b fc GPEGh .e Q Y jW Y b
(27) .AT c Y IQOb Ib SGH dH N
o
dG ,IdG GfCG fc GPEG :c eY dP hM MG f hQGO QOCG bh
HV G g a ,ICa IG a HO b ,FdG hCG LCG f EG J
dG h (28) dG AfG N e AdG QdH GfCG QGfG jd Jb
jdG GG Y j dG Gdh .hQGd JdG HdG dH edG
EG :kFb edG d Uh AKCG dfG M OLh H ,H S ,QdG
(29) .fj GR e NCGh hQGO HQCG dG VdG Gg
e QJ G FdG CG EG j GG S Ea ,d j ch
Ea ,QNHh .de dM ICa X H ,eG TCG EG FGdG TCG
!npN
o H ,QdG SGH OLdG M EG pC J G FdG
50
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Page 51
edG dG
HdG dEG AdG e fEG jM

b jedG dG X dG jdG jQadG CG QdG AY #j
CG Lj c ,dP eh .dG e jG GY N SCG EG e jH d
H QJ hM EG J dfG M jCG LJ dc ,jedG jQad SCG
H Fg cJ aNG g CG cdH jLh .SCG Hh jQadG g
gOLCG QN jQadH UG dG fCG LJ PEG ;SCGh jQadG
QdG Gg e CG H h .NGO dG fCG LJh jQdG EG SCG J M
dfG TCG jH LJ CG #G eh ,d GG jH SG b FdG
.QJ dG
TCG g Y kH S 140 e #QCG W hj QdG IYO NCG bh
;dG GG jeh ,jQadG GG je Y GhY bh .VGaG
.KG H Se dM IMGh Ie Y M dh kGHCG MCG j dh
QJ :GH e G H ,OJ dGL ,QdG GG Y jh
:dG SCG UCGh FdG
Ie hC GG S dG SCd YdG KdG bCG X d
MdG e dG H Y kSGh kaNG ka SCG g Jh .kjJ bdG f
dG GH d S dG eh ?SCG g X a .IH e fCG c ,dG
:VGaG jQd kah

,HdG GE dG e f
E G
LH S
C G H T
HdG GE dG e fd
!!YJh .jdG e H
Gg dG SdG g e
.AYOG
51
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Page 52
QdG jN
TC KCG CG Lj GPh ?IH e L UCG ch ?NG e SGdG
(30) ?FGH Se
QJ b SCG CG Y gj CG hjh iNCG IN QdG jQS jh

LJ PEG ;ddG j jCG jQdG Gg dh .FeH EG d K jQadG e
MCG b bh .FeH NBG fh S f Fc OLh cDJ IMGh Ie M
,QdGh jQdG Ge c dDe ,hQc HhQ ,dG QdG AY TCG
SCG H Se Ge jd d :OOdG e AH G H GYH
Y
q J dG fGd kaSCG gQYG hQc j dG) (rhipidistian fish) SjGdG
dc ,jQdG GG Y b bh
(31) hCG FedG Hh (GbCG HQCG
GQdGh OdG :gh Fed SSCG dG FGdG Y dH ,dGQeh

:dH (caecilians) JC
u dGh
dG H h dG QdG EG OJ FeH jCG OLh Y dO CG Lj
GQdGh OdG e ahG GfCG bCG EG PEG ;e MGh nnS gOLh bG
(32) .G aSCG Ic LQH J JCpdGh
OLe FdG Gg e CG hj QdG IYO c ,e S
50
f Mh
je 410 H gY Qq ob ,(Coelacanth) fcc YoJ S J bh .dH

IQhd RLh g RLh Qe eOh FGH FQ jd kdfG kT UH ,S
ShCG J bh .d FGH dBG M jdh H ,HdG Y d gL jedG
Ggh ,KdG jf M a GL M UH jdG GdG g dG
dG fc IG g CG QdG IYO YqOG .S je 410 gY j fcdG Ie

e Ge IY SCG g e M P OUG bh ,HdG EG AG e fG dG fG
.QdG IYO a j dG dG ie Y kGL ke j ,1938 Y
03
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Page 53
?ke HdG GE AG e fG j GP
,G S a .HdG Y AG QOe
AG H j d G J j CG j
f bdG j CG Y IO LQH
jdG G FdG J ,PEG .G dG
H J dG AdG gh ,dG MEH
L Ea ,dP ah .jdG FdG
.FG Z dG Sj jdG fGG
CG jdG G FdG J :dG (4)
IOLG ,feCG UN ,dG J
c OLd kGf ,TdG N e gOLCG
H a HdG Y eCG .H AG e Iah
ddh ,jObG jH AG GSG e
.c f G FdG g id Lj
N e feCG jJ j ,dG Hh
e c bCG GSG jh jQj EG j
g ,dP EG aVEGh .RGaEG Y AKCG AG
AGOCG e dG d IjL d LM
EG AG e fd c GPEG ,QNH .Xh
FdG Y S d j CG HdG
kjc kef QJ CG c dG G
.ICa
Y SCG zJ{ :dG RG (5)
AG GG cCG Y G jW
CG J h ,TN N e LGNEGh
dh .AG QN b FbO e cCG J
kjFQ kef J CG Y HdG Y J
.ICa kec
g L J CG dSG e EG
KM b JeGQdG LddG GdG
IQH bdG f h G FdG f
.Le
q jCG e j fCG QdG IYO Yq j

-e jH- j CG e FG GfCG MCG
.H f EG h HdG EG
dG VGdG FG e OY gh
:ke fG Gg e
jdG FdG LGJ :RdG M (1)
e CG M ,fGRhCG M e jCG
O bW e %40 J jdG FdG
Y j Gd .gh g fRh M
CG HdG EG AG e J dG FdG
d (!) IjL gh Y kf QJ
,bdG f eRdG bdG EG LH
H j CG j dG AdG gh
.VdG GdG
IQGG LQd :IQGH MG (2)
Y HJh YH J CG HdG Y
jL dBH dG FdG jh .SGh f
IdG GdG g e hJ CG J
IQGG LQO a dG eCG ,IQGG LQO
.SGh f Y dG j h AH
ke kfH kef dG G Fda
EG j IG dG IQGM LQO M
Qb fOCG d j jM f Y G
Y IQGG LQO GJ AGL e QdG e
CH AYOq G d aG QeCG eh ,HdG
GW H dG Gg e cG SCG
.HdG EG gN O FGY
j CH LG J :AG GSG (3)
UH- (HWdG Mh H) AG GSG
IQd kGf e H -jCd jQhV
03
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Page 54
MS kFGO fc MdG
J QdG jf a c
Turtle fossil
aged 100
G Fd SSCG YG
million years:
d fEa (MGhdGh SCG e)
No different
than its modern
GfCG UCG qJ CG dc J
counterpart.
S a .YG g V
(The Dawn of Life, Orbis Pub.,
e f gh) MdG :G
London 1972)
GG S J (MGhdG
f b CG) SjdG dG e H ... QJ Qe Y kfh .IG JH ICa
SSCG "GG h IH dH jOLe (MdG) gDhYCG c (S e 175
Y MdG e QJ dG) GQUJdGh MdG H UdG M EG .Md
.(418 " ,22 ,1971 ,fjdG QG IFGO) kjJ kehe j Oj (LQCG
b Y dG bdG dG Gg AYCG Hh dG MdG Ge H a Lj h
.jdG H N
o e MS kFGO fc d ;MdG QJ ,H IQHh .IG
AG e QdG dG hM j kM kdfG kT gQYH fcdG J

.HdG EG
;1938 (jO) hCG fc 22 dG G kGL e cG M dh
kT UH HdG eb dG) fcdG a e M S OUG PEG
e M FGH RGW cG CG T h !(e S e S e #fG kdfG
. ,QdG GG Y b bh .QdG IYd Sb eU H AL b fcdG
,JBG GYCG h (33)M kGQUjO OU fCG d cCG gd c e fEG ,S .
.dG ALQCG fcc S e e cCG OUG IY MCG
gjQdG GNG QdG IYO O ie G fcdG SCG ch
Jh ,c eO h FGH FQ SCG g id j a ,JGAYOG Y Yh .dG
IhYh (34)gO c O e cCG j FGH FQ fCG QdG IYO bG dG dG CG
J dG MGhdG Te gQYH J dG fcdG S Ea ,dP Y
YCG J S O e cCG -bGdG - J HdG EG AG e hd
(35) .AG S e kGe 180 Y J a nb J h G
54
03
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Page 55
OdG dG
jdGh QdG UGC

SGH HdG EG fGh dG Cf b IG Ea ,QdG jd kah
EG CG ;MGhdG EG QJ FedG CG kjCG QdG jQdG Gg jh .FedG
MdG e kZe jQdG Gg noj ,iNCG Ieh .a HdG Y J Fc
H ,ka .fGG e FdG Jg H FdG cdG aNd kGf dG
,HdG Y d e MGR CG H CG M AG d e FedG GG
dG ec de H hH fC ,k kGeCG Fed jQdG QdG j nK eh
TCG Y dO CG Lj ,IOdch ,dP Y kah .f C AdG jo CG
Y Y keGd c ,Ggh .MGhdH FedG HJ CG #jo dG dfG
CG ,hQc HhQ jQdG GG Y dG MCG j dG QdG GG
aSCG Y QdG j fCGh FedG Y kGL fc hCG MGhdG :CH j
(36).H
dGR a .H pJ d dH Y G QdG IYO gjQS dh
b fCG H QdG CH eDj QdG IYO CG h !J FdG g L e g
e dBG jCG LJ ,dP eh .MGhdG e d fCG hcDj fEa ,e H QJ
(HdG fGM Y ke cH J dG) Qd IG dBG
UG J dG LCG J ,AH P Oa .jQdG QdG jW Y gJ
fCG ,GJCG QdG IYO MCG YG bh .QdG IYd kGc kbRCe Qd FSG
:dH LCG QJ dSH ,QhQb
cG GPEG EG FXh jODJ fCG g LCGh dG cG UG EG
f LCG Fd h ;iJ CG ef f d ,iNCG IQHh .g
GR e eCG Ea ,AYCG g H fJ dG dH j ah .j CG e
(37) .VJ EG dG dG QGSCG MCG
FGY GW f LCd G cdG Gg H s J dG dG dGR eh
e d dG dG d Sh LJ PEG ;HLEG Y j kGDS J Me
jJ hM f Lh cCG Y J LCG EG MGhd eeCG QPCG dN
(IW CG) LCG
55
03
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20:04
Page 56
QdG jN
FdG J PEG ;dG FdG Gd kac kGeCG LCG eG jo ,dP ah
a .GdG QdG eJ dG iNCG cdG dBG e jdG EG jdG
J QdG FQ CG c ,jdG FdG Y e H NCG QdG Y :G S
b RH dch Yh Y RH QdG Jh ,ke H
Gd jQhV e GG g Jh .dG e dY LQO Y jeO IQhOh
ke Cf b dBG g c J CG H h .LCd LMG Qb H FdG Lj
Gdh .cGdG jW Y kjQJ J b J CG G Z e PEG ;bdG f h
e jf jL Fc EG HdG Fc QJ Y cDJ dG jdG J ,dG
.ke
,U G dG g CG VaG GPEG M :NBG GDS gdG EG QOj gh
MGh H hCG L H Ge jCG Y QdG e QdG IYO j -PEG- GP
?b YJ
:eYG dfG T
C G e NGB T
cHcQ
C G
EG SG Gg jh ,HdG GDdG Y HLEd MGh Fc SG QdG IYO OOj
dfG TCG TCG MCG gh ,(Archaeopteryx) cHcQCG Yj FW Ie
Y bh .Y aGj QdG IYO GR e dG dG dG H e eYG
iJh .S e 150 b ,QdG IYO OYG M jG QdG S ,cHcQCG
QHGSdG SG Y j dG G IU GQUjdG GfCG e kH CG jdG
K LCG cG jW Y QJ b
(Dromeosaur)
QUehQdG hCG
(Velociraptor)
Y kdfG kT cHcQCG j CG #j ,K eh .GdG SQ

.Ie hC GdG GC Hh QUjdG
cHcQCG Ge Y jLCG dG SGQdG NBG QTCG a ,dP eh
H J dG QdG GfCG MCG g H ,kGHCG kdfG kT d G Gg CG EG
.dG QW U Y G dG
j FW f cHcQCG CH FdG VdG fc ,jb Ia Mh
56
03
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20:04
Page 57
Qd UN FQ
AGdG
AGdG
hN
NO
alveol
bronchia
parabronchia
MGhdG FQ
QdG FQ
jH QdG FQ J PGE ;kGc kaNG ,VG aSGC ,MdG jJ Y QdG jJ j

eGC .FGdG AYdG f e kLhNh kNO J jdG fGa .jdG fGG Y ke
G zdG{ Gg oU d .G e j fE a e
C G e FQ GE AGdG Nj a ,QdG
g G eh ,GdG AKGC c
C G e Ic c GE dG QdG LGC e kN
.MGhdG FQ e QJ GC dG
QdG IYO iCGQ bh .QdG IYO ShCG Ic T J Va ec H GdG

gOLh Y bCG Y hCG ,G Gg QdGY CG dG Y OLh Y CG
j FdG Gg CG Y dO gCG j ,GdG dG QdG H LJ dG dH
a J QdG LJ Y Y IQY g QdG Yh)S IOLEG GdG j
QdG c jQdG dG g LJ ,G bdG h .Gd eRdG dG
jK GM Y IQY gh ;G IOLe fEG M H , CG GdG fcCG AGS
.(QdG a Y NG c J a EG j FW
S Y Y dG cHcQCG Fd HdG IG J a ,dP eh
CG EG dP dG Ljh .QdG IYO H gdG e c Qb IQKEG
1992
#aG dG QdG Y -dH- a Lh b kGNCG

n G cHcQCGIe
IG g (Nature) dG Uh bh .jW Ia e IOe fCG QdG IYO
:JBc kGNCG G
c e T H cHcQCG FW e kGNCG G HdG dG
dG g Jh .b e KJ WEG Y j dh jW Ia e OLh j
(38) .FdG GH UG GdG Y Ib Y
c cHcQCG CH FdG YGd SSCG eYdG cG Gg HCG bh

.S IOLEG GdG j FW f
57
03
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20:04
Page 58
QdG jN
CG J dG dOCG gCG MCG FdG Gg jQ cJ UCG ,iNCG Mf eh
Z cdG EG PEG .d edG H GdG Y kGQOb kGFW c cHcQCG
Gg CG EG j (jG QdG Y j dG) cHcQCG jd SG
:Ea QfGO Qc QG GG Y U ch .ec IOLEG GdG j GG
(39) .QdG a e e H J dG g cHcQCG jQ
dG dG fS Jh ,cHcQCG jQ cJ c iNCG Mh
e GQUjdGh MGhdG Ea ,he g ch .jCG Y FdG ej
IQGM J CG e kH H G IQGG LQH KCJ dG OQdG dG GhP fGG
g jQ jODj Xh gCGh QG dG GhP e a FdG eCG ,e H gOLCG
fCG cHcQCG L Y jdG OLh M H bh .G IQGM Y aG
Y Y L IQGM Y aG EG j QG dG GhP e kM kGFW c
.QUjdG
dh cHcQ
C G SGC :QdG IYO J
cHcQCG CG Yj eY QdG IYO Y j dG G dG EG
.fSCGh FdG ML Y IOLG dG g dfG TCG e T
Jg dh ,a kfSCGh LCG d cHcQCG id CG Uh
EG .MGhdH HGdG GfCG e f CG HJ G FdG Gg CG EG poJ UG
,(Hoatzin) JGdGh (Taouraco) cGQhhdG gh ,dG QW e Yf g CG fL
ec jFW FdG Gg jh .dG ZCH d d jd gc
fG T cHcQCG CH G Ea ,dd .MGhdG U e U jCG j
.dG e d SCG keL j LCG d fCG O
n jh .fG T fCG EG cHcQCG Qe IOLG SCG jCG J h
,dP eh .MGhdG U iMEG SCG g EG dH ie GP M EG QdG IYO
LJ M SCG jd MGhdG a ;MGhdG LP U SCG J
e MdG dG j cHcQCG Ea ,dP Y kah .NBG dG id SCG
eY dh ,dG H J SCG GP QdG CG Uh .SCG jd dG QdG
58
03
18/11/02
20:04
Page 59
p rfqdG :cHcQ
eG
C G FW aGN jf
r
Yj FW Ie e cHcQCG "H jQdG AYOG Mj dO MCG AL d
Ge Y SGH SZb #G FdG Gg Ie o cG bh .eG
r prfqdG
EG dG G fG J dh ,dG NGhCG ShQ
dGh jdG e) Fd edG jdG dG EG .2000 Y
de AL bh ,IUG QdG Je J (s G dG
Y ,fL J ch 2000/6/23 jQH dG Jf
dG jdG Y gh) ceCH jQhCG jh eL GG
f gh ,FW g ke j dG EG :(cH b
.QdG J dG IbdG Yh dGh CGdG
CG j e gh ,S e 220 f g IG g Y CG g g G dG
aGN -cCdH- J G gh !S e 75 H cHcQCG e bCG eGrprfqdG
fL b bh .MdG QdG c Y QJ dG dG g cHcQCG EG FdG jQdG
.GQjdG Y QJ b QdG CG e j a f d ac IG g EG :JGP G
e J eh cHcQCG Y f fCG if ,GG S Y If f

a j CG QdG e L g c ,jb QY Mh H ,QY
.SCG GP QdG
iNCG QdGh cHcQCG SCG cJ CG OdG Gg f gCG Jh
bh .GQUjdG ,eYG aSCG SCG cJ Y keJ kaNG j SCG GP
SCG CG ,jhh OQGSh JQe ,hQG QdG jJ AY M
,jY QhLh me Y H J SCG GP iNCG QdGh cHcQCG
(QdG d YG nsdG) (theropod) jOHhdG GQUjdG SCG J M
UG SdG Y H kjCG MdG Qbh (40) V QhLh QG e RQH H
CG Gj dh ,GQUjdG ,eYG aSCH UG J Hh cHcQCH
(41) .H HJ
cCJ CG (dGhh gh fSQJ eCG) jdG AY SGQO c bh
GQUjdGh FdG Gg H IOLe fc dG dG LhCG H g CG Y dG
e QJ b cHcQCG CG Yj jdG AdG MCG) hShCG L a c
(42) .U Z jhCJ bGdG g (GQUjdG
O g H ,dfG M j cHcQCG FW CG EG FdG g c Jh
.SCG GP QdG a Y f CG a Qj FW
59
03
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20:04
Page 60
QdG jQ J
,dP eh .(sinosauroptryx cr pHhQSS
GG g CG Y dG 1997 Y a
jd He cJ CG J h d CT
.(5) QdG
Y bO SGQO AGLEG Yh ,iNCG L eh
J kGL kGe kJ ,QdG jQ
jJ Y ,Tha BG jh .jQJ Y jCH
UGe e UGe c EG :,QG QdG
ejOhjCG UN jdG
EG N a .(FGg-ejO)
Y IQG jdh ,M bCG
YdG Y J dG JQG
EG IOdG h ,G
K .dS H HdG YVhCG
kGHCG aCG CG SCG :kFb UGj
H e d c
X b j CG Gd e
.(6)jGdG Y iNCG IQhV f
kjCG hQGO dQJ Y jdG J #a d
jd G G c c ,dG a CG
;(Jc H) dH HUEG kS hhdG
e ddG GZ SBG EG c N b a
CfG dG eCJ c :1860 S jHCG
Y edG Qh J dh jd SM
IOLG cGdG a BG eCG ,G g
hhdG jQ e EG e ,MGQ J dG
.(7) !S j
1 A. H. Brush, "On the Origin of Feathers". Journal of
Evolutionary Biology, Vol. 9, 1996, p.132
2 A. H. Brush, "On the Origin of Feathers". p. 131
3 Ibid.
4 Ibid.
5 "Plucking the Feathered Dinosaur", Science, Vol. 278,
14 November 1997, p. 1229
6 Douglas Palmer, "Learning to Fly" (Review of The Origin of and Evolution of Birds by Alan Feduccia, Yale University Press, 1996), New Scientist, Vol. 153, March, 1
1997, p. 44
7 Norman Macbeth, Darwin Retried: An Appeal to Reason. Boston, Gambit, 1971, p. 101
QJ QdG CG Yq J dG ,QdG jf EG
J Y ILY f ,MGhdG e
e G dG jg H FdG hdG
Y kGc kaNG QdG J PEG .AMCG
,dG dG e ;Jee M e MGhdG
jdG jh .jCG O fSh ,jFdG dGh
QdG H dJ Ia J iNCG Ie
QdH UN Ie jdG j c ,MGhdGh
.a
Ql b MGhdG On LCG Jh
.ojdG QdG nOLCG j H
hj QdG IYO CG h
fEa Qd kaSCG MGhdG
QdG jQ CH AYOd he
dh .MGhdG Qb e QJ b
QdG H T CG Lj
!jdGh
LddG PSCG ,hH .`g .CG jh
Gg ,c eL e dG LddGh
:a QdG IYd FfG e ZdG Y bGdG
M Jh G H e kGAH- e c
-dG Jh dGh dG
hH PSCG j c .(1)QdGh jdG
Y gjh QdG jd JhdG dG SGQH
.(2)jQdG H Ie fCG
jQ CG Y GG e dO Lj h
Y H .MGhdG Qb e QJ b QdG
GG S ICa jdG j ,dG
J -QfEG H- Ija kU UH
.(3) hH PSCG dP j c ,QdG H
BG M j ,dP EG aVEHh
jd kUCG qaj Id cJ CG MGhdG
.(4) QdG
dG GG AY QKCG 1996 Y h
P QjdH qoj e Ge M V
SH hG) dG G jdG
03
18/11/02
20:04
Page 61
jdGh QdG UCG
iN
C G dG QdG Geh cHcQ
C G
dO cCG g cHcQCG CH dG GY e hOj QdG IYO c M
fhBG G GG H Ea ,QdG AJQG CH eb dG jQdG Y
.iNCG fGL e jQdG Gg HCG INCG
fd g ,jQdG Gd dG G`H GG AY e KG b a
SG Y WCG 1995 S jL FW Ie cH ,gR hRh g
c CG) cHcQCG Y f FdG Gg ch (Confuciusornis). pfQSTfc
c ,dP EG aVEHh .a SCG jCG jd j dh ,(Y e 140 f Y
FdG Gg CG e ZdG Yh .dG QW H J dG dG H j jQh Qe
d OLH kjCG j c fEa ,jG Qd dG cdG H j
"N cJ OLH j QdG e dG Gg ch .cHcQCG e ke ,LCG
,QNHh .jdG jQ YH dG g Jh ,(pygostyle) dEG Y j L
QdG S bCG j dGh) cHcQCG Y f c dG FdG Gg Ea
G g HCG d .jG FdH dG jT c (MGhdH T Fc fCH Gh
(43) .QdG d FGdG dG g cHcQCG CH FdG QdG IYO Va c
Y e (af) dG jJ dG ocG iNCG Ie J bh
dG Tha CGh JQeh g YCG a .JQG e cCG Qb IQKEG 1996
SH hGh Y e 130 dG e ddG FdG dP OLh Y (Science)
,GdG Y H JJ jQU Y FdG id ch (Liaoningornis). fQfhd
FdG Gg H dG kjCG G Z e ch .jG QdG G g c ke
bG Gg jh .a SCG j MdG dG ch ,iNCG m Gf jG QdGh
bh (44)QdG IYO Yj c WEG Y kFGH T j SCG GhP QdG CG
?QdG AL jCG e :GH (Discover) cG Jf e dH jdG
(45) .GQUjdG e CJ fEG J IG g
gh CG cHcQCH j a QdG IYO YGe MJ iNCG Ie gh
fGC j dH QdG jQ SGQO Y
j dG bdG dG GB e e
Ggh .aG j H H
.e ejOhjGE AGOGC Y j G dG
03
18/11/02
20:04
Page 62
QdG jN
e MCG fEG j dG) adhCG L cJ CG Md a ;(Eoalulavis) adhCG
Oh .AH J dG jG QdG kjCG OLe (S e 30 H cHcQCG
QdG Y g QW AdG fc ,S e 120 b ,fCG Y dP
(46) .IY m Gf e jG
iNCG QdG h cHcQCG fCG EG cCJ H iNCG Ie FG g Jh
YGfCG QdG CG Y GG J PEG ;dfG kTCG fc d HG dG
jG dG QW CG GG S j ,dG Y H ,H e H QJ b
f dH dG H e TY b cHcQCG e dG QdG Hh
cHcQCG e QdG g GfCG e H VfG a ,dP eh .bdG
OdG e HdG IOLG GfCG e AL iS j h fQSTfdGh
.Gg ej M
G FdG Gg CG Y cHcQCG IOG dG H J ,QNHh
KGh OaQg eH GG Y ,OQdEG jfh dZ S jh !kdfG kT
jJ j M Fc cHcQCG CH ,dG ie Y QdG IYO TCG e
(47) !kdfG kT kGHCG QYG fCG Z ,YG dG e kN
GQUjdGh QdG H dG HGdG

kdfG kT UH cHcQCG J dhj jdG QdH eDG AYOG EG
AY TCG MCG b a ,dP eh .GQUjdG e QJ b QdG CG Y j
Y #GYH ,ddG dhQc eL e Jha CG gh ,dG QdG jJ
MCG f g fCG e ZdG Y ,GQUjdGh QdG H HGb g CH FdG jdG
:OdG Gg Jha jh .QdG IYO
HJ Lh CG iQCG fCGh ,S jYh N I QdG LL oSQO d ,kM
g LQCG HQCG GP Fc e QdG QJ jf EG...GQUjdG LL Hh H
(48) .jdG dG LdfdG Y L Y QY Uh jGQ
jdG Y VGYG ,c eH dG QdG UNG ,JQe Q jh
J dG bd be AKCGh .ddG f e QJ GQUjdGh QdG CH FdG
:kFb jCGQ JQe Vj ,OdG Gg QdG jf a
62
03
18/11/02
20:04
Page 63
?HdG UGC g e
dG dG M J gjQS
e) kK cCG b H
.GdG e (MGhdG
dG HHd eCG rG Mh
Y c bh .QdG AYOG j
,oJGh HhQ ,fEG LddG
fG dG{ GH e
a cz :GG LC
X c GG LCG d
YGH cCG H LCG g
c j H IOY dG J jh .kLh
d dBG Jh , e bCG a dG
J GQUjO :QJ jQS Y PGC

!!.HdG U Jh f LGC
h .H DdG dSCH cG AGLCG

MGh J dG c GG LCG
"GG e SGh f jd qce epe
d b GQUjdG CG QdG IYO Yj
Se gH d bfCH s h ,WG
eeCG LQCG J dG GQUjdG H
IFa aCG Y dh ,Se id HSG
c zQWh LCG JG{ HdG Od
K CG LJ h .AGdG e
SCG CG OLh d kGfh .IQdG j
.(1) {BG M d LdJ
fch jdG g Yd f CG e Y
EG dH Gg gcCJ Yj gh ,QW EG
IMGh jM LJ ,iNCG L eh
fEa ,G hV e V e cCG hJ
Ggh .Hd dG QdG Y kdO s J CG
:gh CG kGL kH ke kbJ kjCG J
H ,G fdG GG Y j c e
UCG d QdG IYO eb dG G
j a gL f :b eY ,SGZ
Y e de IQ j ,HHdG CG ,GdG
.(2)GG UCH
Y a Y fEG j M h .GdG
J ,fdG Ge Y VZEGh
Ie 500 LCG SG HHdG
bh ML fEa ,dP ah .fdG
MG HHP aJ fOCG Y JSh !MGh
!GHCG j dP dh ,fRGd HHdG a
1 Robin J. Wootton, "The Mechanical Design of Insect Wings", Scientific American, v. 263, November
1990, p.120
2 Pierre-P Grass, Evolution of Living Organisms,
New York, Academic Press, 1977, p.30
Ghj CG QdG IYO Y j ,jGHh

IQG g e HHdG cG d kGJ
qj fEa ,dP e kHh .GdG Y dG
03
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QdG jN
g QdG UCG CH FdG IdG jCJ EG orQpVG GPEG ,dG nboUC
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(49) .VG Gg
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.QdG IYO id G Ibh G dGh d f O e cCG d
jdG UGC
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d kGOSGh .MGhdG QJ SGH fJ QdG CGh MGhR EG d b dG e
eh .jd SCG jCG g H ,a Qd kaSCG d MGhdG Ea ,jQdG
J dGh ,QdG eLCG J dG) MGhdG H Ic cJ Ga LJ ,dP
dG) jdG Hh (dG Vh jW Y KJ dGh ,OQdG dG GhP fGG e
jW Y KJ dGh ,QG dG GhP fGG e J dGh ,hdG gOLCG j
.(M jQP IOh
PEG .dG cJ jdGh MGhdG H cdG FGdG eCG MCG jh
,MGhdG eCG .SCG Y VJ IMGh a Y e jd dG dG j
c CG g NBG SSCG NG gh .dG dG fL Y IU Y K La
Y LJ H ,(cudGh GdGh bG) SdG fPCG Y K jd jdG
fPCGh MGhdG a CG QdG AY Yqjh .MGhdG c id SdG PCG IMGh
c M kFb GR e GDdG dh .fPCGh jdG a EG kjQJ QJ b SdG
PCG QJ c J kGHCG G Z e Ea ,"G Lh Yh .dG Gg hM
hM AKCG Xh AGOCG dG Y QGSG e ,Y H PCG EG IMGh H
.jdGh MGhdG H HJ IMGh Ie Y oj d fCG kHne dh .QdG Gg
EG dG Y :CH d ,jd LhQ ,QdG GG Y VG dG Gdh
dGR e ,cCG Y f hCG MGh f -LQCG Y- KM dG ,jdG hCG
(50) !d dH kGd
cCG MCG dch QdG Y dG cCG MCG ,S OQjZ QL g gh
kGc kGQb S dG G g Y JBG dG j ,IjG fhQGdG jdG SDe
64
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jdGh QdG UCG

:QdG IYd IG e
g #QCG Y IG jQJ M cCG EG
,MGhdG Y CG ,jRhRG dG e FdG fG
ICa SCG b QdG Cch eCG hjh .jdG Y EG
UNh ,MGhdG fc M G N Y
Jh Ic OGYCH FdG ddG QGhOCG J ,GQUjdG
f Y d G iNCG Ie QdG jRCG K ,
H J T ;ke IjL H dh G
iNCG MGhdG J M ,WEG Y GQUjdG
QGhOCG c J jdG NCGh .a QedG QhO
OdGh QGhOCG d KCG CG Y f fCH Y FdG
(51) .HdG
GfGC L GC QdG IYO Yj

.e S e QJ b jdG
GfGC H Y ha g ,dP eh
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N
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c ...Gh ,GdGh ,MCGh ,aG e je fGM g fc
OLh KEG G e jh .LdG dG f X ch jdG e J
jQEG ,QdG GG Y cDjh .G aBG ShCG QWEG M H a jQJ bY
:dH (Evolution) QdG X e dG g Y ,OQed
bY CG M ee CG Y j jdG dhC kM eCG N S
(52) .jdG H jQJ
ICa #QCG S Y X G FdG L CG j ,S e c eh

eh .N
o b fCG Y keGO kdO Gg jh .QJ Y jCH CG hO ,jJ eH
dO gQYH e JH AMCG GfCG QX M Ghqj CG QdG IYO hj ,dP
Z e fCG PEG ,G JJ EG g e G FdG QX dG CG EG .QdG Y
,dG e dNh Fa N Y SGHh .QJ Y Y g f CG G
.fEG oN kGNCGh ,HdG dP J K ,AMCH G CeG
X ,edG Y G eYEG jYdG Va dG OdG fEG b Y Yh
.jJ ec h ICa #QCG Y kjCG fEG
65
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G QJ aGN
q pYoCG YON s SGH jQdG Gg ZU
jQdG N M J JeGSH
Ga TY fGG e GfCG G
ceCG Th jaEG Lh dG kGL
dG dG dG IQd aGe O ,HQhCGh
QJ Y k jY e cCG Ljh .QdG IYO
IYO j h . MH eb
q G G
FdG QTCG Ve "H e JG EG QdG
Y H ke -SH- fc dG ,J
JdG g H cG IMdG dG Jh .H
gj
q
q jo dG H kb CH OYG
55 e SdG dG Y b (Eohippus)
J J J j c ,jb bh M
dO UH (G QJ j fCG a #
n j)
o
dG eCG .QdG jf U Y FdG GG
QJ jQS CH fCG QdG IYO e c a
ZjQ jH QdG YGO b bh .aCG b G
M jCG HQCG SG Ihf AKCG kHN dCG dG)
1980 Y Yh LQdG QdG jf e
e QH ZH dG jQd a e
G QJ jQS EG b (QdG IYO e Nh
OLh j kGMCG EGh GG S d SCG
:d jQdG QdG J CG J jQJ Y
FdG G WN g c jW bh e oY d
jQdG G dh .d kS ch S e
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n
,QJ hOQZ ,QdG dG JdG b bh
Hc ,dG e kb kGQb J dG G g H
:dH Qd dG dG GY j dG
fhQGdG dG LhCG NCG J Q dh
Af e QJ Y QdG GG AY a
...YCG kjQJ kGJ J M Fd HJ hCG ddG
VG MdG G UH H noj e kdZh
e QdG G CG g G dh ,ec H
fCG Yj fEG .kGL jZ N G EG gdG
H CG g G dh ,G kGe kGjGJ j
cCG dh gdG e UCG fc IG QGWCG
QOe e dG oJ CG G eh .e
CG Y dO Lj dh ,ke hj J o
s Jh
.(3) edG e JdG GH J QGWCG g
hGG CG Y kjb kdO FG g Lh
ibCG MCG UH J dG ,G Qd fdG
.e Z gh b EG g e ,fhQGdG Y FdG
kJ g CH Gbd G QJ Y oj dG
H b Y CGW dG Gd kjQJ
b J fch eb HUCG HQCG jd ,dG
kM cCG dG M EG ,S e N f
dG e ka .eb MGh UEG jd dGh H
ke kIe Se f c Ge hJ ,jQdG
TCa nK eh ;dP H #J K ,J hO bHh
.(1) ahe Z dfG
,SJH dc QG GG Y b bh
fc M) GfEG dG jQdG e je
ddG dG (gdG G QJ jQe #o
n J
Qd kMe GR e dG #G Gg "H
:G e VQCG HdG
be H,dG e Fg c g c d
.IG d G gG Y , iNCG e cCG G
HdG #j GR e dGh) IT eCG g cCGh
dG G QH "G #dG g (edd VQCG
Gg X d .S N b OGYEG b j Q
H SQe c G ddG UH j
s #dG
,AKdG EG Yj Vh Gg CG YCa fCG eCG .SQe c
dG Gg e eqj jdG dG j eY kUN
d dG d fCG g cQe dG e
.(2)OGG J
d ?G QJ jQS SCG g e ,PEG
1 Boyce Rensberger, Houston Chronicle, November 5,

1980, p.15
2 Colin Patterson, Harper's, February 1984, p.60
3 Gordon Rattray Taylor, The Great Evolution Mystery,
Abacus, Sphere Books, London, 1984, p. 230
04
ARAPCA EVRIM (067-103)
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HdG dG
Gd YOG jhC dG
FYdG SCH cdG H Qj ,fEG QJ aGN UJ #f CG b
Gg jh .VG TY b fEG fh Ob f Fc CG IH edG bCG dG
IOYEG f CG h .GG EG j a AdG IOYEG GSG EG FYdG SCG
H h) IMGh Y EG kGOSG d P AH hCG M Fd IQU SQ fCG Y AdG
IOdG LdG c jh .#QCG WH e LGSG (!Y e AL EG MCG
.AdG IOYEG Y eCG O aCGh Gh dG ggf jdG
dEG j QJ CG Ea ,VdG e dM h bf J e IOY GG CG h
SdG) AdG GOYEG H QdG IYO j ,bGdG h .k kJ j CG L
s jo
KEG LCG e a dPh ,dG GSH GG jH EG kGOSG (PdG hCG
g ,H jO ,OQaQg eL e LdHhfCG AY MCG cDjh .QdG Va
CG _jdG Ea ,UNGh MS g dG GG Y bCG Y :dH G
e SCG Y Vh e cCG e jhCJ SCG Y Vh , _QdG jf
AdG GOYEG Ea FG eH IH hKCj dG CG h ,(53) dG dOCGh G
bG g CH dG bEG G QdG IYO n#Z mLh cCG Y J g
.VG ka TY b gDhH OG
FdG AdG IOYEG CG :gh CG e f Y AdG f CG j OdG Gg h
IG UdG C ;d kGL edG dG iS J CG dG jH Y
GSa ,Ggh .bdG Qhe e YH J dG qdG fCG J G
N Y ke Ipe gDhH OG PdG hCG SdG J dG fCd dG jhCdG
:JCj c VdG ,OaQg eL e ,Jg fjEG jh .gj dG dG
C dP WGh cG H e dG AGLCG cJ hCG AH IOYEG dh EG
dG dG AGLCG Y QKBG jCG J ,dEG ....fCG Wh GPBGh dGh dG
67
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YONh s e SQ
Gqj CG -jd kYO- QdG IYO j ,gDhH Ooj dG PdGh QdG

,dGh ,fCG cJ e ;IG QKBG CG bGdG J dG eG
c .G J dG dG GfCG e dP Zh ,LGG gh ,dG Th
gh qdG bG J J J QU H kjCG ej fCG
g CG G dh .edG JM e iNCG dM hCG ,OJ hCG ,JFY e
.GG S d bGh FGR qJ EG g e c SdG
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G d cJ GOYGE K
SdG Gg X
1964 Y f5 G
G SdG Gg
jh jQe b e
Sunday Times
G SdG GH cQH . b
b 1960 Y jG
National Geographic
JQfdG dH T T L e ddG H qJ CG h .gJ

b GfC eYG AdG IOYEH j a eCG .a H hCG fT e kLP
KCd EG J gh ,Y b CH fEa gjH H EG GOSG dG e
(54)
(cdG IOYEH dG Gd ,Jh edG Y
j fCG LQd d aG dG g e QdG IYO HG d ,bGdG h

YJ I gDhH OG G dG SdG J :ka .G d kgLh
kGT ke (Zinjanthropus) hCG (Australopithecus robustus) dG HG jaEG OdG
.jdG Gg
dG AdG GOYEG e jdG J hCG Gd IG jhCdG J bh
G g Ea ,dP eh .Qe H G GSG EG QdG IYO A ie Y kGTDe
!QdG jQJ JQG dG IG jdG YCH fQb e GPEG jH hJ
69
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edG dG
jQdG jJ
J j dG ,OdG LdG IQU jDj GG e eGO dO CG Lj
QdG IYO CG dP .QdG IYd OcCG FGhdGh YEG FSh QGSH
Ge OLh Y M CG EG ,dN b H jh jjCG SdG a
dG IG FSdG iMEG Jh .d dH IN e SdG d He
.Y QdG j Ge U G g Y dG fej
kLP ke (dG jQJ a cCG qoj dG) (Piltdown Man) hGH fEG jh
.SdG d
!f
E Gh jQd dG :hG r pH fGE
QY ShGO dQJ Yj hg Ge Yh he W qcCG 1912 S
CG e ZdG Yh .GfEH hGH IM NGO L e ALh a Y Y
SCH TCG fc Gh SCG CG EG ,OdG a H TCG fc dG Y
fh (Piltdown
Man).
hGrpH fEG SG dG g Y och .fEG Lh
MG e jdG VY ,S dCG N g dG Y CH FdG YGd

G e dG oc ,S HQCG e cCh .fEG QJ Y kWb kdO UH
IG euobh ,SdGh jhCdG e jdG d qYGoC c hGH fEG Y dG
M GQcO dSQ N Y j e och ,fEG QJ Y ke kdO UH
AKCG QShCG aa g QG jeCG GG Y bh .(55) VG Gg
e dG CH kGQGJh kGQGe fcJ j CG j :1935 S jdG d JQjR
(56)
.FGdG fEG Y kge kacGIG g oJh ,bQH
(jdG G GG b e gh) chCG c )hM 1949 S h

H jQJ jd j jL QNG Y IQY gh ,jQdG QNG jW j CG
70
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jhJh YN b
ShGO dQJ GG cG
.OQGhOh S KQGB S GE ebh
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C G AH IOYGE
.IdG G q d
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SdG
Jh JGh
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qH cG
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Y GE d
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a
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04
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QdG jN
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CG jQdG jW GSH jLCG dG INCG LdfhdG SGQdG ch
Y IOLG SCG CG O c ,dG e BG H Rhj G Y
,kYUG cBJ b -jQdG GfCG e gh ,JhCG fGQhCG EG J dGh -dG
SGH oT Ise H GhOCG O g GG e G FGdG GhOCG CGh
Y Qd dG 1953 S jh CG dG G dG h (57) jPa GhOCG
Y fc M S N f Y kffEG J G fc PEG ;jhdG Gg
T "N f Y SCG JJ bh !kGNDe e kGOb J dG dG
Hh .fEG H kT dG hj d UG M h dG EG VoCG K ,U
CGH K ,kY kGe HcE SJdG ehc H dG g c J dP
V c dG ,Qc hZ j h .G Z Y ANH dG g
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f GMCG g c YCG h (58) !?b e dEG fG j c :Aj AG
!S HQCG Y jJ I a #oY eH jdG G e Y Y hGH fEG
!jN S :SGf fGE

dG jQd jeCG G je ,ShCG aa g YCG 1922, S
dG EG Oj ,hH S e dH ,SGf Z Ie V Y QY Y
,OdGh fEG e c H ce JU j dG Gg CG dG YRh .SdG
IhL fEG EG Oj fCG Y dG Gg dG a qa Y Y be CGHh
GVCG EG bCG fCG NBG dG YOG M ,(Pithecanthropus erectus) edG e
c ,SGf fEG SG ,ke kGL KMCG dG ,jG g Y WCG bh .fEG
72
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jQdG jJ
SQ g VG IQdG
ofh IMGh S Y AH
IQG d QNGC
(Illustrated London News)
X N dh .1922 dj 24
eY M bGC GE QdG IYO
GE J dG J GC Y dG
H ,fGE GE h OdH T
e #e f GE -iM
C H- J
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ccdhQg jHhg :g kY kSG -G - YoCG

haroldcooki).
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e SGf fEG SQ M a ,Gg e cCGh .Lh SGf fEG CGd AH IOYEG
!W ec FY T dWCGh LhR
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Y #GYH jH JCjh Yj MH b eY fCG LQd dG fEG Gg jQdG
!jT Of #J MhCG V Y FdG IG GQGdG g
kahh .SGf fE dG dG e iNCG AGLCG Y oY 1927 S h
fCG G QOCGh .kGOb h kffEG j dG j ,kjM G AGLCG d
JCjh WCGh ,(prosthennops) j jdG jeCG jRG e kVe kYf j
GdG ,CG Gg Y YCG M ,(Science) dG QG de Y QjZ
dGREG Y Y ,dP Hh .(59) kffEG h kGOb d fCG j :jHhdG :JBG
!QdG HOCG e FYh ccdhQg jHhdG SQ c
dG G ja
C G :H JhGC
E EG QJ M YGe (The Descent of Man) fEG dS Hc hQGO b CG H
YG ,dP eh .G Gg YJ Ge Y j GC H ,OhdH T Fc e f
73
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QdG jN
Ob f e fG FdG CG QdG IYO H
H ,a GG S LJ d fEG fh
ALQCG e We IG b Y kjCG LS
YG g Y f ,jdG dG e h .dG
,SDe OGM M dfG M OjEG EG eGdG
.H JhCG Yoj b b Mh gcCG j
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:G H SG jh .fdG 1904 S H
CG Hh ,W jdh kLhe LdG Gg ch .jdG
EG of Gc b Vhh SdH H JhCG ob
:H JhGC
.zGG jM dG{
Y VH QdG AY b M ,IG jdG

UH ebh ,IOdG e iNCG GfCG fL EG dG jd S #e QG
Qjf rfhH GM jM EG f eY Hh .fEd dfG M bCG
Hh fdG IOb e OGaCG H e fEd dG dG e VYh
Y jW N AdEH , jG je ,GOfQg JCjh QdG QcdG bh ,qjQdG
G H JhCG eYh jM jdG fG dG Gg OLH a ie
fG a ,d #J dG eG Y JQb d kGfh .OY GM fCch dG
(60) !jdG H JhCG
QdG AY CG FdG g c J ...H JhCG ,SGf fEG ,hGH fEG

GPEGh .jf KEG S dG Z FSdG GfCG e f CG GSG Y YQj
aGN CH eYG iNCG dOCG Y If f eY ,QYG dG g fNCG
kGe YG e kLh dN b S gh .kHe kbe LGa ,fEG QJ
.dG g KEG LCG e AT c Hd
74
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SdG dG
f
E G QJ jQS
QJ EG ODJ CG dG dBG jCG LJ fCG HdG dG jCGQ
ICa X H ,jQJ Y f OLdG M NJ AMCG GfCG CGh ,AMCG
QJ CG d j K eh .IM Y -e f c-
r np N
o fCG CG ;G G cJ
!kGHCG b j ,kjCG ,fEG
?dG d SCc -PEG- QdG IYO ej dG e
Gj CG QdG IYd dG GG e dG OLh SCG Gg j
c IOdG GfCG e f BG S e cCG Y ,jQdG e Yh .dN jhCJ Y
e kYf jYh e iS #QCG S Y -dG- Lj h , kGe #GfG
.QdG IYd kjK kGQe (e #fG dG) g f BG dG h .IOdG GfCG
J dG LG H J jW Y fEG QJ jQS QdG IYO nc d
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QJ bh ,ce kaSCG jG IOdGh d Ea :jQdG Gg OQh Mh .H
JG iNCG lY UCG M ,dG nIOb H Qa edG Qh FdG g
dG nfEG QdG ha e NBG kYa
CG XCG b LddGh ,jdGh ,LdfdG dG Ff L CG Z
J j PEG ;dGh H -iNCG GAYOG e c- j QdG AYOG Gg
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.uG dGh SdGh
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J fEa ,fEd SCG fCG QdG IYO Yqj dG GG d dH eCG
.NG K (Y BG IY f b) kGL jb Ia M TY b jH kSLCG
H J dG H J dGR e dG jdG G e jdG Ea ,dP Y kah
QdG IYO Yj dG ,VG jdG LCG H J dG jG dGh dG
75
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QdG jN
jCH b s fEG CG Y kVGh kdO ATCG g c Jh .fEG SCG fCG
.jQdG Ga e Ia jCG QJ Y
j ,dGh IOdG H d M jJ aNG OLh g ,c dP e gCGh
Y G gMCG jh .QdG Y N e j CG dG dG e e CG
c ,fEd I U j eb Y G Ea :kM dH S ch .eb
.iNCG fGG Y fEG dG "GG gCG iMEG fCG
f
E d sG FdG IT
dG bG GfCG MCG e QJ b dG fEG CH hQGdG AYOG j
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dG fEG H dfG TCG H OLh fhQGdG Yqj ,S je N
a HQCH Fb Vh ,e e dG e H G jQdG Gd kahh .aSCGh
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(Australopithecine). HG OdG-1
(Homo habilis). GhOCG GSG Y QOdG fEG-2
(Homo erectus). edG e fEG-3
(Homo sapiens). bdG fEG-4
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dh , GfCG HG IOdG dh .(HG jaEG OdG :CG) Australopithecus
M ,jb H H jh .VG IOdG fCG e b f O e cCG d
.dGh G H NBG dG j
fEG : CG) Homo SG fEG QJ e JBG MG QdG IYO jh
cCG J fEG S LQG G FdG Ea ,QdG IYO Yj Mh
dG fEG EG jh .dG fEG Y kGc J h ,HG OdG e kGQJ
G QJ MGe e Me NBG q J b ,bdG fEG CG ,dG jCG OLG
.dG
76
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eG d IQGT H IMGh a Y
Oe a Y QdG jHeGQ h
C G IG
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dGh ,FYh ,jHeGdG jH -IGC L H- QdG
!Jg dG Y Y a OYH ,a GTY dG
FSh J dG) Sdh H fEGh IhL fEG e G j a eCGh

(QdG IYH UG GVG ch GQG LJ dGh ,NB M e YEG
GfCG Y CJ CG #oj dG ,YCG IQcG HQCG GfCG MCG se g a
(sub-species). Ya
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E a HG IOdG J dG HGhdG d jdG G Vh N eh
IYO qj ,bdG fEa edG e fEa GhOCG GSG Y QOdG f
dG c ,dP eh .NBG d knnS oj GfCG g e f c CG EG QdG
GhOCG GSG Y QOdG fEGh HG IOdG CG GG Ad INCG dG
H .edG IdG f dG e We GTY b edG e fEGh
fEG a G dG e ke kb CG kjCG dG c ,Gg e cCGh
E
E Gh JQfdG bdG fEG CG c .kGL jM QY M GTY b edG e
77
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QdG jN
VH VdG jh .G f ke TY b (Homo sapiens sapiens) dG f
.dG d SCG GfCG g CH FdG AYOG H EG
GG S CG dG dGh acG c XCG ,dG MdG eh
GH j a eCG .QdG IYO MbG e M QJ Y jCG hH Mj
fCG hCG dG e kSLCG J fCG eEa dG SCG fCG QdG AY YOG dG
.IOdG e kYGfCG J
IMGh CG QYG G e g ?IOdG j jCGh fEG j GG CG ,PEG
e a c Y bCG If f fYO ,SCG d HLEG Y d ?kdfG kT e
.dG
IOdG GfGC e f :jHdGSh

C G
.HG OdG J ,hCG dG CG ,(Australopithecus) jHdGShCG c EG
Yh kjJ S je HQCG b jaCG Ie hC X b FdG Gg j CG #jh
bCG CG QdG IYO #j PEG ;FGdG H dG Gg jh .e S e f M
(A. Africanus)
jaCG HG OdG JCj ,(A. Afarensis) g HG IOdG GfCG e f
eCG .kf cCG H j dG (A. Robustus) dG HG OdG K ,fCG H j dG

kYf UH fj MdG H Ea ,(A.
Boisei)
MG HG OdH j a
HG IOdG GfCG e kYa kYf hCG FW UH j NBG dG CG M ,k

.jdG
S L CG dP .dG IOb J Ve IOb HG IOdG GfCG L Jh
LQCGh jjCG LJh .Y J hCG dG IOLG fdG IOb LL S OJ
LQCG J c ,dG IOd dH G g c QTCG J eJ IRQH AGLCG
IOdG g Jh .QTCG ha Y dG JY ATCG b Y IQdH
IOd dH G g ch .(kGS KKh e dW Rhj PEG) edG H
e jdG LJh .fCG e kM cCG HG OdG cP Ea ,dG IOLG fdG
g eh ,dG IOb Y J J G FdG g CG Y kdO J dG dG
78
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fEG QJ jQS
bh ,YQPCG Wh ,a Hh ,SGVCG IMh ,fY QJh ,LL :dOCG
.LQCG
IObh HG IOd jdG dG HJ e ZdG Y fCG QdG IYO Yjh
!IOdG H dG e edG e HG IOdG CG EG ,dG
Ge AY j c dG CGdG -bGdG - e eH G AYOG jh
b AdG e dG CG Z ,dG GY e fgj dfhOh d OQjQ eCG
g H GKCGh HG IOd dG cdG Y dG e c Qb AGLEH Geb
,IG jdGh GfEG e dG ie Y jJ npdY TCG iLCG bh .G
Y e kKH ,OQnrchCG dQJ QahdGh echR S OQdG gh
f J H eb Y bG g CG XCG dG HG IOdG Y
GG g Y echR OQdG QO CG Hh .dG IOb eJ dG G jW
N e G jah g UJ ,fjdG eG e YH keY Y N I
jOdG IOdG GfCG e f iS J HG IOdG CG gOe f EG UNG
MCG c f echR CG e ZdG Y dPh ,eb Y J -T H- fCGh
QdG IYO e NBG GO gh ,OQchCG dQJ kjCG b ,He f Yh (62) QdG IYO
dG dH HG IOd dG dG H ,VG Gg KH jQG
Hd eL e ja GC H 1994, S ,kGNCGh (63) jG JhCG fGQhCG jQd
SG ,jdG h .IcDe f EG UdG LCG e e H AGLEG GfEH
(64) .GbCG HQCG Y HG IOdG :CG jdG
GfCG e #e f O fC ,dH HG IOdG Hj e Lj ,QNHh

.IOdG
:GhO
C G GSG Y QOdG f
E G
fGE fGC Y J dG OdG
dch ,fdGh HG IOd Gh dG dG H dG HdG EG
Qb QX qJ b ,edG e J fc FdG g CH FdG AYOG MO
79
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#e Ob :(Australopithecus Aferensis) HG OdG hGC jHdGSh

C G
,jKC H QGOg ne Ie hGC

f rpaGC a GE J fGC #jh
bh .Sd hGC (AL 288-1 bQ)
GC Gd jW Id QdG IYO Vf
,edG e G J Sd
cC J H KGC dG MGC dh
j OY Ob g GG Gg GC
.AfH
(AL 333-105) bQ IG eGC

GE a dG SGC J dG
dG Gdh ,dG Gg e T
.L Y RhH GC s j
04
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Page 81
AUSTRALOPITHECUS
HG OdG
bQ HG OdG L YGC J
L Jh ,(AL 444-2)
GC j VGdG dG GE .Ue Od
(HG OdG hGC ) jHdGSh
C G
ee jGC hH IOdG e OY f g
.dH T
MODERN CHIMP
Ue fT
04
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Page 82
QdG jN
EG dP dG Ljh .QdG QfCG e GG Ad dH HdG e c
.HG IOdG H FdG e fEG JJ JCj ,Qd G G M ,fCG
g jd dG UCG e U g edG e fEG Ea ,fEG c MJ ch
dG jh .HG IOdG L S V L S Jh ,e Y
e fEG EG (fdH T IOb Y IQY g dG) HG IOdG e TG
jd dH M k kGeCG ,dG g dG fEG Y j dG edG
X ,IQhdG g eh .dfG TCG CG ;HGhQ OLh IQhV AL g eh .QdG
(Homo Habilis). GhOCG GSG Y QOdG fEG Ia
H ,Gd IFU fCH cCH ahG ,d ISCG eb ,dG h

dG Gg Ea ,d ISC kahh .GhOCG GSG Y QOdG fEH "G dG
cCG S GP H j GhOCG GSG Y QOb fEG fCG Y U dG jG
CG K eh .Gh jG GhOCG GSGh e eH G Y IQbh ,kf
.fEd knnS dG Gg j
Z fdG NGhCG dG f e ocG dG IjG GG CG Z
Y GYG jdG jH fQd h Ohh OQfH eCG) MdG H U a .ke CGdG Gg
j e gh ,GhOCG GSG Y QOdG fEG CH (kjM G GG g
O OCG GSG Y IQOdG HG IOdG a sj CG j ,Homo habilis e
H Ic ce U g C ;Australopithecus habilis e j e gh ,Gh
- fEG Gg j PEG .HG IOdH IG IOdGh GhOCG GSG Y QOdG fEG
dG dH T Y gh ,Ib LQCGh ,jW QPCH -HG IOdG e e
GL He dG a H Jh ,d Ie eb HUCGh jj HUCG CG c .IOd
Y kdO j 3S 600 ddG L S Se CG c ,dG IOH UG d
dG ,GhOCG GSG Y QOdG fEG CH dG ,QNHh .kGOb fc M
ac e e IOdG GfCG e f bGdG g ,k kYf UH QdG IYO H eb
.iNCG HG IOdG
Y QOdG fEG CG ka JBG GdG jLCG dG dG XCG bh
82
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#e NGB Ob :GhO
C G GSG Y QOdG f
E G
GC jW Id QdG IYO YOG

SG Y GWGC dG bG
QOdG f
E G GC ) Homo habilis
G J (GhO
C G GSG Y
fGC j Gfch ,e eH
E
E G GE OdG e M GhLh
dG Ia ,dP eh .f
1986 Y jGh J cG
.YdG Gg MO OH 62 g qSh
GC IG g AGLGC XGC d
O O
C G GSG Y QOdG f
E G
OH 7 Homo habilis IG GE
dG IG g fc -g sVGdG S Lh aGC Y as Y
LQh jW YGQP jd Gh
Y QOdG f
E G d dG
IOdG e ke ;Jb
jh. GhO
C G GSG
g Vh ,Ggh .IUG
C C H IG d dG dG
f
E G C H Yd jf IG
J c ,Ic Wb S
c GhO
C G GSG Y QOdG
dG jh ,G IU fC H
h .edG e eb Y
g c h . kHe kT dG
Y QOdG f
E G j ,G
kGL kHe hj dG Gg dG
e NGB f iS GhO
C G GSG
IQHh .dG IOH "G d
.IOdG GfGC
QOdG f
E d dG dG E a ,iNGC
Ie- cD j GhO
C G GSG Y
.dH Ob g FdG Gg GC -iNGC
04
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QdG jN
OH 62 IG L H bh .T HG IOdG Y j GhOCG GSG
L S H j dG Gg CG jGh J Y Y GdG dG gh
.ke dG IOb e e ,QTCG ha J e ,bS bh YGQP Wh
S g jeCG LdHhfCG Y JLCG dG JCdG ddG dO bh
c H ,kffEG j GhOCG GSG Y QOdG fEG j e CG 1994 S
Y QOdG fEGh ,HG IOdG SCG Y JLCG dG ddH j ah .kGOb
:JCj e S Qb ,GQfdG fEGh ,edG e fEGh ,GhOCG GSG
CG EG QTCG SCG QJ Hh W EG SG dG ddG EG
J eCGh ,jaCG OhdG CG f EG j Hgegh cHdGSCG
f fCG EG QTCG a JQfdG fEGh edG e fEH UG
(65) .UG fEd IFdG dG
e Lh) fhR fGah Ohh OQfHh QS Oa UJ ,dG f h

g Jh .ke jW GSH dh dG f EG (jdG UNG
fEd NGdG PCG IOLG jFGdG T Gd QG dG Y jdG
e dG fEG Gb NG bh .RGdG Y G Y dhDGh OdGh
,dP Y kah .eCG EG ke dG OdH UG J Y kGc kaNG edG
QOdG fEG Y dch ,HG IOdG d NGdG PCG Gb Ff AL
K c AL ,fhRh Ohhh QS e c M dG GhOCG GSG Y
e fEd NGdG PCG Gb FH j a eCG .jdG IOdG Gd
(66) .dG fEG Gd K fCG dG KCG a ,edG
:g eg f SG Gg RaCG bh
J GhOCG GSG Y QOdG fEG SH dEG QG GG CG -1
.HG IOdG FW EG J fc H ,fEG FW EG bGdG J
FdG e kL fc HG IOdGh GhOCG GSG Y QOdG fEG CG -2
jCG d dh IOdG d K Y H JBHh ,e J dG G
.fEH c f CG e bY
84
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fEG QJ jQS
C N G LdG :dhOhQ fGE

H Y WGoC dG SG g (Homo
Rudolfensis)
dhOhQ fEG e EG
e dG FdG Y SG f WCG bh 1972. S acG Ie J AGLCG

f e He Y IG AGLCG Y QdG H dPh ,IG g CG #G
, f EG J GG g CH GG AY e jh .c dhOhQ
.GhOCG GSG Y QOb fEG bGdG g dhOhQ fEH G G FdG EG H
Y WCG dG) G H ,GG cG dG ,d OQjQ b bh
jQJ cG YCG fCG Y (S e 2^8 j gY EG bh KNM-ER 1470 SG
S fc dG ,FdG Gg Ea ,d kahh .Sc kGQKBG d CG Yh LdHhfCG
IOG G g ,fEG Lh e Lh c dP eh HG OdG e IU L
KNM-ER 1470 G Lh CG JG ,Ib Ia H ,dh .fEGh HG OdG H
e d f AL dG G ZCG Y X e kGc dGh fEG LH dG

QahdG LhCG bh .Y Y M b j CG G e dG eCG ,G AGLC
c dG G g ,fEG Lh jJ M SGQO iLCG dG ,ehH J
:dH ,1992 S HSG IcG IY
G Y LdG cJ Ie hC "KNM-ER 1470" G AH nYGoC eY
dh ,dG fEd G LdH j e TCGh kjOY j Oj Vh
LdG Rj CG H dG IG CG XCG jdG bd INCG SGQdG
(67) HG IOdG Lh iMCH J H ,OdG ee J ee kf
u e e H
:JCj e fhc QdG GG Y VG Gg ch
- jJ H cJ YCG CG DhH dG -G g Lh Md d)
bQ IG CG EG QTCG dG dG e gZh fCG ch,dG M U
KNM-ER 1470 Ie CG c .FGdG dG g HG IOdG QJ KNM-ER 1470
GP HG IOdG e ce JU - fEd IG iNCG PdG e e -

fEG G INCG ffEG PdG dG g LJ h .IdG dG
(68)(G
85
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QdG jN
dG ddG H SG f EG e eL e GH Qd UJ bh
Sh dG M c EG bh ,SGVCGh KNM-ER 1470 G a cJ Y gGLCG
fSCGh HG OdG Lh f G d CG VhCG GVCG J dG AG
(69) .dH
AGLEH b dG ,Hg L eL e GG Y ,dGh CG QahdG eCG

G FdG Gg EG kFb aGO a ,d GLCG dG QdG H G g Y SGQO
fEGh GhOCG GSG Y QOdG fEG e jdG GfCG a j CG j
(70) .HG OdG GfCH UG dG EG j CG j dG Y H ,dhOhQ
GhOCG GSG Y QOdG fEG J e J oJ :S kGRjEGh

fEGh HG IOdG H dfG M UH J dG ,dhOhQ fEG hCG
g Ea ,dG MdG e jdG cCG ch .G hV e kHV ,edG e
CG J jdG UGN c CG PEG ;HG OdG S kGOGaCG J G FdG
.IOdG GfCG e kYf e kc
GG ,IOdG GfCG e kYf e MGh c oj dG ,FdG g Jh
.jdG
dG :H eh edG e f
E G
fEG GfC NGdG QdG j ,QdG IYd dG G OQh Mh
fEGh dG bdG fEG K ,edG e fEG ,khCG :JBG bCG EG
,dP eh dG fEG GNCGh ,(Cro-Magnon) fehdG fEG JCj ,JQfdG
NG jj h ,UCG jH LCG iS -bGdG - g e dG g c Ea
.HhQhCGh Z H hCG OSCG Th SCG e T H NG Y H
.FGH dG GfCG cCG UH dEG Qj dG ,edG e fEG khCG Qa
dG fEG j Homo
erectus
e Ea ,(erect) e c MJ a
U aVEH HS Y fEG Gg EG QdG IYO VG bh .edG e

dG eSH J edG e fEd MG GG c CG dP ;fG
86
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Page 87
b H L :edG e f
E G
GQa Hc Lh L dG
J GC h 1975 Y jaC H
,edG e f
E d keY kjJ
G idG G J c
#dG GR e dG KNM-ER 3733
.H j
Ge G dG GE
g jG edG e f
E G
Jh ,3 S 1100h 900 H hGJ
LG S OhM V bQ
C G g
.IUG jdG
f
E G Homo erectus IQY J
L Jh .edG e
GE dG Gg G GG
e
C kGfh .e jH GfGC
edG e f
E G Ge
e j ,ce U H
AD g jJ j GC kGL dG
dG g Ggh ,L kah dG
IYO e MH L dG
Jh J j QdG
G dG YGC Jh .Ye
Y J dG (fcQJ W L hGC ) KNM-WT 15000 G J b

Y QdG jH jM cGC h H LQ
C G Y jH jM bGC fG
gY GE j dG IG g Y jLGC dG dG e jh .
B G M
S 180 S dW c S 12 Y W GE J fGC S e 1^6 j
MGC J ,JQfdG G K dG ,IG gh .gGG Me H GPGE
dfhO QdG dG jh .dG QdG b J dG kYhQ dO
C G YGC
SdGh L T c . kfh kjW c :dc IG g fL
M GC c ,AGSG N Y j jdG dG bQa
C G e aGWGC H
j jdG dG e dG ddG GWGC M e kc kaGe c aGWGC
.ddG ceGC
04
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Page 88
S dGC 700 b IQH
...H bJ cPGC eGdG dG c

j jdG- dG GC 1998 Qe 14 IQOdG jG dG f dG QN
C G J
,dG AD gh .S dGC 700 e MG a SQ Gfc -edG e f
E G SG QdG IYO Y
dG e OSG aK cGh S AH e e ac LdJh ee jd aJ jdG
.FGH gf GC ,dG
O OCG GSG Y QOdG fEG hCG HG IOdG Y e Y jCG noJ LQH

e fEG j eh dG fEd dG dG H a CG Lj h .Gh
.edG
Y edG e fEG jJ EG QdG IYO aO dG FdG dG jh
id dG Se e UCG J dG ,(3S 1100 - 900) L S FGH fCG
"TCG e kGc Ea ,dP eh .dG LGM GAf dch ,dG fEG
e) edG e fEd G dG f jd dG dG j jdG
dGSCG S e LGG AH kjCG J iNCG LCG gh ,G S Y GbCG
.G S Y UCG
Y -IQhdH- J G S aNG CG IOY Y G FG eh
d NGdG dG Y j AcdG CG dP ;GQdG hCG AcdG aNG OLh
(71) .M Y e cCG
fEG nJe edG e fEH dG aqY dG GG Jh

JG Jg CG bdG Qh JG dh .SBG nG IhL fEGh H
88
04
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Page 89
fEG QJ jQS
,dUCG a G e UY H iS d H fEG C ;Y OYG

QdG #M Y dEG VCG mL e AL e ksce c IhL fEG CG M
EG J dG Jg CG Y FO jCG OLh hO G e QeCG H Y Y
Y Y dG edG e fEG Ge M ,dG Gd .G FdG f
.IjGe gCH jaCG
Ie g edG e fEd jaCG G dG TCG dh
IH b Y oY dG
(Turkana Boy)
fcQJ Z hCG
Narikotome homo erectus
S c Y e Y fdG d IG CG Y cCdG bh .c fcQJ

dH "G OdG cdG j h .S 183 f EG gGG S dW
Y b OdG Gg h .dG fEG e Y j Id dG
H dG Y LdfH Y CG IQb j fEG dGh CG jeCG GG
d dHh (72) dG fEd dG dG Hh IG d dG dG
dG iS ch (73) JQfdG fEG H J e TCG fEG :dGh b
.dG fEG LCG MCG JQfdG fEG j ,JBG
aNG CG Oe jH OCG ,QdG IYO MCG j dG ,d OQjQ Mh
H YJ O e cCG d dG fEG Hh edG e fEG H IOLG
:LCG
,LGG Zh LdG RhH LQOh G T aNG kjCG AG iS
dG aNG e LQCG Y kMVh cCG d aNG g dh .dP Zh
LddG dG Gg jh .dG fEd G aGG LCG H dG gGf
(74) .edG e kGL jW Gd dG H Y kaGL YG J eY
e jJ SGQO fc eL e dh JCjh QahdG iLCG bh

dG ADg H OY Z HJ OLh Mh dCG QL Sh SCG T Y
LCG g c CG dh dEG UJ dG SG h .edG e fEGh
:dG fEG CG bdG fEG e LCG -bGdG - g IG
SCG eCG dG YG H IOLG SdG aNG eCf eY
89
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Page 90
QdG YN
j CG QsG e hj ,bdG fEG f EG J fCG hG e dG ,TdGh
f f EG J - YH hG - G fEG e nG dG g CG AG
(75) .dG fEG CG HS eg
- dG G CG -edG e fEG H Fg Ia LJ ,iNCG Mf eh

E
E Gh HG IOdG : gh jQdG Gg IOdG GfCG Hh VG QdG jQS
GhX b FGhCG dG CG Gg jh .(dhOhQ fEGh GhOCG GSG Y QOdG f
VhCG dO LJ CG h ,QJ jQJ CG hO QdG Yh ICa GG S
.GoN b fCG Y dP e
IYd G LdjCGh dG e ke #Qj G H GYG dh
L gh ,edG e fEG GhQj CG IYdG ADg hj ,dd fh .QdG
e fEG AH hj eY fCG dd .Ob f Fc fCG Y ,H H
,SdG W f GSHh ,iNCG Mf eh .OhdG e SH j edG
Y QOdG fEG fj eh HG OdG eCG IOn b Y jdG dG j
IdG ZEGh dG EG IOdG jJ EG j ,jdG Hh .GhOCG GSG
.AMCG e JG FdG Jg H IdG
dJQfdG
e b ICa X dG e Y Y IQY g (Neanderthals) dJQfdG
AhH (GeG jW Y iNCG LCG HSG hCG) NGh HhQhCG S dCG
CG g dG fEG Hh H MdG dG ch .S dCG 35 e YH dh
.kb cCG L Sh ibCG dG g
hM bh .dG G H j G Ojh ,kjH kL dJQfdG q jo h
fCG Y J acG c dh ,FGH f fCG Y gej CG IH QdG IYO
jQG dG AdG MCG c bh .dG QdG b fEG CG Y j
:JCj e (ef eL e GG Y ,hjGJ jQEG gh) VG Gg
jHh JQfdG fEd dG dG jH H JCdG fQG XCG d
90
04
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Page 91
fEG QJ jQS
AT CG OLh Y dG fEd dG dG
CG Y Wb H dj JQfdG fEG jJ
e bCG jdG hCG jdG hCG jhdG hCG cG JGQb
(76) .dG fEG JGf
EG jUG MdG e jdG j dG Gdh

GfCG e kYa kYf UH JQfdG fEG jJ
JQfdG G SG Y jh dG fEG
Jh
(Homo sapiens neandertalensis).
bdG fEd
,gJe aj Gfc dJQfdG CG dG acG

e aK HGb h ,SG BG jh
fGC e ZdG Y :FGR bGC

GC GE ,UG f
E G Y j
hQj GdGR e QdG IYO
j fGC Y dJQfdG
.IOdG
.edG IdG f j c dG dG fEG

.edG Qh a #fG kjb kjH kL dJQfdG j :bO f Yh
,LHQg edGh ,dG bdG f

E G
fehdG f
E Gh
dG fEG b IN NBG (Homo Sapiens Archaic) dG bdG fEG oj
ADg Y dd dG QdG IYO ,bGdG h .Qd JCdG G
H gj H .dG fEG Hh H kGL H aNG iS LJ PEG ,dG
dG EG hjh ,dG M AMCG GdGR e G Gg CH dG EG MdG
fEG e e ,kjCG g UCG dG jh .c dGSCG UCG
.kb UCG S Lh eCG EG Fe S ah c IRQH LGH ,bdG
G GTY b dG ADg e CG EG J e acG KM ,dP Y kah
.IH d Ia b djEG ib H h
LHQg eg SH QdG OCG ahG dG Y j a eCG
Ljh .dG bdG fEG Y f e J fEa ,(Homo
Heilderbergensis)
gG NG EG JGP dG G jd ne GSG dG
91
04
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Page 92
jb LC H fGC :dJQfdG
e T L dG AG J
(1 OeGC qoS) JQfdG G
f
E G Y ojh .a Y oY
eh .b dh b fGC keY JQfdG
H IG g MU W Qj ,dP
S cGC L S Jh .S 180
g dh .3 S 1740 :
B G M X
V e fe IG g ,S
C G
FdG GAYOG Y ke J dG FdG
.kFGH kYf Gfc dJQfdG C H
92
04
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Page 93
fEG QJ jQS
EG LHQg edG J sG GG c Jh .QdG IYO id

GTY bh ,jdG MdG e kGc kT jdG HhQhCG j "TCG fCG
.S dCG S EG dCG N b fSEG K khCG GfEG
dCG KK b Y b (Cro-Magnon) fehdG fEG CG EG GjdG Jh
ddG L S fch .jY Lh b T Y H j ch ,S
c ,c LGM e RJh dG fEG L S Se J 3S 1600
E EGh JQfdG fEG e d IG dG MCG j dG Y AH j c
.edG e f
L H CG EG ,kHhQhCG kL oj fehdG fEG CG e ZdG Yh
FGSG WGh jaCG J dG LCG H -Ic LQH- j Mh
LCG MCG c fehdG fEG CG dG ij ,dG Gg EG kGOSGh .dG
LCG CG iNCG LdHhfCGddG acG H H bh .dG jaCG
dG LCd SCG Vhh dG H e LeG b dJQfdGh ffehdG
e fehdG G CG dG ejCG G a ,Gg EG aVEHh .dG gGf
,fa jhOQhOh dS bEG h jaCG IQb e We j GdGR
.Gh GdH j He H j fCG OLh kjCG Md bh
!!aSGC e dG f J GfGC
fEG QJ jQS EG :gh CG ,d VGh IQU BG M SQO e c j
b jQJ QJ j CG j ,c FY IT nLJ d fCG dP .N N g
b QdG GH "G GG S j CG j c ,fEG EG OdG e M
Sh ,dG dG AH qoj PEG ;dGh IOnp dG H Fg Ia LJ ,dP eh .acG
edG e ,eCG EG OM AfH hCG e eH G e iNCG jeh ,G
1994 S LCG dG jG dG EG fTCG bh) IOdGh dG H bQdG IG
Y QOdG fEGh HG OdG J M ,NGdG PCG RGdG Gb M
.(dG a V edG e fEG q oU H ,IOdG a V GhOCG GSG
93
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Page 94
QdG jN
:S dGC 26 gY IHGE
GC J Ie Ie
ae jd fc dJQfdG
QZOGE h fL Y) HH
GE Sd e :Hc
.(99 " ,dG
GfCG g H FY IT OLh feEG Y cDj NBG e cG gh

d SCG fCG Y J dG GfCG CG cG Gg jh ,G
b HG OdG c GPEa .dG f dG H e -bGdG - TY b dG
G Gg c GPEGh ,ATCG GSG Y QOb fEG EG -QdG IYO Yj M-
g J CG -IQhdH- #oa ,edG e fEG EG ,QhH , b f
.edG JdG Gg e Lj ,dP eh .be QY TY b FdG
M S je HQCG e HG IOdG TY a ,QdG IYO GjJ Mh
fEG fCG Y J dG G FdG CG oj ,iNCG Mf eh .e S e
j a eCG .e S e 1^9 EG 1^7 M TY b GhOCG GSG Y QOb
a ,GhOCG GSG Y QOdG fEG e kGQJ cCG fEG j dG ,dOhQ fEH
e j cCG dOhQ fEG CG CG !S e 2^8 h 2^5 H hGj Y CG hG
eh !d knS
n j CG #jo dG GhOCG GSG Y QOdG fEG e S e
CG j ;S e 1^6 f EG edG e fEG Y Lj ,iNCG Mf
,YG d edG QWEG f #QCG Y X b edG e fEG Y
.GhOCG GSG Y QOdG fEG CG
kGOGaCG CG Y jaCG bT e dOCG LJ :Fb G g Y dGh BG cDjh
fEG khCG UJ fc INCe Ia M AdG d oc b HG IOdG a e JCb
94
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Page 95
fEG QJ jQS
Y d jd Y bh (77) edG e fEG K ,GhOCG GSG Y QOdG

e fEGh GhOCG GSG Y QOdG fEGh HG OdG e d Ge
W e fdG dG QL ahdhCG bEG d IQh J OJ edG
(78) .#QCG
eL e GG Y jh .dG Gg e FY Id OLh fCG cDG eh

g fc e ZdG Y- QdG jf LGj dG RCG Gg ,dZ L S ,OaQg
:dH -QdG IYO e f
fEH dG FdG e S K g fc GPEG QdG qH M GPe
-GhOCG GSG Y QOdG fEGh jdG HG IOdGh jaEG HG IOdG,dP ah ?NBG e Qj e kjCG CG VGdG eh ,edG IdG f ke J
(79)!#QCG Y FH Ia AKCG jQJ e jCG dG dG e dS jCG J
LJ fCG -kfK- if ,bdG fEG EG edG e fEG e f eYh

fEGh edG e fEG CG J dOCG a .Y f CG FY IT jCG
e S BG IY M H ,S dCG 27 b M IG b Y X b dG bdG
j edG e fC LL Y QdG dGSCH hc e a .G eR
e fEG L Y oY a IhL IjL eCG ,kjJ S dCG 13 f gY
(80) .S dCG 27 gY edG
bdG f
E d dG jQdG
FdG IT Y J dG SCG HEH J eh ge M cCG EG
dP .be Z H dG ZG dG fEG jQJ g QdG jf G
jdG ,bdG fEG f EG G "TCG CG J LdHhfCGddG fdG CG
.Ve S e e j e EG jQJ M GTY b ,e fj Gfc
dG g ,QdG dG HhfCGddG Y ,d jd CG cdH jLh
bEG 1932 S d Y a .VG Gg M acG hCG EG UJ
SdG dG EG OJ Ge H Y H jQa IH M Gc
95
04
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Page 96
QdG jN
.T dG fEG Y J J ShCG
S e j ShCG SdG dG dh
IT b b acG g CG h .(81) e
H aQ a ,Y Y kSCGQ jQdG FdG
,dP eh .QdG QfCG e HhfCGddG AY
.U fc JGjJ CG kFGO cDj d X
jW NCj CG Th Y G Gg c eYh
S fSCG Y oY Ie OCG ,dG EG
fEG jQJ CG Y FGQ jH dG EG 1995
Y oY bh .kVe c H bCG bdG
rGrZ SH j c dG IG
e KK SGH fSEG cQHJCG e dhO
.jQe eL e SEG HhfCGddG AY
Y e IY jOG Z Ld IG fch
b S dCG K dh ,ke dG fEG j

o ndG Z bh .dG e Y fG
jQhdG cGC e IMGh eb

,QdG HOGC T
Lh VH ,Discover
E G
800 dG e ddG f
kHe aZ Y S dGC
Gg c g :QdG IYO GD H
.?VG Lh
.dG e c QH 1997 S (jO) hCG fc QOdG gOY ,Discover

GZ d aSG dG Ob dG QGa Ge IG g YYR d
:QGa b a .dhO
CG bJ d kFGH T ,J c ...ke kV kT ,kGc kT CG bJ d
kLh c Y fY e dh ,fcQJ d kHe S dCG K Y Z j
e Gc kGHCG be Z T Y QdG c d ...kGe eCG c dH .ke kGUe
QdG oj e be Z eCG Ge Y QdG a ;fc J dG bGG Yf
J c e CG eCG e hQCG CG Z .dP CH dh ,kjCG be Z kGeCG Y
e ...e T Y QdG j eCG EG .VG EG j fCG JG VG EG j fCG
Y QdG bf a ;kGL kge GeCG Gg S .dhO GZ c J RL
Lh Y QdG jh .SCG SdG dG J ILCGh Sc WTCG
96
04
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Page 97
fEG QJ jQS
(82).LdG Gg jCGQ eY kGL goO a dd .kK kGeCG Ue
S dCG K EG Oj CG j bdG fEG jQJ CG Y IG cCG d

CG GhQb ,hCG edG e IG GcG jdG QdG AY aCG CG Hh .e
e d -jQdG FdG IT OQh kah- fC , f EG J IG
kYf GNG dG Gdh .S dCG K b Y b bdG fEG j CG #nG
Gg EG cQHJCG L GVh (Homo antecessor) nsdG fEG SG Y GWCG kdN
.dG
S e 1^7 Y c
.S dCG 800 b M bdG fEG OLh J dG acG e dG g
dG FGhCG Y Y dG d jd cG acG g iMEG Jh
#QCG W e fdG dG jdHh ,G g a .QL hdhCG e
fEGh GhOCG GSG Y QOdG fEGh HG OdG GfCG CG d cG (Bed II)
IdG f ke J fc edG e
g gd IQKEG cCG eCG dh .edG
f dG d Y Y dG AdG
Y d Y ,dG g a .(fdG dG)
OdG Z fG jh .M c jH
Gj dG ,AdG Gg CG G Gg
c e ,jaCG e AGLCG H j
,K eh !bdG fEG Z FH j CG MC
OdG j CG H a ,d dEG UJ kahh
O OCG GSG Y QOdG fEGh ,HG
fEGh ,edG e fEGh ,Gh
e 1^7 f b ke GTY b ,dG
(83) .kjJ S
97
1^7 Y c acG S
.dG d eU S e
dG Gc
C G j c d
.dG bQa
C G H ej
04
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20:05
Page 98
QdG jN
fEG CG YqJ dG QdG jf j CG H cG Gg CG T Lj h
.HG OdG e IOdH T GfCG e QJ b dG
!S e 3^6 gY Y fGE GbGC QKGB

1^7 b e EG dG fEG UCG -dH- iNCG acG H LoJ
1977 S d Qe Y Y dG GbCG QKBG acG g gCG eh .S e
Quob dG #QCG W iMEG QKBG Y Qe Y d .fGJ J e
GbCG QKBG Y J J QKBG g CG dP e gCGh ,S e 3^6 H gY
.dG fEG qj dG
AY e Ol Y -H a- d Qe Y Y dG GbCG nQKBG QO bh
.K FdG ALh ,jGh Jh fgj hO eCG e jQG HhfCGddG
:JCj e jGh c bh
GbCG QKBG J QKBG g CG T fOCG Lj
WGT MCG eQ Y coJ fCG dh ;dG fEG
ge Y Y e HGdG W Sh fQdc
j dh ,g e e kT CG G a
Y YG iNCG QKBG e G Hh H dG
(84) !dc fCG J dh ,WdG
T eL e) HhQ jd a CG Hh
:JBG dH OCG GbCG QKBG (fQdc
UCG CG VGdG eh ,Je dG b EG
,eb b e YCG H j dG Gg T
...dG UEd Pm h l V dG dG UEG CG c
Y J e #QCG Y dG HUCG Jh
fGG TCG Gg iJ fCGh .fEG HUCG
(85) .iNCG
98
fc J GbGC QKGB
,jUe H GE J
gY c dP eh
.dG je
04
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Page 99
fEG QJ jQS
dG sG FdG IT H j NGB e
e 2^3 Y S a :QdG IYO gHG
ocG bh. bY fGE ) Y f
E S
(AL 666-1 edG bdH G) dG Gg
QdG IYO Ye hh ,HKC H QGOg
kge kacG UH dGE IQT
E H Y VdG
e :Hc QZOGE h fL Y) ...kGL
.(169 " ,dG GE Sd
fCG kGQGJh kGQGe GbCG QKB dG dG Y jLGoC dG SGQdG XCG bh

fEG) Y fEG GbCG QKBG ,dP e cCG H ,fEG GbCG QKBG UH oJ CG j c
:kFb QKBG a dG JJ SGQ c bh .(bY
dG dG c H eh ...(jSeg)bY fEG GbCGd QKBG g OJ
fEG GbCG Hh QKBG g GN jdG OGaCG GbCG H dG d HdG
(86) .dG
.G HUCG Y GbCG QKBG Y jLCG dG IjG SGQdG c bh

e ITdG Y fE kGe kGKCG jY e -dH- fJ b g GbCG QKBa
.e jOY kSfCG cCdH Gfc d .kGY UCG fE kGKCG jYh Sh Y
AY bh ,d bd kGce J GbCG QKBG bG Gg L d
c fC bd J OjE Fj h QdG jf QfCG e HhfCGddG
3^6 b #QCG X Y c kjY kffEG CG M Gj CG Y dG e
QKBG CG QdG IYO Qb PEG ;Qj dG Gg GC H ,dG Ia Nh .S e
:jf OQh a ,HG OdG e J CG j c g GbCG
QOdG de JJ SGQ ch .S e 3^6 b bY fEG Lj CG j
:JCj e 1990 S
bG Y Yo dGh S e 3^5 dG e ddG GbCG QKBG J G
JS e CG MJ h .AGM j Y fE IOG GbCG QKBG J G
dh ,e IQb bCG edG FK fGM fc dH dG J e Fc CG
99
04
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20:05
Page 100
QdG jN
OGaCG e Oa EG OJ fCG -dH- S kGL b G bG GbCG QKBG CG kahe j
QKBG g CG #GaG EG he a dG e H dh ...fEG L
(87) (A. Afarensis f e CG ,(Sd) f e OJ
3^6 gY CG #oj dG g GbCG QKBG J CG G Z e ,QNHh

b GbCG QKBG CH OYG EG YO dG MdG dG ch .HL OH UN S e
a oY dG S e 3^6 dG e ddG fcdG dG g HL Ob Y J
CG G e d dG CG #GaG Y HL Ob EG QKBG of bh ,GbCG QKBG Y
.G dG Gg e GTY b Gfj
IYO CG :gh CG gCG jZ M J GbCG QKBH UG jhCdG d Jh
:gh !Y kZQ H ...dG acG SGQO jW Y jf Y aGj QdG
c jJ hCG gEG e ,T CG Y dG H YCG kYaO Y adG j jf jd
.VGZCG e jdG #QJ dG IjG G
Y kZQ IG b Y gDhHEG IY g H ,kY QdG jf J ,QNHh
.dG fCG
QdG jf LGj dG eb Y G RC e
Ga J ,BG M dhJ dG GG S Y dG H
QJ jGhQ HEG EG GdG g ODJh ,IOdGh fEG H jdG dG bZEG
.G jW GdG g iMEG Jh .fEG
e jd kUN kYf G g oJh ,eb Y edG e fEG PEG
J dG iNCG fGG H gh .NBG f CG Jge cG GfCG
HdG e fG j PEG ;G eb Y abh AKCG cG Y IOh IQH
J CG -ke- OJ M) IQOf MCG dEG C J dh ,jdG H J CG IOdGh
eCG EG dG cg e IOY PEG ,Ib Id EG H J h (W Qe EG
.c HQCG aGWCG Y h
IYO Yj c GbCG HQCG Y IOdG e e eb Y G QJ g ,PEG M
100
04
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20:05
Page 101
fEG QJ jQS
?QdG
CG h ,j edG Y G QJ CG dG XCG a . dH
H J dG jda ,jQJ Ie oj eb Y G C ,khCG .M b j
dH j CG fEG j a .eb Y fEG e e C cCGh SCGh SCG IOdG
G j fCG c ,fdG e #QCG Y j CG hO IT EG IT e
,eb Y fEG CG ,dG Y H .dG e YdG kGec 125 YH
GfCG cCG MCG fEG j ,dG dh .H CHCG YH #QCG Y j fEa
e ,QdG jf kahh .dG Y adGh cG M e dG G Z
GhQj CG dH kjM c H ;edG Y G d IOdG QJ CG #G e c
!HQCG Y dG FdG e Gd
P j eb Y G CG QdG AYOG e j NBG RCe jh
jf SCG j dG) PdG Gg j PEG .fhQGdH "G jQdG QdG
HQCG Y Gh eb Y G H qce e OLh (AJQGh AdG hCG ,QdG
Vj CG ehc HhQ fEG LdHhfCGddG Y SG a ,dP eh .GbCG
d qcG G g e CG -1996 S GLCG dG HSG dG SGHhCG edG e G FdG CG eEG :JBG SG EG ehc UJ bh .
H Sh e g J CG G Z e PEG (88) c HQCG aGWCG Y
Fc Lj CG j dG Gdh ,bdG SG a H KG
.eb Y f
QJ dSG jG dG J
Y d FG G OdG g
e fGE g GE GbGC HQGC
.eb Y d Fe edG
101
04
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20:05
Page 102
QdG jN
e PEG ;a eb Y G Y OdGh fEG H FdG IdG J h
Z EG ,dG Y IQdGh ,edG S :e J Y J YVe g dGR
,QdG IYO eh LdHhfCGdH Y gh ,LQe dEG Jh .QeCG e dP
:eCG GH j a JBG GYH
:gh dH dG QGSCG RHCG e oJ QGSCG HQCG g
?eb Y GP -1
?gAGa Gha GP -2
?IdG eOCG g GUCG GP -3
?dG GqJ GP -4
:g SCG d jdG HLCG Jh
;H f f -1
;H f f -2
;H f f -3
HJQ KCJ CG hO RQH H SCG Fb J CG h !H f f -4
(89) HLCG
Y Z IY :QdG jf
.keGMG gcCGh IG G AY TCG MCG echR S OQdG noj
bh ,G SGQdG e dG iLCGh GG S echR QO ,IY Gdh
IYO e echR CG h .dG JeSEG f OQd d FYEH J
.Ie ce Me O VG Gg M JJ QYG -PEG- a ,QdG
fEG QJ jQS G GG Y dG AGLEG e S a ,dP eh
.G dG Gg e FY IT OLh H J f EG UJ
b a IQKEH j (spectrum
of science)
d kW kjCG echR Vh d
.Y Z gYG dG J EG Y gYG dG dG e dG e W H
102
04
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20:05
Page 103
fEG QJ jQS
ee Y J dG J CG ,Y dG cCG J :echR d kahh

Yh .YLG dG K ,AMCG Y J ,AjdGh AdG Y ,Se
- dG dG Y kGOHG dG cCG j dG AG gh)-dG e NBG dG
SGh WdG e ge j gh GG Y G Z GQOEG Lj
:kFb e echR jh .fEG QJ Aj kGNCGh ,SOdG
J fCG #G e dG G EG YVG G S e -PEG- fh
,fEG Ge jQJ J hCG GG Y G Z GQOEG e ,AMCG Y
Y kGQOb kfMCG QdG eDG j Mh ,eDd dH k AT c j M
(90) .bdG f be ATCG IY jJ
H LQdG g EG j AdG e jdG j dG dG -PEG- g e

aGYG M Y ,jf IM Y AHEd gL iQb dj GX GP ?IdG
?ghLh dG dOCd gfh d M b
EG hS dG G e aN SCG g Y IMdG HLEG Jh
N b fEG CG G J Jh .QdG jf Y J M LGe
,H eDj dG jOG dGh G JVGaG QYG fNCG GPEG ,dP eh .dG
.QdG IYd dH e Z kee G Y J
dG YEG FSh GSH ,e nddGh ,fCG Yj fEa dG Gdh
eEG ,fqj fEa jQhdG GG Y QdG e Gj GPEGh .e fhj
dH g CH fG AYE e dh ,FGR P hCG s e QU T
cQJ dG jgG YEG FSh e AL kjCG hjh .QdG Y dGO Ge
.WdG dY QdG b Zh edG GN jOG gf Lh
e OLdG M EG fEG pC j PEG ;L G J ,h e GdH eh
c e dG eCG khDe fEG j K eh ,N dG g dG dh QJ Y N
.dhDG g d e Z
103
05
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20:07
Page 104
TdG dG
QdG jd jG RC G
.QdG jf j GG S CG c dG Gg e HS a fcP
QJ QdG jf C ;dG Gg e AT CG cf CG EG LH f fEa bGdG h
.GG dOCGh GfCG QJ M GAYOG jCG EG AG Uh e jW bh b
H "G GDdG -jGdG e- ihG Y jdG j dG VG jh
.Ie hCG #QCG Y IG QX
fJ H CGH b IG CG Yq J ,dCG g QdG jf hJ eYh
qcG e Ye OGYCG N S jH HQCG a ,QdG jQd kahh .adG
YGdG M ah ,FGdG #QCG L M YJ EG a IM dG FdG
.M N hCG jJ Y cG g dGh
ke CG G Z OGG EG FdG AYOG CH dG j ,AH P OH
dJ IG CG dP .BG M Me hCG H jCG J Y Z AYOG g IM q d
T CG kGHCG j h ,iNCG N e dH M N c J PEG ;IG Z e
.kGQJ GG cCG M h ,G Z OGG H H M N jJ dG
c M
o d M LfEG dG-,G FdG N CG QdG jf YJh
J CG dP e YSG b -GH d d LddGh JeGh dG IdG
dG dG JBG dG Qf Sh .FGH VQCG hX adG
.Gh d SSCG OG HC kbe AYOEG Gg j
adG fJ dG G IQSGC
e Lj a ,adG OLdG J CG G G CG T q U GPEG
:je b fEG .JCj a jhS He b jJ e
#QCG QdG H kWe dG e kc QeCG oe oqJ jCG MCG a
.kephe kGeL kT j K ,dG hT Y jh qG dG jh .AGOL
104
05
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20:07
Page 105
QdG jd jG RCG
H J K ,b EG (e jH kjCG ddG QhO rsOGC dG) QdG J dP Hh
d dG hdG f HdG g Jh .dG M jb Je HW dP
f e BGh G j CG EG VdG Gg jh .He HW jJ QfG
dG HdG J e HW jCG J ,adG h ,dP eh .G f dG
dGh jdGh QeCGh UGd dG #J e ZdG Yh .HdG fJ
j H ,kGH j hCG ,j hCG ,j fCa ,dG B "QdG OdGh bQG
!NBG W j M dG Hh G f g kGe
N e e H dG Gg j ,Se OY EG dG OY j eYh
hdG GKCJ -kFGY- CG H dG H a fGG Y UG
N e OGe J dP Z h .UYCG hCG ,UGdG hCG ,jdG e ;dG
d dG H e Jh , bJ dG hdG H edG hCG SEG
H #QCG jG N j ,dP c j Hh .H e H Sj
,dG g jf h .dG GH J j dG d kSSCG jh dG hdG
.iPCG CG JcJh JQh OG j CG hO ec e j
-PEG- c ,iJ .a SEGh Wh SCG e G j ,dHh
AfE HG OGG L LJ :H GG ?bdG iNCG OGG c Y G
dGh ,Ld JCdG Lj PEG .G Gg Y G #QCG NGO G
ATCG g c LJ ...G SGeh FYdGh IYCd jGh ,FHdG Hd
g d dG hdG IQe e cCG eCG j h ,Iah H #QCG WH
AdG GQGcEGh IQdG YCGh cdG L VJh .G NGO Vhh OGG
!RdGh ,QeCGh ,UdG jdG IY dG H
H j H f JH dG b LQd Gj e Y AT c QS d
kM jJ S LdG SG kT g CG j dG Cch ,aGd eRdG ZGdG
d ZGdG H nJ dG poj ,dP Y kah .dG hdG H
a ,Ggh .adG kjCG kM S dG ,adG fh AHdGh G NOEH
HJ kJ fCG dG hdGhaOGCG LQd Lh cCG Y AT c
!FT
105
05
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20:07
Page 106
QdG IYO e aGYG

zH GYG EG hCG Ohe jW EG J
dG J e cCG eRCG QdG jf LGJ
.(2)
CG dP ;IG QX H UG dG gJ
LdG FdG e dG jdG qVjh
H dG e jdG jG
Y (jS jO S e e) GOH L
M b fCG Y ojJ soj CG kGHCG
:eRCG g eCG QdG IYO
J CG jY ke j c ,aOe
cCG LGf ,dG jdG dG f fh{
.adG fJ b
dNO e e SG M j e
IG UCH "G GDdG QdG IYO LGh bh
Y IG CGH c :gh CG ;jdG dG
OdG Gg h .jdG dG e dG HdG
.(3)z?#QCG
gh ,jQHhCG QfdCG ,ShdG QdG YGO b

,jG QdG jf dG RHCG MCG
dG zIG UCG{ Hc ddG dH AOEH
:1936 Y of
- j kGDS G UCG GR e ,G Ad{
QdG jf e f cCG -bGdG
.(1) zcCH
:jQHhCG QdCG
j G UCG{
.zkGd
kGOY QdG IYO iLCG ,jQHhCG eR eh

GSh dGh QdG e j
jJ c G CG Gj c MG
dh c qOCG a ,dP eh .adG
G dG jEG IOjR EG dG Gg e
QdG IYO Va MO nK eh ,d
FQ ,RhO hc PSCG jh .cCG LQH
Af{ :GOH L
#QCG Y IG
e cCG g
.zoJ
1 Alexander I. Oparin, Origin of Life, (1936) NewYork:
Dover Publications, 1953 (Reprint), p.196.
2 Klaus Dose, "The Origin of Life: More Questions
Than Answers", Interdisciplinary Science Reviews, Vol
13, No. 4, 1988, p. 348
3 Jeffrey Bada, Earth, February 1998, p. 40
JL fgL eH jG AdG e
:dH
QdG AGLEG e S KK e cCG OCG d{
FdG QdG IG UCG Y
ed aCG mGQOEG EG UdG EG jGh
.M e kH #QCG Y IG UCG e
M IFGdG bG Ea ,G bdG h
CG eEG G Gg SSCG Qh jf
05
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Page 107
QdG jd jG RCG
J e jCG LGJ a BG M dG H K Y a CG SG GPEG
,UQCGh ,jdG bWh ,feh ,iNCG jG e H fq J dG dG
ke ch J ee jd fc GPEGh .fh JJG fh ,SSCG Hh
H e kfe kH kY kHc J CG J a ,de LQH VH
K ieh dG dG d jQdG dG"H Jjf a J G
JSGQO c Y d kGjJ OcCG IFL e j bh H !dG cdG e
!jdG Y QH j kjY f J CG h IG
aS AYOG Gg j h .adG Lho b IG CG QdG jf YqJh
jCG Y kGJ J ,JQGOEGh fh JJGh J f H G C ;b Y
.je
QdG jf QfGh G Ie
IYO c bdG dP h ,hQGO jCG kahe j G d G cdG EG
a ke kGeCG j dG hdGh aOG EG IG LQEG CG hj QdG
.jdG
G CG ch IG L UCG
r q J jdG dG LdJ dh
Y G CG -dG- f fh .kGJ jdG LGh dG dG cCG g
fEG J n feh ,G eJ dG bdG J bdG dd
L M jQhdG eG a sJ mee nHh ,Id eRdG fedGh
Gh G OGG Ie mHfCG nNh m f nfh ,J S dG G
EG LQG G OGG d ee jJ h Gh ,NBG EG e e
NGdG OGG bG G ZCG J e JhHh ,GSd HdG FGLCG
LQH G dG Gg e U AL iS ATCG g J h ...e LQGh
.dN
YCG dBG j jG GfCG e f HCG CH ,QdG AY MCG gh ,QK qjh
(91) .U J M hCG ,BG M fEG U dBG jCG e H
107
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G J
je ,LddG PSGC jh .Jge f

E d S YGH eh e m f
n cGC oG
: dG Gg zeRGC jf :QdG{ Hc ,fO
dGC G q f GC Y j jG LddG Y c dG dG Y IG M f c{
d e je J GC J H kbY kGOe Jh kGec 20 gb j M Ie e
.e Z H dG Y IQdGh dH o q j l L g -FY- GS e .Qjf hGC
Jh J ,V Aa d fG dG e dG je G S Y iSh
dG g iMGE NO d J GPGE h . kLhNh kNO j GC OGG e UGe i d
;f YGH
E G bW i qj J ...G dGh IG LddG e Y fGC S
Y fGC AT GC Y e e dG e H Jh JGP adG Vd IOe M gh
.zf
E G
05
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Page 109
QdG jd jG RCG
UJ dG dG LddG i qj H dG e G Jh
N fE npoH O C kGHCG dG oj h .IMGh N j CG fEG dEG
.dG Gg e h CG Y dG d ,G h .YU
AcdG c ZQ LfEG jdG J dG ,dG Gg CG QdG jf Yq Jh
X adG OLdG X b ,aJ IOLG LddGh aGh
e adH G J MG n jo :NBG e AYEh .FGdG #QCG hX
QfG bh f c YH adG b Ua e e LG Z MG
!G
He fQe ,jg Opra dG ,fEG dGh VjdG Y Y bh
Yh 1981. S (af) dG jJ dG of dG JHe iMEG
H dG IG TCG QX MG CG jg VhCG a ,QdG IYO MCG fc e ZdG
747 RGW e jH IFW H ION MH QL QYEG b UH nQj jdG
OLdG G J CG G Z e CG Gg jh (92) MdG IOLG OGG e
.NM e "e JBHh ,aOH
G QX c J Y QdG jf IQb d FdG SCG MCG Jh
hdG N e FH Y G G a PEG .J dG G J
jG g e CG qJ GPEGh
(organelles).
jdG jG e jdG H ZG
QfG Ua G PEG ;IG b Y G J CG dG Y jdG

.dH d d IdG hCG dG AfG e jOGQEG dBG hM
c eG b #QCG Y hCG G J CG -IQhdH- H JBHh
.poN b G g CG cCdH Gg jh ,eRdG FXdGh jdG jG
adG iJ JhdG
J M j QdG dh ,G Y jG Gg d GO g j
c dh - dG hdG X JhH CG jJ CG dP .G AH GMh Af
nZ kGeCG noj - G e J dG IG JhdG jG BG H e kGMGh kJhH
.
109
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Page 110
QdG jN
#MCG J UCG GMh e J bY jL Y IQY g JhdGh
AH GMh jG g Jh .IO cJh H e HJ J eCG
e j H dh ,keCG kM N e JhdG g HCG Jh ,G G
.eCG #MCG BG
IOLG #MCG e MGh eCG M Z :CG SG dG Jh
CG jh .IFdG Y jL ec EG JhdG q j ,dGSG hCG ,aVEG hCG ,JhdG
- QdG jf CdG jh .dG JdGh dG G eCG M c qj
CG e cCG RYEG C JdG Gg LGe -aU f X b IG CG YqJ dG
jdG AYqOG J Y M jdG J ,dP EG aVEHh .adG SGH soj
.kM be S dG eCG #MCd VnndG
CG Jhd XdG dG CG M -dH- Mj CG MGh C h
j dG dG MG HM GSH M dPh ,adG b e kGHCG J
Lj keCG kM 288 e G Se JhdG L j PEG .j CG T CG
bQ CG _ TCG 10300 H #MCG g JJ h ,k kYf 12 e
H eh .GU KK eeCGh MGh bdG e jh ka kGOY Gg jh -300 CG IY
q j a MGh JJ Z Lj G (sequences) fCG hCG JdG g c
#MCG e SS Y IQY a JdG d dH eCG ,G JhdG AL
.G Fd k kGQV J hCG ke IFdG Y J CG eEG dG eCG
MG jo h .(10300e 1) a MGh JhH jJ MG j ,iNCG IQHh
dG MG jo ,VjdG Y a) kY ke kGeCG MGdG JhdG Gg hM
.dG hj MG UH _N CG IY CG 1050 e 1 Y j
kjL jo keCG kM 288 e G JhdG AL CG Gg e HGZ cCGh
.eCG #MCG BG e J dG bdG JhdG jG H kfQe kVGe
CG if bdG JhdG jG g Y HG MG HM q f eYh
!ac h F Z J JGP e c
Mh JhdG CG Mf ,IG QJ jW iNCG IN f eYh
110
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Page 111
QdG jd jG RCG
UdG cGC g JhdG GE

.G Fd dH kjM
jN q d a o q J a
kGQGhOGC -dc- OD J H ,M
kGAa ;G Ac SSGC
kUhh JhdG J e
,fedG JG GE
gh JhdG gf GC
.J
dG SH ahG gh) WEG Y acG jH UCG CG dP .kT j

,dG g h .JhdG e f 600 Y ,(Mycoplasma
Hominis H39
e f d MGh Jhd ke gjLCG dG MG HM QGJ EG S

.dSG e Uh Y M dG Jh .G dG JhdG GfCG
jf dG g M GqJ jdG) BG QdG g hDhj ne H j bh
Gg dh .FG J h a nde bQCG g CG (kY kGJ UH QdG
IYO e m GO CG j h .SGQh IO FM g FG g C ;U Z
adH MGh JhH J MG CH hqj a ,bQCG g Y #j CG QdG
hO Jc dBG Y jdG jQJ HH IOdG MCG b MG e Le Z kMG q n jo
qj (G gh) NBG dH Gj CG e kHh ,dP eh (93) ANCG jCG j CG
!dSG g Y aGj
AY MCG gh ,H dhQg j PEG ;JGP G H QdG IYO e dG jh
:jQG QdG
leCG ahG JhdG UCG M (polypeptide) dd dG jdG EG
(94) .MG c j
111
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Page 112
QdG jN
g CGh kGL jW eR Ia N M b jG QdG CG QdG IYO Yqjh
#MCd ,G IdG W c e ,dP eh .k G L IdG
,cS dh ,jeCG LdG Y qjh .adG JhH q J CG eCG
g EG kFb
(Essentials of Earth History)
#QCG jQJ SSCG Hc G H
jH Yh dG jH N JhdG J CG H dG e adG
#MCG Y j dG cG FG G e AZ e kc j dG cGdG
(95) .jQhdG eCG
:kFb ,AdG PSCG ,jh H GDdG Gg Y j ? Gg c j GPe ,PEG

OG Y J CG dG n G cd dG OGYCG AG Qj eY
jJ dG OOj ,I
u e FGH cH IOLG eCG #MCG H H FGY
g dG CG cCG G eh .jdG H CGJ CG G e c IG CG Yj e
(96) .YQH N jd kY kfH j G
,VY H JhdG g e MGh JhH M j CG G e c GPEGh

kGOG JhdG g e e f OH j a GG jH YJ dSG Ea
G J ,dP e cCGh .ec jH N jJ LCG e adG kU
EG aVEH -kjCG- G J PEG ;JhH ec O e bhCG e bh CG
Ic iNCG Fch ,eah ,kfgOh ,GQgHch ,jhf kVMCG :JhdG
.XdGh dG Mf e bO Jh ZJh H J (electrolyte) jhdEG e
.YG jdG jG Ye AL hCG AH IMc OGG g e IOe c Jh
AGG MCGh Qjf eH AdG PSCG ,hHT HhQ ,b bh
IOLG JhdG GfCG e f ndC Vn dG jdG MG H ,hdG G
Aa ,(!jdG G JhdG e f dCG e Lj) IMGh jH
Fg bQ Ggh _ BG HQCG CG IY bQ CG _ (1040000 e 1) :JBc G f
(97) .(1 bdG H U dCG HQCG VH Y G jh J
eG dH dGh dG VjdG PSCG ,SeGjh GQfJ OCG bh

:JBG dH ,jh ,jOQc
112
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Page 113
QdG jd jG RCG
V MGh MG e M Z IOe e Id dG jdG dMG J
ad j c bQ gh ...U 40000 Hh 1 bdG e e OY MG
Y f b fCG H a FGY IG jGH J GPEGh !cCH QdG jfh hQGO
(98) .Og Y
:dH bQCG g Y jg Oa dG jh
H VdG e cQeh bY GP b e IG QX j bGdG
SCG CG VGdG e .jdG iMEG UH kSGh kb j GP AG j
(99) .Y e cCG f
QdG IYO id hG dG EG f d jg GSG dG Ljh

ADg OM d .N
o b J CG IG CH FdG IdG b Y EG aj dG
Y aGj j -Mh- dG Gdh ;dG OLh aQ SSCG ag dG
.e fCH fCG g hj de Z gjQS
AGdG JhdG
jH G QdG jQS dSG dG dH Qf BG fYO
.JhdG
;JhdG AL jd Mh j FG eCG #MCd dG JdG EG
eCG #MCd G jdG GfCG e f c j CG j ,dP fL Ea
e Yf Lj PEG .G jCG hCG YCG kJhH JhdG cJ IOLG
H NBGh (left-handed acid) YCG G SH j gMCG eCG #MCG
H
(mirror symmetry) IBGG XJ H dG jh ,(right-handed acid) CG
.fEd idGh dG d HG OHCG KK cJ

c bh .NBG dH Jj CG eCG G Yf e f CG Y dG eh
e ,fGGh JdG IOLG JhdG c EG :gh CG ge M dG
M JQG GPEG Mh .AGY eCG #MCG e J ,kGJ cCG EG M Fc HCG
CG gd G eh .IFdG Y JhdG Gg j ,JhdG cH CG MGh eCG
113
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Page 114
QdG YN
J JEH -G - ea A eCG kVMCG QdG H YGoC b jdG
IG fu G e AGY eCG kVMCG fc G H h eCG #MCG
.eJ c
.QdG IYO Yqj c adG X IG CG -d- #f fYO
aOe LfEG dG AGdGh AdG eCG #MCG LJ CG j dG g
G FdG L cJ J CG j JBH ,dG kjJ jhe H
#MCd -FdG MdG e- PEG ;gc AGdGh AdG eCG #MCG
JhdG J ,eCG bGh ,dh .H e H J CG YdG c e eCG
.AGY eCG #MCG e iS G FdG L IOLG
GfCG L H e a AGdG #MCd JhdG QNG H j ah
Gj ,IG Y CG MGh eCG M dh GTG Y ch eCG #MCG
e j jW jCG eeCG LJ PEG ;QdG IYd dH kj j eCG Gg
.YGdGh OG AfG Gg e J dN
RCe Y dG GVG IM e g JhdG UN jJ ,dP EG aVEHh
j CG j ,e d JhH fE fCG dP .QdG IYO e j dG aOG
OHCG KK H H a OG j CGh ,ec JJh ,e OY eCG #MCd
dG e eCG #MCG g L AfG j CG j :dP EG aVEH H .U
AfG dBG LJ ,dP eh .CG MGh eCG M dh H Lj H YCG
OLh CG QJ K JdG EG CG eCG M aVEG b fCG O CG feEH W
HCG EGh iNCG Ie VdG Gg jh .dG e dGREG EG -JBH- Jh WN
.UdGh aOG hM feEG
dG LG dP ,(Brittanica Science Encyclopedia) dG fjdG YSG h
FdG eCG #MCG CG Y dOCG J ,MGUh IH QdG Y aGj
H J JhdG e IG (polymers) GQddG AH GMhh #QCG Y G
Ie e AGdG Y b j eCG Gg CG YSG Jh .YCG KdG
j CG G Z e fCG YSG f coP bh !f dG Lh Y kFGO Gh
114
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Page 115
QdG jd jG RCG
Y IG UCH IMS bY d QNG Gg CGh A hCG AGY jG J GP AG
(100) .#QCG
G e a ,JGP LdH kFGO OJ Ie e AGdG ahG dG fc GPEGh

GG j CG j ?Gh NJ hH QGbEG j CG CG adG EG dP ij CG cCG
aOH QdG IYO j ,gdG VdG Gg e ZdG Y ,dP eh .kVGh
.Gh NJ OLH Gaj CG -WH- hjj fC iS Ad
e IG g dh ,AGdG eCG #MCG b He be Qjh
Gh DNA hdG G AH GMh UCG J dG (nucleotides) GJcdG
TCG QNG j ,G FdG eCG #MCG N Yh RNA. jdG hdG
.aOH J NBG kbe Gg jh ,GJdG e a AdG
UCG J CG cDe H BG M gSQO dG MG KCG d :UGh
G Se JhH q J MG f CG dhM GPEGh . Z aOH IG
J ,AGdG eCG #MCG e iS QNG j eCG M 400 e ce
_ (10120) hj gh -400 CG 2 OdG CG -(2400)e MGh:JBc MG f
fhdEG OY CG cf fYO ,a fQG L eh - 120 CG IY bQ G

UCG OY gh -79 CG IY bQ CG _,(1079)GH Qj LCH dG IOLG
MG M Y H dP e cCG OGYCG Sh .(10120) bdG e H
V GPEGh .G XdG dGh JdG jH eCG #MCG g H UG
e cCG fh OY jJ j UCG H VG f Shh MG g
.QdG J bQCG EG HG Gg J a ,JhdG
M eGC dG HGdG
CG j PEG .QdG RC kGM J CG YCG IQcG jdG FdG M J
CG dP .dG OHCG KK dGh ,HdGh ,OGYCH Je eCG #MCG J
GQP e cCG dG eCG #MCG jL e -kjCG- j JhdG jJ
HGJ HGdG Gg e qjh .e QPCG N e iS dG H e JJ CG MGh
115
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Page 116
QdG jN
eCG ,H a HGhQ q J CG eCG #MCG Jh (peptide bond). rjrpdG
a ,jdG HGH H J dG eCG #MCG J e EG J a JhdG
!Z ah
b e IQS AGLCG L CG QJ :JBG fQG N e dG g Sh
fe J dG dG iMEG ASH dG ceCG Vho h cG
e S .#QCG gQ LGj H dG e H H dd eeh eGH
LdJ fc e MGh e a M dh J CG IQdG g Y G
dG dh ,dG fe AT c hj hCG gdh .kjb c c hCG Ie
jdG Hh .dG Y cCH IQdG j dG e IMGd dh WG
j jdG HGJ Z HGH NBH MGh eCG M OG GPEG :JhdG AL
.dG Y cCH AG
HGH J FGY jH J dG eCG #MCG CG dG KCG bh
IOLe Z HGH J dG CGh ,a H N H iS jdG
Nj eCG M c Y j ,dG Xh JhdG ODj dh .JhdG
QNG j CG j dG jdG H jdG HGH iS j CG JhdG MCG cJ
.a AGdG #MCG H e H
Y fCG j .YCG JhH c j CG MG f g MG Gg jh
a eCG #MCG c OG MG j eCG M 400 e e JhH SGQO
.GU 399 eeCGh 2 bQ Y e MGh bQ CG 2399 e 1 EG jH HGH H
dG MG
g eCG M 500 e e JhH AL jJ MG Ea ,fOCG iS c
.dG dG GQOEG j bQ gh ,kGU 950 eeCGh 1 bQ e e bQ e a MGh
Gg Ua a dG MdG e eCG ,a QdG Y kMG MG Gg jh
jhe1050 e 1 e bCG MG Ua J VjdG Y h kGU MG
Fg H jdG Gg e bCG 10950 e 1 MG H .FMEG MdG e d
.kGL
116
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Page 117
Gk U hJ adH MGh JhH jd dMG

:e JhH jd hT KK LJ
.dG HdHh dG dG e JhdG S eC G VMC G L J GC :hC G dG
.AGY dG eC G VMC G L J GC :dG dG
Fc HGJ jJ N e H a Ie eC G VMC G g L J GC :ddG dG
.''jdG HGJ'' j
.MGh bh SSC G KdG hdG g LGJ GC j ,adG JhdG jJ j dh
MGh c H G dMG V UM hJ adG JhH jd dMGh
.hdG g e
:eGC M 500 j Se A dH ,G S a
:dG HdH IOLe eC G VMC G J GC dMG ( 1)
:E a dP Y AHh ,JhdG cJ n oJ eC G VMC G GfGC e kYf hY Lj
.20 e kGMGh = g kYf jdG V dG dH eGC M c QNG j GC dMG
C G c QNG j GC dMGh
1/10650= 1 /20500= dG dH G VM
.650 SC d Yae IY Qb UdG e OY e IMGh Ua hj Ggh 1/10650
:AGY eC G VMC G J GC dMG ( 2)
C G G j GC dMG
1/ 2 = YGC MGdG e
5
0
0
C G VMC G L J GC dMG
1/ 2 = bdG f AGY e
C d Yae IY Qb UdG e OY e IMGh Ua hj Ggh
150 S
( 1/10150 hj GC )
:jdG HGH eC G VMC G OG dMG (3)
,e JhH j dh .FdG HGdG e GfC H ke J GC eC G VMC G J
HGJ'' j UN Fc HGH G b dG eC G VMC G c J GC H a
Z NGB Fc HGH eC G VMC G OG dMG GC dMG M e jh .''jdG
:dH j ah .H N g dG HGdG
1/ 2 = jjH HGH eGC M OG dMG
1
5
0
4
9
9
C G VMC G L OG dMG
1/1 0 = 1/2 = jH HGH e
1/10150 x 1/ 10150 x 1 /10650
1/10950 hjh
= Md FdG G J Ggh
=
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Page 118
dMG GE aVGE dG HdGh dH eGC M 500 e e OY JhH AL jJ dMG GE

10 OdG Y e
1 g a jH HGH Ieh AGY jj dG eC G #MC G L J GC

.kGU 950 Yh MGdG HH bdG Gg f GC h 950.
C d kYae
10950 =
100.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.
000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.
000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.
000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.
000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.
000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.
000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.
000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.
000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.
000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.
000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.
000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.
000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.
000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.
000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.
000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.
000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000
e EG eCG M 500 e e JhH AL J MG Y j M h

AL a .MG Y e YCG je EG dG OhM af CG f ,iG Gg
OY j e gh ,keCG kM 574 Lj (kjM kJhH j dG) HZdG
IMGh N :JCj e QJ BGh .YCG cP OQGdG Jhd fu G eCG #MCG
AL e fKh e Lj ,L AGG dG jN jH e a
!HZg
,CGh HdG jH MGh JhH dh jd #QCd #G dG j h
G b eCG #MCG CG VaG GPEG Mh .AGM O N jJ Y gf
AL jJ LCG e dG jJ e bh CG YVEG hO C Gh HdG jH fGh
MH J c #QCd G dG e WCG HG edG IdG S ,MGh JhH
.10950 e 1
,gdG MG L j QdG CG dP c e FdG G Jh
.MGh JhH jJ Me Y a dPh
118
05
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Page 119
QdG jd jG RCG
?dG C Gh Hd dGB LJ g
MG SSCG H j a kGL e H f ,jdG
b YCG IOQGdG MG HM CG EG fTCG d .eCG H Y HV dG
g Jh ,kY j dG MG g CGh ,a OhM EG Uh
hdG MG d fCG dP ;QdG IYd dH GOhe jW dCG
J dG C Gh Hd dBG OLh d kGf ,kGHCG j Ia jCG CGJ CG dG
.JhH fE
bG MG jE J fEa ,YCG dEG fTCG dG Hd dHh
dhd de H OLh dM iS eCG M 500 e e JhH AL fE
JhH Y G MG CG Gg jh .G IG j dG eCG ,CGh
H N j dN e J JCJ dBG g CG VaG GPEG Gg ,(10950) e 1 g e
#MCG H JQG H a ,U Z Gg CG QJ K kFGY eCG M 500
,QNG c h .Gq L gh ,fdG Id H JJ Jh NBG J MGdG
c ,IjL jH JJ jh NBG J MGdG eCG #MCG J j CG j
e cCdG e 500 bQ eCG G aVEG J CG H cdG Y bJ CG j
dhG bJ CG j ,FY .dG VEG MGh eCG M dh GTG Y
Y OGG c qnoJ CG j ,NEG dM h . hCG q J b JhdG c GPEG e a
IMGh IOe M dh J CG dh c j ,Ggh .NBG HJ noJh H
b geJ hCG dhG AKCG fG dG a j qCG kjCG qG QeCG eh .NO
YCG gfcP dG MG CG hdG g Jh 499. bQ HGdG EG UdG
Me ch jdGh jGdG jJ YGh dBG ah Y ne H iS CG
.a eCG #MCG QNG iS AT CG ad a j h ,dG MGe e
JBHh ,dG hdG X dG g e LJ CG -T hO- G eh
.MG dCe Y dG H ,dG dG JhdG jJ -kJh ke- j
.Y Z kjM G Gg e bh MG Y jG j ,bGdG h
CG Vj fCG dP .eCG Gg SG HQG Z QdG IYO H j h
119
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Page 120
QdG jN
e LSG EG j JBHh ,H Fc YJ Y IQY g JhdG jJ
,dP eh .JhdG q J K YdG jW Y J eCG #MCG EG db e
GJ iS kT J M Z H dG VnndG FdG YdG CG
dG H YCG FdG OGG jd dH eCG .IOhh e OGYCH FGHh H
e dGh jhOCG Jh .Fg Gh Fc Gh fe cQe j fEa
JhdG dh ,YdG g EG edG JM f dG iNCG FdG OGG
J CG j Gdh ,kYU G jhdG J e H YCG cH J
AL c eAe M e SdGh dG kIe e wc j dG) JhdG
.FGY Fc YJ f Cf b (O JJ f
CG #fh BG M gUh dG G L -d- kfL f fYOh
Ie- kGLY QdG j dG g Y .adG kjY QJ b kGe kJhH kjL
Y dY j CG j JhdG Gg OLh Y AHEd fCG dP ,HLEG J Y -iNCG
nf JhdG
q j CG eEG ,dP Hh .kGL UN hX jMh dG
Fc ce hCG eCG #MCG hCG #MCG EG j hCG dG #QCG hd VJ
.dG Yh ke IOe EG jh UGN j dHh ,iNCG
IG UGC d jQd FdG hG

IYd kLM kbRCe Ie hC G FdG QX H G DhdG J
VdG dhj c ,VG Gg EG #dG Y IOY dhj fCG LQd QdG
FGdG GMCG H f OLdG X hCG bG EG :dH Y
Yh , Sh jCH dM dG j jdG Y LGj fC dP ,AG
jCG g -GG Y CG _ LdfdG MdG e jQdG IdG f
- cCdH- a JBHh ,JGcCJ YO H jhCJ Gjh ggj d Ge
.jGdG e QdG jf MO
Y e IN jCG CG K GPEG :gh CG ,QYG NCH IjL e f gh
:G S a .ke WHh je cCH jdG CG KE j Ga ,e QdG
120
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Page 121
QdG jd jG RCG
C CG GAYOG c dH Mf fEa e eCG Jhd FGdG jdG CG KCG GPEG
NCG G Z e j ,MG g Hh .Qd MdG GH G iN
.Y J AGLE e Obh e LQ L
IYO Zj kdCe M Z Fc e OLdG G FdG QX c Jh
e d dG dCG g UCG ,dP eh .jW I gcP M QdG
HdG jLCG dG SGQdG e S N e h Lh ,M
.jdG dG e dG
?FGdG #QCG L J CG M N hC eCG c : SSCG GDdG h
?G d QdG IYO ej CG GdG e f CG :iNCG IQHh
AY iLCG a .QdG N e SCG g Y HLEd h Lh
e dG dh ,SCG g Y HLEd Le e Q MHh QdG
SH IG HdG IG UCH j a keGMG QdG cCG Jh .gG
SH kjCG HdG oJh 1953 S e fS jeCG MdG gGLCG dG e H
.a ,Qj dhQg ,ZT eH e PSCG SE kGf e-Qj H
dG jG QdG Va KE eGSG neG MdG ddG HdG g Jh
j e Qhe e ZdG Yh .QdG Ia e hCG MG Y eY d J
iNCG GN jCG T CG j ,Y LdJ GQJ h b f e
dG UH dG GQG c sQoJ e H GJ ,Gg ZQh .jdG Gg
g e CG H QdG IYO E kGfh .G FdG e hCG G Qd QdG
#G -b Y- G (MJ dP e dG Y H) Va YJ SGQdG
.QdG g e
Ta dh :e H
CG j j cG J HdG g e e fS g bh
b adH X b J CG (JhdG AH GMh g dG) eCG #MCG
121
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Page 122
QdG jN
.IG e dG #QCG Y dG jH
dh) FGdG #QCG Y OLh #aG kjRZ kN H e SG bh
CG h .AG QHh LhQdGh Gh feCG e j (bGh Z fCG H a JG
e kGq e NOCG a ,dG hdG H e H YJ GRdG g
b J CG bdG g CG #GaHh .H YdG GC j c G Gg EG bdG
OGeE FHdG jd kYU kGQe SG FGdG G dG eh e AL
.bdH
VCGh ,SCG I je LQO e JT IQGM RdG G Gg H e bh
b IOLG FdG OGG H e b SCG jf h ,dc kFHc kGQJ
C CG UdG qJ dG jdG eCG #MCG e #MCG KK CG Ma AYdG
.kYUG LfEG b Jhd SS
LQO EG aQ h QdG IYO id IQKEG e kGc kGQb HdG g KMCGh
e jhH Ye Ye X J eQdG idG dM N h ,QG dG
jL iS j CG e SG dG jG J ,dP eh !IG j e
.M Z
- PEG ;IjL gjQS VH ITe QdG IYO b ,HdG g e Hh
#MCG J CG #jh .eCG #MCd MdG MGG #GaG -Y Y
eb bh .JhdG q d adG U JJ kM G b eCG
e) G AH T cJ f VH adH fG JhdG g H
Qhe e jG Gh ,(FGH N fch e jH OLdG M NO dG cdG
fCG H a K AYOG iS e H J ,dP eh .G FdG fch bdG
.IY fGL e je
e H aGE GE OGC dG FG
hX gMh J CG eCG #MCG CG J CG e H dhM
g Jh .dG e OY be e J HdG g CG EG ,FGdG #QCG
:JCj a bG
122
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Page 123
e H #QJ QdG IYO QOe MGC

.(1) {ddG g H eCG Gg j
H M edG gEH dG e H
FdG IdG qJ b f e Ea ,jCGQ ch
e 1998 jGa OY a .QdG AY
feEH SG CG EG dG ODJ d H CH
,QdG jd JU ahG EARTH #QCG
IYO e fAY CG M EG .IG UCG J
JH GH de ddG jdG X
a J SH HdG g j QdG
:IG
.dEG Yj e Cjh QdG DH EG
q J b FGdG G CG BG LdG j{
{aGZL fTfz e Qe OY h
,LhdGh HdG cCG K e e
{#QCG Y IG QX{ GH de of
dG GRdG J e kYJ bCG GRZ gh
:j e VG Gg Y a oc
eCG GPEG Mh 1953. Y H eo SG
G CG qj BG AdG e jdG EG{
CG d j c ,j CG e
.jGdG e VaG q Y k c FGdG
eCG #MCG e H jL
cCG K e fq e c fCG hj fEG
EG dS dG eRdG FdG GdH
Gh LhQdG e kH LhdGh HdG
?JhdG e GdH hCG kGJ cCG qce
ea ;Fd S QNCG gh .feCGh
bh ,dG e AG dP M Y Y f e
HdG cCG K IQGT Gj CG dhj
J cz ;{e fEGz :H kFb J
e aJ c Y S ,LhdGh
?GddG
W q e e Ib HGPEG aJ jdG jG
HU AdG j Ggh .MS cH Ae
Gg e e Cf b IG CG J
.(2){G AG
dh jCG h e H J ,QNHh
"G GDdG Y CG QdG IYd iNCG
L CG PEG ;#QCG Y IG QX H
IG QX dSG J jLoCG dG dG
b IG CG Y cDJ q nK eh ;adG
.oN
1. Earth, "Life's Crucible", February 1998, p.34

2. National Geographic, "The Rise of Life on Earth",
March 1998, p.68
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Page 124
QdG jN
e eCG #MCG e Y (cold trap) IOQdG IG J dBG GSH -1
#MCG a fJ dG dG hX fd dP j d fC ,fJ O dG
.G jG g eJ EG ODS eCG
hX kGOLe j YGdG dG dBG e dG Gg CG a T h
es jo S fEa MGh eCG M q J GPEG M ,dBG g e hHh .FGdG #QCG
IG g d ,kM :dH bdG Gg ,H OQjQ ,FdG dG jh .G
(101) .FHdG QG H eO b FdG G fd ,IOQdG
uo
f GSH eCG M CG q j CG HdG HQ e j ,G h

.IOQdG IG dBG hH OGG
a ;bGh H (H cj CG e hM dG) FGdG jG dG J -2
j c HdG cCG Kh LhdG CH FdG CGdG Y fdG AdG JG
dG e jW Ia Hh .feCGh G e kH YdG dG g enoj CG
(102) .bGh J H eSG dG jG dG CH -kjCG- f e YG
G e c feCG ha :H GG ?GRdG g Y e UCG GP ,PEG

f de eCG GH qce c fjh .eCG M cJ
:dH DiscovercG
Mh .feCGh G RZ e H #QCd dG G Ic Qjh e b
f dh .Gh dGh G e kfe kN H #QCG fc a ,Y OQh
e J fc fCGh eRCG J kGL kGQM c #QCG L CG SGQdG MCG e
e e IdG d FdG G j CG j c JBHh ,GG jGh dG
G e Se GRZ GRdG g J h .AG QHh HdG cCG Kh LhdG
(103) .jY jL fE feCGh
Y jL H e H QGH (Jh ja g) jeCG Y b bh

G e j dh ,AG QHh LhdGh LhQdGh HdG cCG K
(104) .eCG G e MGh AL Y dh
J OLG cCG CG gh ,e H oJ e iNCG f LJh -3

124
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Page 125
QdG jd jG RCG
b fCG j c dG bdG G eCG #MCG L ed kac c IdG
fGQdGh jG QKBG jW Y (e ZCG dG) dG g qJ bh .a fJ
(105) .jJ S H 3^5 H gY Qj dG QdG Lh dG cCG
s o
cCG fc MG J IOLG cCG c CG J iNCG acG gh

YTEG c CG dc SGQdG Jh .gOLh QdG IYO Yqj dG J e H
V BG IY fc IdG J #QCG d #J fc dG dG a
cCG jH G YTEG g b e e g j h .QdG IYO GjJ
.SSCG gUY EG G jOn LG HdG cCG Kh AG QH N e
d fCG dP ;edH- e cCG gCG dG- e H eCG Gg jh
H ,AGh HdG cCG K EG qS G d HdG cCG GSG
a Lj dG dG a ,iNCG Mf eh .AGh LhdG EG feCG
q S
es o S fc eCG #MCG CG Gg jh ,hRhCG W OLd cCG
.hRhCG W jM hH kGL dY H a YTEG EG #S fC G
dG fc ,j CG FGdG dG kGOLe cCG cCG AGS :iNCG IQHh
.eCG #MCd Iee H S
"GG GP jdG #MCG e jdG fq J b J e H AfH -4
dG f coJh eCG #MCG n oJ dh ,FXhh G FdG d Ieu G
YdG N e qce EG d hCG geJ d jhdG g e
.jOJ kGeCG FdG
Y CG G GP eCG #MCG e c OY q J a ,dP Y kah
C ;e N e M jd kMO #MCG g OLh jh (106) HdG jf
Xh jOCJ Y IQOdG Z eCG #MCG f e fc An dG eCG #MCG
eCG #MCG a fJ dG hdG J ,keNh .G FdG jJ
eq j M N T -bGdG - SdG Gg JG a ;Id U kahX e H
.gcDjh Y G j dG IG jG
H J :gh CG ,FG J L dEG J SGQ IMGh M gh
125
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Page 126
QdG jN
VQCG hX adG fJ b G FdG CG KCG fCG YqJ CG e
LCG e g GP sLe e H O e cCG -cCH- HdG J h .FGH
HdG en G GRdG GfCGh c j bh .eCG #MCG cJ
OGeEG dG bdG c CG c ,QdG e eCG #MCG J c kde kGj
jQhdG YdG q c bH J q H kGL b hCG kGL Ic J H dG
H J M dY a HdG enG ILCd dH eCG .hG e
#MCG jJ j CG NBG f CG hCG ,IeG hCG IQdG UdG GfCG e f CG
hCG OGe jCG HdG J h .FGdG #QCG hX k gOLh c dG eCG
i J CG n G e ch FGdG #QCG hX IOLe fc qce hCG eCG
-IcCG H eCG #MCG jJ S c dG - cCG jh ,YdG
dH G e c ,de e hX X Mh .IeG OGG J MCG
.IOQdG IG dBG hH edG iOJh FH Y a CG nnG eCG #MCd
g SGH QdG jQS MH fCG g ej QdG IYO Ea bGdG h
LfEG eCG #MCG CG KCG a T CG KCG GPEG HdG g C ;HdG
N e O H hdG L J a j Y ne e H iS
- dh ,YGh Z aU e JCJ CG IG p oJ dG IdG CG CG .YGdG NdG
.YGh N Y e -iMCH
YCG YN g G G Gg j QdG IYO L dG dG jh
e H H b dG ,Qj dhQg CG IG QeCG eh .dG Y Z e AGQB
:VG Gg M JBG GYH OCG b ,e fS J e
c VGG Gg dG eCG c fCH IG UCG SGQH e j e c j
QJ b IG CH ,jFY c ,f ch .e CG Qj CG e YCG fCH fT
H edG e gJ CG eCG e c dh ,dG Gg G IOG e
(107) .jdG H eCG bh f CG Y j
126
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Page 127
QdG jd jG RCG
,zJhdG f{ J IOe H ca fGC
#M
C G H GOG Y IQY JhdG Ff fch
FdG JhH Hh .kFGY jhdG
IFdG Y jhc FdG J fc ,G
e JhdG Ff e Ggh .XdGh
.hdGE She N
JhdGh FGdG dG L
EG hj QdG IYO GR e ,YCG H fSG dG bG c e ZdG Y
dG L gO eCG #MCG J H G G Gd e H
H M b dCG CH gdH dG Yj dG M dGj fEG .FGdG
.FGdG HdG
e -IG UCG e fdG MG J Y- QdG IYO LGh a ,dP eh
IG AH GMh :CG ;JhdG :gh CG eCG #MCG jJ QJ cCG
.e f dG H e J dG G eCG #MCG e e fs G
hdG X adG fJ b JhdG CH FdG AYOG jh
#MCG CH FdG AYOG e cCG LQH dGh bGdG EG j AYOG dG
HM SGH SQO HdG dG h .adG fJ b eCG
H U JH eCG #MCd FGdG Od VjdG dSG MG
hX kFc JhdG jJ dSG Qf a BG eCG ,JhdG jJ
.FGdG #QCG
Z AG JhdG J
kHGJ #MCG g J JhdG jd eCG #MCG J eY
.MGh Fe AL Qj HGdG Gg jJ AKCGh .rjdG HGJ j H a kUN
b FGdG IG CH FdG QdG IYO J MH -T H- G g Jh
CG fEa (Le Chtellier Principle)- AdG dJT CG kah- fC ;AG X
127
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Page 128
QdG jN
e MG EG kFGO oj dGh ,Fe H -J YJ - Ae Qj YJ j
.FdG YdG L H e Z j Oj Fe H YdG Gg
g -eCG #MCG dch a Cf b IG CG Yoj M - a PEG
.JhdG a J CG eCG #MCd dG dG ceCG d T hO
gAGQBG Ghj CG QdG IYd dH G Z e S ,iNCG Mf eh
CG G e c dG IMdG dG C ;HdG Y Cf b IG CG GYq jh
S HdG a .QdGh G g dG a TCG e eCG #MCG
IM dJ GC J G Z IOG
CH gAYqOG Gd (ca Hh e H e) QdG e kGOY QdG IYO iLCG d
CG dP ;kGHCG Y Z AYOG Ggh .kGe kM kFc q Jh f J CG J G Z IOG
,jg ja dG cjh .IQG g e IOG CG GL hO KCG Hh Me c
:Oe NJ hH H IG J CG J IOG CG ,QG VjdG Yh dG
f jY kf Oj CG e jH SG IOd kSSCG CGe g CG -kL- Va d{
NCj CG -G S Y- AG jh .G OLh KEG dG e j CG a ,IG
W d d dG J e AJ jhc jCH cdG CeG .FGdG G Y c MdG cH
TEG GfCG e f CG Y S K (AJ c) dN hCG ba GRZ jCG V .LdH
fEG 2000 gOY ddG fEG J e c bGQh S I J HdG O .jj
Gh edG Y qahCG c HLEH aGhCS .cdG X (G jG J jhH)
e m Mh ASH Q ,kGHCG kT d fEG .bGdG HdG H d eRdG dGh
.(1)ziNCG H jY jhch eCG #MCG e e
:JBG dG Y G H ,Qd UG AMCG Y ,S hQfCG jh
idG e #jh .Ad jG dG g g .fGh j AKCG S ,e IOe N{
e c dh ...bdH J CG dGh jdG jhdG idGh WdGh HPd {SSCGz
IN c dBG EG ,G ?kFe kJ j e ch H JKEG b G jG g
d Hb Ve g -Y dG dG jG hCG EG FdG QdG e- kjJ e
.(2)zke q Ve hCG
1 Fred Hoyle, The Intelligent Universe, New York, Holt, Rinehard & Winston, 1983, p. 256
2 Andrew Scott, "Update on Genesis", New Scientist, vol. 106, May 2nd, 1985, p. 30
128
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Page 129
QdG jd jG RCG
IG jJ AYOG Mj dJT GC e CG c ,dG a TCG H geJ
.QdG IYO LGJ iNCG WQh gh .dG
ca H :Fj NGB L
bGh Z gjQS GNG QdG IYO GC H ,YCG QcG dG LGh
e c dG ,ca bh .e jf MH c fc dG g AG e M
CG H ,cd kaa .G g JBG jdG H ,QdG MH TCG V
jJ H cH e jb g H EG rqoL b hCG eCG #MCG J
#MCG J dG G Gg OLG AG CG H h ,FGdG G ITe
.dG LQO a IQGG LQO JQG eY J b dG Y IOLG eCG
.JhdG jd J CG L dG eCG #MCG eEH c Ggh
,dG e c id kb RCG e hd IG jdG g nJ ,dP eh
K KCG dG CG dP ; IQGG e LQdG g e d J eCG #MCG C
.ddG IQGG LQO Y kc eJ eCG #MCG CG
G IqG eCG #MCG OG j CG SG a ,Cj ca dh
.JhdG j dP dh ,aL H J N e kGL UN hX
eCG #MCG e e Zh H M Y iS ca j ,bGdG h
.M JhH CH dG Y IH G g fch ,kGb dG H e G dG
J Ea Ie IQGM LQO Y eCG #MCH ca MG d ,dP EG aVEHh
(108) .jCG S fc IG Z G
Z FdG dG j ca CG gh CG ;HdG HCG iNCG f gh

.M Fc e f eCG kVMCG SG H ,e H Y G j dG G
FdG e CGJ CG e Hd kGOGeG J CG e ob dG HdG g Y c dh
Z eCG #MCG SG NBG MH CG h ca a ,dP eh .e M dG
(109) .e fCG dG IG
kVGh c fC ;QdG IYO ShCG id M h kHjEG kb ca H nJ h

129
05
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Page 130
QdG jN
M dG ihG nY "proteinoids" (JhdG Ff) eCG #MCG SS CG
G Z e GR e ,c dP Hh .W hX d J ca Y
.e JhdG UCG dCe X ,Ggh .IG GMh g dG JhdG fEG
FdG SdG QNCG ,dG FGdG dG G of de h
:JBG dG Y ca H cP OQh ,(Chemical Engineering News)
T eCG #MCG OG Gj CG hNBG MdGh ca S SG
IOLe bGdG J hX kGL UN J J GSH JhH Ff
IOLG kGL G Jhd kGHCG He J fCG c ,FGdG #QCG MGe kGHCG
fCG VH coP bh .IFdG Yh e Z H iS J a .G FdG
H eS fc fEa hCG QdG fJ b jG g e fc GPEG M
(110) .cCJ
Y ke -bGdG - ca fCG dG JhdG Ff fc d

JhdG Ffh JhdG H dG jh .XdGh dG M e G JhdG
.G Z G IOG e ech eG LddG GqG iMEG H dG
G M J c eCG #MCG d Ua jCG aJ dP EG aVEHh
jdG #dG j dG IeGh IQdG FdGh jOG GKCdG CG GPEG ;FGdG
.J J JhdG Ff S IG Z dG hdGh dG a TCd
M AG J CG eCG #MCG d dH G e c ,dJT GC kahh
JhdG Ff CH FdG oIdG a ,dd kGfh .dG a TCG J d
.G jf AdG n jCJ IG SCG J fc
"DNA"
dG hdG G :IG AG
c RCe QdG IYO CG BG M jG iG Y JSGQO VhCG d

#MCG jJ Y AdG AdEG Gj iNCG Mf eh ,jG iG Y
IUb J dCG dh .JGP M Fb Gd a JhdG jJ eCG .kGHCG eCG
gRhH Mh ,a jGdG j jg CG PEG ;JhdGh eCG #MCG Y a
130
05
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Page 131
QdG jd jG RCG
G CG g dP dGh ,c RCe EG QdG IYO Oj d G cdG Ea
dG e jd M dBG fEG ;eCG #MCG e cG JhdG e ec O d
dG Y kGHh .gS M Y kGLY fEG j H dG e gh ,IQG
.d SSCG GMdG jJ J Y M hLY QdG IYO Ea IG
g dG jG OLd HGe J aJ Y QdG jf Y M h
jhdG #MCG cGh KGQdG Y Y CGW dG GQdG Ea ,G H SCG
IjL ce XCG b ("RNA"jdG hdG Gh "DNA" dG hdG G)
fGah JGh L ,n dp dG YCG qSG 1955 Y a .QdG jd ke
Y f KH AdG e dG LJ Gd ,AMCG Y kGjL kGY ,jc
LQH dG hdG G H cG ,dG e GS Hh dGh,AMCG
.Ic
JCjJ G e IGf c OLG) dG hdG H G G jh
UG eG CG PEG .dG G Ad ec jN Y (fEG L N
G e (NGdG AYCG H EG G G e) fEG U H
G IOLG eG J jh ."N J f SGH dG hdG
.dG hdG G A OGY

C G e P eh ,jch JGh
131
05
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Page 132
QdG jN
jG g Jh ."N H UN jL HQG HJ QWEG dG hdG
L Jh "A, T, G, C" .FSCG e hCG hH d eJh IYdG hCG jJdG
Gg jh ,hG g HJ IOLG YdG Y dG H cdG aNG
.hM HQCG e fs G eG H GfCG e kYf
khf fEG cJ dG hdG G hd HdG JdG Ojh
Ea (IdG dh dGh dGh dG e) eG EG aVEHh .UdG UCG EG
600h ,Y 206 J Y jCG j IMGdG d dG hdG G
,H Y nfe e fe Th ,S Y 10^000 e fe Th ,Y
N JCjJ 100h ,jdG IOQhCG e kGe H 130h ,Y N H 100h
fCG Gg a dG hdG G IsG eG f CG fOQCG GPEGh !G
500 e e c dCj YSG e 900 bY e dCJ jf
hdG G fq e OLe IsG eG e jdG QdG Gg EG !U
.H IG dG
?aOe dG hdG G C j GC g
C N CG CG gh CG ;bO JCJ b EG -dG g Y- fG e H
NCG Yh .ke IFdG Y S G e J dG JcdG JJ
j G e CG cCG j ,dG G L dCG e Lj fCG QYG
qjh .dG JdH adG J CG G d fu G GJcdG
:dH dSG g Y ,HdS fGa ,QdG AMCG Y
G L S h .eCG M 300 f G Se JhdG j
HQCG OLd kGfh .IJcf 1000 f #MCG g G dG hdG
e IMGh d a dG hdG G S GJcdG e GfCG
CG 4 CG -T (41000) hj TCG e OY LGJ CG M 1000 e fe
G j Fg bQ hj 41000 CG (jQZdG e b GSHh -dCG
(111).( cGQOEG fEG
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QdG jd jG RCG
eeCGh MGh bdG CG 10600 hj 41000 bQ CG jQZdG SH fh
.cGQOEG QN Fg bQ gh ,U FS
10 bdG CG h 1, bdG EG U 600 aVEG jW Y sjo bdG Gg c GPEG
U 600 e G bdG GQOEG Y dG e Ea ,JCjdG EG j kGU 11 Hh
hdG G jJ dSG Y dH LhCG H fdG dG b bh .MGdG H
:JBG jdH adG GJcdG H jdG hdG Gh dG
jd VnndG jdG MGe e Me H dG J VH Qf CG Y
fEG MG Jg Jh .FdG GMCG f ,GJcdG e ,IG
HJ GJcdG g OG h , eCG Ggh ,iNCG J IMGdG GJcdG
(112) .cCdH e eCG Ggh ,kGL "N
H d YG ,IY d jG QdG jH eBG dG ,jc fGa Mh

kjY jJ G AG Gg e CG dG hdG G cG
:jQJ d f adG
- j CG iS BG jd IaG eG H G OdG LdG j
(113) .Ie j Oj VG bdG IG UCG QX CG -e jH
Gg M JBG GYH j CG ,SO Y QdG cdG dG VG bh

:VG
dG hdG G) hf Mh JhH jJ dMG J ,G
JhH S QX Ua eCG .dG Y GL IH dMG (jdG hdG Gh
(114) .a fEG Y dG H dBdG e a e
dG hdG G CG M :gh CG ;kGL e RCe dG g Y Rjh

fEG g J Ea ,bGdG JhdG gh ,fEG H IY EG Qj
e kc CG h .dG hdG G IsG eG jW Y iS j CG
j CG hCG QGdG Y LCG e bdG f jOn Le fj CG eEa ,NBG Y j
!NBG b p N
o b gMCG
:dH VG Gg Y cL jeCG jG AMCG Y jh
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QdG jN
QdG IYO e aGYG

G) jhdG #MCGh JhdG e IG jG CG MG HM qVJ
Y OYG hO adH jJ G e c e (jdG hdG Gh dG hdG
L Y CG gh CG ;cCG G GLGj CG QdG IYO Y j ,dP eh .dG H
Gg jh .kUCG IG hM LCG e bdG f ke jJ CG IG jG g
.H GYG Y QdG IYO H dG g LCG bh ,QdG jd kec kcHQEG G
jO S eH edGh jc fGah e fd HG IpYG J ,G S a
:LQhCG d IQcdG dG FGP QdG YGO ,fQdH
cH e c J dG ,jhdG #MCGh JhdG CG M bCG EG G Z e EG{
Lj CG kjCG G e hj c ,bdG f h G f kFJ Cf b ,e
J CG c e IG CG j CG gh hC AG j b ,dP Yh .NBG hO gMCG
.(1)zFc FSH -G - Cf b
:kjCG G g H hNBG AY jh
jhdG #MCG e je jJ dP ,Y ODj CG dG hdG G j {
hH JhdG J CG ,QNHh .I fEG hCG JhH IYe hO ,dG
.(2)z!JhH hH j CG dG hdG G dh ,U hf M
hdG G jLh SjdG) pLJ pdBG fL EG G IdG Cf c dh{
e kH ,gdGh gdG e MEH fCG f CG S ,VG bdG ?(jdG
.(3)zHLEG
1 Leslie E. Orgel, "The Origin of Life on Earth", Scientific American, vol. 271, October 1994, p. 78
2 John Horgan, "In the Beginning", Scientific American, vol. 264, February 1991, p. 119
3 Douglas R. Hofstadter, Gdel, Escher, Bach: An Eternal Golden Braid, New York, Vintage
Books, 1980, p. 548
GSG LCG eh bdG LCG eh ,G fEG IOYEG LCG e eRdG LdG EG

LJ dG HSG dBG LCG eh ,dG J LCG eh ,dG dG e AGLCG
eY CG) dG J bdG f kL gOLh e H c ... EG eGhCG
c e kGch s J LQH n Z GMCG H OG Gg GH bh .(IG CGH
(115) .dEG NJ EG ij
fGah JGh L c e S H YCG QcG bG c bh

KM dG GQdG c e ZdG Y dh .dG hdG G cd jc
,fCG Y T bh .QdG IYO id M Y J G g GJ dG
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QdG jd jG RCG
FdG QdG LCG e HG jG e AL c J CG ,QTh fL gh
dSCH Y G j dG OGG g cd jdG dMG CGh ,Ie kahX j
:kGU hJ kGL
jQhdG jG L Y G dN e f H jCG -BG M- LJ
hX ceCG Ye jL fEG j CG QhdG e ,Gd .FdG Qd
e IQdG UdG e jM e ,YdG LCG e NBG e EG M j K kGL Fe
(116) .FdG dGh FG fG
jQdG MGG e Me jCG KEG Y ILY QdGh AdG jf J ,QNHh
g HLEG dG dG j CG e kHh .jG iG Y KhM #
n G
.e "d S h kGJ cCG SCG g L EG iOCG ,SCG
,G gjQdG J L U hj QdG IYO CG IG QeCG eh
,G QfEG Y s e QdG IYO CG h .Y M J e IMGh c Cch
AMCG Y VG Gd #J bh .G OYG iS Ua jCG eeCG a
eRCG jf :QdG :GY j dG Hc ,fO je ,dG GSCG
:dH (Evolution: A Theory in Crisis)
dG G Fd G eGdG CH FdG IdG Ea ,G d dH
,IU e dCG hM Hd aGh ,ee e dCG e j e e fs G)
Oh LJ dG IG aGdG RedG e dDe BG e e se m T s Gh
g CH dG ,(e M Fc T jG e jHh jH H dch ,dH eCJh
J ,fhQGd dH dh .d IASEG J H FGY H fJ b G eGdG
(117) !T e IQP jCG hO de IdG g
:QdG IYd j Z iNGC dh

jdG hdG G ndY
L kUCG IOLG GRdG CG Gh) dG M dG cG EG
QdG jd Ic HV c b (ke eCG G jJ FGdG #QCG
e eCG e QdG IYO gGLCG dG FGdG G Q CG -H a- JGh .jG
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QdG jN
.QdG IYd IjL h fdG X dG Gdh ,WN fc cah
(The RNA World) jdG hdG G ndY jQS J ,hG d fh
dG jdG hdG G jL EG H ,khCG J JhdG CG j dG
khCG fJ dG g JhdH UG eG
e Fc gh ,Z dhh 1986 Y eb dG) jQdG Gd kahh
CG e jH dG jH b jdG hdG G AL SG a (OQaQg eL
e H JhdG fEG AG Gg GC H K ,adG jh kJGP Kj
,K AL eG g s J CG QhdG e UCG dP Hh .LQN GKCJ
.dG hdG G AL X e jHh
jQdG Gg Ea ,MGe e Me c G e S e fd kGfh
kH e "N Ic SCG IQKEGh G H iS j J OdH dG
:IG UC kGJ j CG e
e MGd M dh Vn n dG jdG J G e j ea -1
d -PEG- k j c ,jdG hdG d fG GJcdG
JJ gLGJ N e jdG hdG G q J CG s G GJcdG
hdG G jJ dSH ,ZQg L ,Qd YGdG AMCG Y q jh ?U
:JCj c aOH jdG
S bO SGQO jdG hdG G ndY GC e SGQO MdG SG c
G jJ dG a ?jGdG jdG hdG G C f c :SCG e jdG
hX dP
q -PEG- a ,hdG aCG G Jceh jdG hdG
(118) ?de
G Gg SG a ,adG b jJ CG VaG GPEG M -2
e f CHh ,kJGP f QGJ Qj CG jJcf S O e G jdG hdG
dG GJcdG nLhn jCGh ?JGdG QGdG Gg j CG c dBG GfCG
nYGdG HhG npdY CG LQd e eCG fEG ?JGdG QGdG AKCG eSG
dG Hc VG Gg e SCj Y Gqj ,ZQhCG dh jL dGL ,Qd
(In the RNA World) : jdG hdG G ndY :GY j
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QdG jd jG RCG
dG RNA QX M fEG...GHG e hG f ce dG EG
GL G JdH G e AM Sh e QX ...f SG j dG
jL RNA CG e FG Ja jCG j H ,a AdG Y V d eCG Ggh...
(119).H f SG J
FGdG dG (RNA) jdG hdG d JGP QGJ OLh VaG GPEG M -3
CGh ,jdG hdG G ed IgL f c e IjY eCG #MCG OLhh
jJ EG ODj C gDe Z bG Gj a ,e jH KM G g L
cH UG eG Y EG j jdG hdG G CG dP .MGh JhH
fE dBG LJ ,dP e ZdG Yh .N OGe a eCG #MCG eCG ,JhdG
Gg Ea JhdG fE mc jdG hdG G OLh O CG fYG GPEGh .JhdG
-WH H- kJGP LfEGh kJGP IQS bf CG e ke ,e H j OYG
a H eG FGLCG e BG Y QdG Y SG H dG O
hCG G GTGh OLh d kGf OQGh Z kGeCG fEG j ,kjCG dG g h .H
.dG g dG
Y fh Ic fEG IY eSjdG G JhdG fEG jh
N Y AL Y IQY (ribosome) SjdGh .G NGO jd Ie
- SjdG CH e Z NBG kVGaG VdG Gg j ,PEG .JhdG e j e
Y FG ,Ofe L Mh .f bdG adG C j CG j c -kjCG
JhdG J CG Vj ,kJ QdG Y aGG cCG e j dGh Hf IFL
NGO IOLG eG Y a OYG #GaG M EG H SG M CH
:j a ,jhdG #MCG
dBG Jh .LJ J GPEG ge RNA) h DNA IOLG ) IdG J
j jG c kce N Y j OY e H UG IUG LdG
hH fh IdG LJ PEG ;DNA) )dG hdG G -QhH- J
J O GL dG e ? ZG IFGdG g bGoC ch e dh .cG g
(120) .dP
Gg e J CG FGdG dG jdG hdG G d c dh
dG N e JhdG fE eGSG J fc dG FSdG g eh ?QGdG
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QdG jN
SCG g Y HLEG QdG IYO ?IYe jCG hH ke kL N
jc fGah e fS GYe iMEG gh ,ZQhCG d IQcdG eb bh
Y N e IG QX Ud jQSJ GSH ,fQdH jO S eL e
H j CG G Gg Y c dG dG Yf ZQhCG Uhh jdG hdG G
(The Origin of Life) IG UCG :GY j dG de dP hM dSG ieh
:1994 Y (HcCG) hCG jJ (American Scientist) jeCG pddG QG
hdG d aJ d KhM c jQdG Gg CG EG -b e- fTCG d
QGdG Y IQG :g dG d UN jdG IG QX S dG jdG
JhdG cJ Y GN e IN c Y IQGh ,JhdG IYe hH
(121).jJh
e M bCG EG jGh JG dG Jg bJ CG kVGh j CG jh
Lhh QdG IYO MCG Ib N e EG j jdG hdG G e AL
G ndY Va CG Vh H SG dG FG J ,iNCG Mf eh .f
Z aGN kjCG g kaOe IG q J dCe jd u ob jL P g dG jdG hdG
.AGS M Y de
e Gk c YGC l M oIG
jL ec fc O
q J b JhdG AL CG #fh G L Y gd dG qf fYO
hX e IdG f Y LQN hX X h eAG Y kGH dG TCG ka
Gg CG dP ;kac j d MGh JhH jJ EG :IdG G g gh .FGdG #QCG
LQG dG g dG -j Qh H - B H QfG EG S JhdG
fL EG NBG AL j M J CG Y CGj CG hHh IdG f Y
JhdG je J M QfG EG -kjCG- Sh .f hdG adG
!! naOn edP c j CG Y ...G f L EG kL jQhdGh dG
j CG hO dH J CG -b e fJ dG - JhdG J Y keGd Sh
d ,SdG fG GKCdGh dG a TCG OLh e ZdG Y ,dG
138
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QdG jd jG RCG
IOLG JhdG g Y j ,dP Hh .ITe fL EG iNCG JhH J
GOH d CG ,dH bG f L Cf dGh ,Fe H
jCG jdG jG g NJ CG jh .d jdG jG q Jh jpeo
d Qb GPEG M ,FHh ...IFdG Y JhH S hCG ,QV AL hCG ,NO IOe
,JJh kah M bCG EG fheh fe jH CG jdG jG
,N AH f Jh jQhdG fEG L fL EG J CG Y j
GPEG M dh .G dG d aj d "N FH kGA NGdG j CG Y
IG S g ,nanOe kGL dY LQH nG ZGMCG g c -ka- KM
?edG g
Id jQhdG OGG L OG O CG VhCG b dG C ;' :g GG
fCG Vhh Id jQhdG JhdG c oL GPEG Mh .IG GC J d j
jLCG dG QdG L a d .M N Y j d GOG g Ea QNG
C J CG IG CG EG QdGh MG L QTCG a ;VG Gg M
ATCG iNCG IQHh ,M Z ATCG e QJ b IG CH cCdG eCG .e IM e iS
H c Ff Y ke Jh QdG IYO MCG J b EG g a ,JGP Isde
.Meh
,iNCG IM e Cf b J CG H #QCG Y IM hCG Ea ,"G Gg h
eCG . EG Jh Jh CGJ CG IG J PEG ;G dG S fG Ggh
c J kjCG a H ,IG AH c J a j fEa ,Qd dH
.dG H e YLGh Id eRdG OGG jJ
JM W kY MCG kY UH LGh dG G SeGc GQfJ jh
:dH nVn Y aOe f X b IG CH
dG CG nYCG c Fg Z d ZeO #J ,c jQJ jGH e
Y IdG g qoJ CG QhdG e ch ,OG G GfCG e f CG e aGJ CG
Lh eCG bdG J fY M jCG LCG CG SCG ,dG g h .dCG f
IMdG G HLEG CG Qf BGh ,ke Y j CG fYG d .dH eDG dG
(122) .OG Z FGdG G dh ,G g Id
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Y OG dG
jQGG ejdG fGb

QdG jf q J
FjdG fGdG e j dG) jQGG ejdG fGb e dG fdG j
e GPEG edG Qh GG EG hDJh Gh GVG j fCG c CH (SSG
e kGOW Sj GGh G Ggh ,dG hdG X LQN NJ hO cJ
,dGh d #Jh J G Zh G FdG L EG .Y dG edG
(iNCH hCG jH) FdG L LGS dG G jdG g gh .J K eh
.dc e LQ e e dG G Ggh ,fdG Gd kW
NCG e GPEG -G S Y- fEa .GhdG Y c ggf M j S eh
g CG bJ a GS H dEG dBG e id Yh g cJh AGdG EG IQS
EG g b GQWEG CG S :dP e dG Y H ,Y cJ kM aCG
b c CGh ,CGdG j gh Qe IQdG LR CGh ,AGdG e fh #QCG
FdG SCG H J dGh G dG GP U J gh .Ojh j GC H
SdG g jQGG ejdG fGb e fdG fdGh .G Z FdG e G
.dG dG g Y OHh kHM dN e dG dG
VjQ eY gh ,(Entropy) HhfEG fH dG FjdG fdG Gg j
ie Y q j -NBG - hCG ;QGM ejO f G Z bd kSe j
e fCG MCG c edG Gg jjh .FjdG fCG MCG j b dG G
G f OGR ch .fdGh GVGh G e dM EG ks kef fc
jh .GVGh G LQO Y j dG edG Gg JQG dG GVGh
GVGh G e dM f H j SCH dG CH HhfEG fb
.fdGh
140
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QdG jf q J jQGG ejdG fGb

fb :Y j c hCG) jQGG ejdG fGb e dG fdG U K d
g S HhfEG fb CG Y j Gg fY AY YCG EG .kjfh kY (HhfEG
dG) jjCG dCG Uh bh ,jQdG e eOdG IdG N fGdG e G PdG
(123)
.LH d hCG fdG fCH (fY AY YCG j
jdG dG FjdG fdG Gg gH aYh TG a QdG jf eCG

jGh GQdG CG Yq J a ;edH fdG Gg bJ dBG J gh .SSCGh
u d ,s e Jh H edG Qh kFJ b G Zh G Zh bG
H- u d K ,RNAh DNA jhdG #MCGh JhdG e dG jZ iNCG jL
dG VnG dG g Ea ,QdG jd kWh .kGJ cCG G GfCG e jG -dP
QJh CGH b Y eR Me c kJh kGJ cCG M fh TCG Y J
dG g CG ke Vj HhfEG fb CG EG ,dG hdG X f AJ e
.kc FjdG fGdG dJ eYG dG
dG j a ;fCH G g hcDj jdG H eDj jdG AdG Mh
dEG J e e Fg bJ oJ gQJ IG H dG ,IG MGG EG :Qn
kgG g CH fdG Gg j a .jQGG ejdG fGb e dG fdG VGaG
bQCG kTCG J IG CG QdG jf #J GVGh G f Y Zh kFGO
(124).bdG Qhh QGSH kJ cCGh
Y j jQGG ejdG fGb H QdG jf a bh dG G RCG Yh

(Science): : dG G iMEG ,,jd LhQ gh ,jdG H eDG e NBG
QdG jf H jdG bdG AMCG AY LGh dG G iMEG J

CG j -G Z hCG G AGS- dG CG dP ;jQGG ejdG fGb e dG fdGh
(125) .jdG YJ c cCG dh kefGh kGJ bCG d bdG Qh J
TCG J dSH ,dHhaGS QL gh ,jdH eDG e NBG Y jh

#dG ihL Yh ,jQGG ejdG fGb e dG fd kW FJ IQH IG e
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QdG jN
j M .dG hdG X G FdG e Ie TCG Jh OLH FdG
:QdG jd JU kGL ahG (American Scientist) IQG G iMEG
fEG H ,kFJ cdG e Y AL CG j CG ,dG hdG X
OGR c fEa ,bGdG h .jQGG ejdG fGb e dG fd kW j CG j
- cDG e j dHh ,dM Y QGSd ke bCG UCG G G cJ J
e T gh -FdG dG Y EG .TdGh dG EG hDJ CG -kLBG hCG kLY EG
Y gJh a ,JGP IGh H ,iNCG jG dGh -IG TCG
Y ,dG e NBG a CG hCG jQGG ejdG fGb e dG fdG e AV
(126) .dH gd -IG Z hCG IG - WG hG e ZdG
eCG IY M q jQGG ejdG fGb e dG fdG Ea :nMe g ch

jdG Y bh .dc Gh H dG MdG e a d QdG jf VGaG
CG a j QdG IYOh ,Gg IdG M d FGO Y J CG J Y
gh - QdG jf AY MCG J M Yh ,G S a .J dH feEH
:jS Ib H HhfEG fb Y J jdG g Ea -apQ eL
Gg Y IG S dG bdG Ojh j QdG EG HhfEG fb j
QdG Y CG if a ;ke dP e dG Y a QdG Y ee eCG .cdG
(127) !!e jS jH #QCG Y dG LQO e jJh YCG bW qdJ
j FZhO IY iS d jdG g CG Y EG GQdG g J g

?HUCG
G dG aGN
jf Y adG EG QdG jf QfCG VG ,FG g d LGe AGREGh
fCH j a a U fdG Gg CG YH HhfEG fb jJ EG AdH
.fdG Gg Y j a (Opened systems) MG dG eCG ,(Closed systems) G
142
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e dG Y Ggh ,dEGh e bdG aJ QGM ejO f g G da
f fdG CG Yj QdG jf IYOh .cS dhCG bdG a J dG G dG
fdG Y j HhfEG fb CGh ,dEG dG bdG ad kFGO Vse gh e
.M Z FGH H TCG e C J CG cdG IG G FdG CGh ,gSCH
kac d e m f EG bdG aJ O EG .VH jdG dhh dG g Jh
IQdG ,ka .bdG Jh Xd J CG H Y IY a . a dG eCd
.cM EG ObdG IOLG bdG d Se dBGh cG d RLh EG
edG bdG GSG IQd J bdG jd QhdG dG Gg e hHh
.ObdG
,dG e bW J IG CG U .kjCG IG TCG Y j S eh
jd dG ddG dG H a Fc bW EG J CG dG bdG dh
dG ILCGh ,JdG H J dG FdG dG Y e) G FdG bdG
eh ,g bdG j f hO j CG M Fc C a .(GGh fEG id
.HGPEG hCG G hCG G EG iODj bd Qe O dG J fhO
dU d bdG jd e m f H QGM ejO f CG Ea ,d j ch
TCG g CH j CG MC a .ke CG kMe dG Gg cCG AGS ,QdG jf
S Y FGdG dG hdG X Lh b G FdG e bGdGh IG
:dG GDdG J dH QdG jf QfCG LGJ dG G G EG .#QCG
dG dG FdG dG Y e) IG bdG j fC c
?f AJ e LJ CG (LddG FSdG MCH Jc M
JGP M KCJ d d FGdG Me gh fdG EG dG bdG aJ EG
eCG #MCG Ea IQGG LQO JQG a .fdG g fG dG g dh
JGP M bda .Y OYG dG G G dH G HGhdG J hJ
hCG Jhd fu G kGJ cCG jG q J CG Y eCG #MCG J
143
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QdG jN
G QG EG .G jG e kefGh kGJ cCG TCG u J JhdG
.G :iNCG IQH hCG ,YGdG dG g jG L Y dG Gd gG
VdG jf aGN
fGb e dG fdG CG GQOEG cQj QdG jf QfCG e AdG EG Mh
jdG H VH Geb a ,jdG g U dSH j jQGG ejdG
ch .jdG U KEG e Gd fdGh jdG H IdG d dh dG
.Y dG Y LGJ QdG jf CG GQhG hCG hG g KCG ,be g
H adG Jh ahGAdG e LjH jEG dG dG j
(Chaos Theory) VdG jf e dG Gg JG bh .QdG jf Hh jQGG ejdG
dh .VdG e JCj G j dG EG J dG VdG e kGOY kVGh ,jGdG f

.QdG jf Hh jQGG ejdG fGb H adG j a OL c e ZdG Y
CG)a GVGh G LQO #fG J CG MG dG H CG j gh .
dG g j dG fG CGh ,LQG bdG KCJ H (HhfEG LQO #fG
JGdG dG e UCG G dP eh .cMh f J CG IOG CG Y dO
UCG GcG fCc aj a ;jOG AYh QdG jf QfCG H kFT IOd
.JGP IG UCG kjOe kM GhLhh IG H J dG dG AGQh OG
Y FM CG fJ kGO kjM fLd #dG Gg SGQO s e GPEG fCG Hn
j fEa ,dP e cCGh .J d hOj QdG jf QfCG N q eCG j Oj H
JGdG dG g jO ee H sG G j dG PdG GG e kYf
(128) .JGdG JdGh
e GfCG Yh WGdG MCG a :dG G N e dP VJ h

.jd IU iNCGh G Seh Ic QMCG H e :dG H QMCG
144
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; kW QMCd JJ hM Mf b WdG Gg dY Le J eY
LG JJ eYh .QGG H RdG f e QMCG j G S M
.dG H kM cCG EG UCG e JJ b QMCG CG Mf fK
bW) bdG KCJh e f Wda :JGdG JdG Y Y jo e Ggh
HdG GeCG bW CG Me Q gh .JdG Gg j b (dG g GeCG
e b if eY a .WdG Y edG e b AH J CG gcP
edG dG AH H dG EG .U b e kGMCG CG e j Y f WdG Y edG
,ja HW GP dG IjT Y Y J hCG dG CG j JG QMCGh
CG CG CG ke kaM J eY JdG dBG j e gh .QGdG Y Y a J fdG H
G Gg Y cJ bh b (e bW KCJ) e kT CG O ,GG QJh CG CG CG CG CG
dHh ,ee CG Y G Gg Hc QGJ Y J G Hh .GdH
e LQO Y hG e J jd Gh Y EG j eCa .J CG Y J
.ee CG Y d dG
a .HJCGh QdH e aZ NGO jdG J eY kjCG j S eh
g eh ,adG ALQCG c
C h J HJCG fc -jdG KCJ -KCdG Gg hM
.JGdG JdG SG Y jo e Ggh ,adG cQCG MCG HJCG g J b jdG
q d kJGP f H J CG HJCG u J dG jG hCG HJCG dh
!adG VQCG Y L
o Q IQU
jf IYO Mj dG JGdG dG jQS -c M EG- J eCG gh
JGdG JdG Y ke bj K ,f d IOG EG dj a .QdG

H S a LjH pddG eCG .eG H G dh JGdG dG dh
IG UCG d fGY c ah .e bW KCJ H jd JGdG JdG Y eCG
AdG gh) dhCGh OGHh cK e wc nqa
(The Mystery of Life's Origin)
cG M e dM c :dH G g (dG Gg dDe KdG jeCG
145
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QdG jN
EG iODj S H nojh FGdG cG g J e FS jd FGdG
e T OLh feEG gZh jEGh LjH bG d .jG d mJJ
SCG e n jo CG dP CGh ,jdG AdG UCe IQH JGdG dG
fCd kSSCG gOLh j dG IdG jG H J dG jdG d jgG
.IG UCG H V U GP d AdG eSG dG eCG g dh .G
hCG fa ;dGh JdG H bdG a g dd FdG SCG MCGh
.G fCG J dG eG e dG dG GNG EG iODj CG JdG
.fG Je kcJ dh ,O dh ,e Z cJ g G fCG J a
VGh bY g a ;gbS dG SdG G kGN kY j G Ggh
dG Hh fCG g e EG e bW aJ AGL e j dG FdG JdG H
G e eG e e H dG IdG Fd QhO Ad j dG
(129) .JhdGh DNA hdG
L e bS e CH GYG EG f LjH VG a ,G h
AG f e fG J iG JdG e EG :kFb ,IG UCG S QYG
H M Y J e HCG g G gh .G JJ gh ,e bQCG JJ EG JGP
(130) . #hdG
Z gjQSh GJ jJ dhj QdG jf IYO Gj -PEG- GP

idG VGdG AcdG ZEGh aQ Y hj GP ?IOd JGdG dG e Y
IQb jd IOG CG hjh jOH eDj fC :g HLEGh ?G fCG H J
Qjf eH PSCG ,jHT HhQ QahdG a bh .IG N Y jS
jOH fEGh QdG jf QfCG GOYG a ,jhdG #MCG jN a Gh
H d QdG Oe e NBG GC e EG UdG j :dH GOYG g N edG
QGdG Y hoCGh dG FdG OGG NG H aG a bGdG IdG
dP hM G e fCG EG ,JKEG j c oH kJ nUj GC G Ggh .ddG
146
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GC G Gg OLh EG .IOd JGdG dGh FdG QdG e e YCG b fEG M
(131). IG UCG Y jHhCG QfdCG W c ,dG jOG dG a H e eCG
dEG j eh dG dJ IY g QdG jf CG VH j c bG Gg EG
idG g .d bQN ib H a J AMCG OLh CGh ,Q e
KCG bh .dG e SCH dG N idG -Jh fS- dG IQb g d bQG
CGh ,jQGG ejdG fGb Qe e dG e GJ QdG jf CG dG
.G iS d J IG OLh
147
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Y dG dG
dG J dSGE
aOH
,dP eh .adG jW Y IG t J dSG ie HdG dG jCGQ
dG je b M b N CG #d :G g H sS fCG #a
Ea VGaG g c e .e H IG Y M fCGh ,d L e c Y
g ge Ea edG e Ia G g TY d a :iNCG Ie g QJ QdG jf
f EG AT c OSh IM SG AT j d eYh ,kLBG CG kLY G
d fc e (KGQh efH jd d dG) hCG G G g C dP ;jGdG
.S IG fc Jh ,Je H kGjL kf d -dH- fc eh KdG
fu G LJ CG e H H ,a DNA S Y IQY d KGQdG dG EG
dG RNA bdG hdG Gh ;DNA`dG IT IAGb J fEG :JGP dG JBG
hdG G H S dG (ribosome) hRjGdGh ;IdG g IAGb H LfEG S
S dG RNA u G hdG Gh ;KdH GC d IdG g M RNA bdG
cdG Ie fEGh ;KdG Y eGS hRjGQ EG eCG #MCG
he e EG nLJ CG dG g eh .IdG SdG dH d kGL
OQGeh jQhdG G OGG c LJ M ,G e eJ ISh q h ke
.HG bdG
c Hh QdG ec N IQU Lho GPEG KdG J EG jdG IOG PEG
j Ggh .bdG Y e h OGG OJh CG a Se H h ,FYCG
JcJ H IMGh aO Lho b dG Lho M N hCG CG -iNCG IQH.IG
?IMGh aO e cJ OLh j GPe ,kM
GP IQH gJ M e G qd :dG G NCd GDdG Gg Y HLEd
c IQdG e kGQJ cCGh kGJ cCG f Y G bGdG ) ee J
Ca HZ EG MQ e kej LN GPEG :Cd BGh .(dY J e a h
,RGW NBG e jM IQS Y QTCG H Y K ,a ZJh ,fEG Nj h
148
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aOH dG J dSEG
HdG UY CG dH j e hCG S -iJ j- g ?dS c GPe
G OGG c EG ?dG Gg e a adH b dG je ie Yh
d .Je hCG GdGh Gh SdGh jG e Y G j IQd fu G
K ,adH fGh LN b OGG g CH OYG EG G g aJ g
?IQdG g e fa
CG g dH j e hCG S S H j OY fEG CG CG a T
.HdG gOLh e j S gh ,e fEG e fCG CG ;Gh J IK IQdG
e oU b fCG Y j ,ee Hh IMGh aOh ,ICa e cJ QX CG dP
Yo IOGQEG GP Ib n pb e oN b c kGe kef CG -PEG- T h .YGh IOGQEG n pb
.dG U e fEa :iNCG IQHh .M
EG dH dG FG ch dGh G Y dH La QdG IM eCG
GK jdG) dG AdG eh .JEG jZ jH J fEG J adG
SCG FdG ,SGZ H dG fdG GG Y (VG Gg Y MGH
Z fhQGdG jdG CH j a ,kqjOe SGZ c e ZdHh .fdG dG OcC
:j e fhQGdG SCG g dG adG e Y jh ,IG ICf J Y IQOb
g dGh GG dEG j e ad SG bdG GW QH OYG EG
hCG f #j CG H :dP e HCG EG gJ fhQGdG CG Z . HdG e
GG J CG H CG ;j M IG GdG e BGh BG EG e GM
,dG fb a ,hG Y J e HCG g GMCG J CGh GL jOY kKGMCG
(132). Gg dG Qj qGC j dh
f e L adG :j QdG IM id adG e SGZ jh
(133). OEG AZ N j kdEG
n o
adG e gPJG IK EG g e QdG IM id Gh dG OdG EG
hba fCG iNCG b dG hO e hj jdG Y BGdG fj dGh .kdEG
:a dG dG Y IQd
n p ndhr GoC ,n pH no n
r jn lG nPGB r o ndhn n pH nh o pr jo
l o Yr GnC r o ndhn n pH n o nrjn
l oob r o nd
nC nc
.(179 GYCG) nopanrdG rog npndhr GoC , tnVGnC rog rnH p nrf
149
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QdG jN
hQGO MhWGC
aS ie Y f fYO ,Jh Y dOCG e BG M dhJ e c EG aVEG
:a HU hj WCG M ,H e N e QdG IM dEG Yj e
GQP :YdG Gg EG kGOSGh .adH fJ IG CG QdG jf YJ
e iNCG M Fc fJ -e Hh- K ,G -khCG- fq a YGh Zh M Z
.fEG H
QSah Hc e ;G Fd SSCG UdG L GPEa :Gg qf fYO
dG G dG fc kjq GC h .Z e ec jd fs d ,SJHh Lhfh
,H pd T GPEG .kGMGh kM kFc u J CG fEa jhdG UdG g d J
SH (jdG H H GMj dh M) fYj e -QdG IM SH- dh
:hQGO MhWCG
UdG Ic Hh a Gdh ,G Ic neGH QdG oIM spopd
jMh cCGh Hch Lhfh QSa e) G FdG IOLG SSG
,dG hdG LJ OGe e GhDhT e eGdG g EG Gd H ,(eh
fJ j dG) eCG #MCG e fhjj dG dG G g EG Gdh
e MGh t J MG j dG) JhdG e GhDhT e Gdh ,(jOdG hdG
dG HWdGh IQGd G Gg GVu dh ,MG (10950) e GMGh adG jW Y
Gdh ,fqj dG LddG ILCG MCH OGG g c Gdh ,fhjj
g Y AGG ADg hdh .YCGh dG AY TCG eGdG g CGQ Y
dG hdGh eGdG c GSG QGMCG gh ,dG fjJ H ,GQe eGdG
...fEG q d jQhV fCG hj
e CG GNEG dh .kGHCG lfEG eGdG J e j a -Ga e- d
hCG RG hCG OhQdG hCG dG hCG G hCG GhdG hCG HdG hCG dG hCG OSCG hCG aGQdG
...GdCG GdG hCG G hCG dG hCG jdG hCG dG hCG dG hCG dG hCG JdG
IMGh N Y G M Gj d fEG !G FdG LCG e gZ jeh
.e CG jN e
h ,jS YLH N q J CG YGdG Z GQdG EG :QNH
150
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Page 151
aOH dG J dSEG
AdG N EG kUh iNCG GQGb PJG K ,N EG G g H QGdG PJG
EG !eLCG jN cJ SGH GSQd -dP H- kfhdEG kG S jdG
.dG dG dG IQH EG IG a LJ dh ,a IM h YGh Z ec IOG
EGh .ke d d S iS a dP Y YJ dG QdG jf eCG
M ;G g cDnd -HdG G jCGQ c- QdG IM YGe dG eCdG
.G
P
C Gh dG IOLG dG
Yf :d J J QdG jf J dG iNCG YVG e
.dGh dG ddG MEG
TCG J .?f c :GDS Y QNH pod dG Ve #G b
FdG TCG g Jh ,dG INDe dG Y LCG e G FdG
g YCG J K ,dG IOLG jG jW Y FHc GQTEG EG
g Jh .QHEG ce qoJ G INDe OLe kGL IU f EG GQTEG
CG H ,BGh .cG Gg gGj IQU EG dG e S H FHdG GQTEG
:kb eCG eCd ,dG eG g -QNH- eb
dG G EG QdG j h ,eGO X G NGO CG CG ;AdG Y he G
dEG j H eGO X ,eGO X jCG g QHEG ceh .G a Lj
fEa -dP ZQ- dh .keXEG faJ dG ceCG cCG j bh ,kGHCG AdG
.ke kbGq H kY eGdG dG Gg NGO hgJ
H hdG dG j dY Yf GPh VGh jDhdG g CG dP Y OR
.e Y j CG JfeEGh J
GaQG K ,H dG jCG EG GhfGh ,ke jjCG H dG dG EG GhfG
g eh fhgJ dG VdG Gg e HCG g .dM e EG GhfGh ShDhQ
aCG d aJ fhgJ dG AdGh VdG Gg ?NBG e fhJ dG YdG
g fhgJ e EG .dG fjd G cdG cCG J dG TdG
e cC SG BG Y d .OhG HCG EG VGhh feh OHCG KK IQU
151
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QdG jN
ghLh ,IdG fG GqSC a ;jDhdG g e EG Ud h S e
-iNCG Ie- GhfG .dGh SGQdGh HCG AGLEH Gebh ,ILCG MCH
H kGc kba hS ,jjCG H dG dG Gg EG GhfG K ,jdG TT EG
H ,OHCG FK kGe joJ jdG TT CG dP Y OR .jDhdG Vhh AU
,kq J H hS jH TdG eCJ GPEGh .dG hgJh KK OHCH hJ fCG
?J CG cH a
KK IQU P jJ fEG jW Gd SG e BG GY hM d
IQU P jJ U e G d ;f .dG jDhdG Yf gJ Yfh OHCG
KK OHCH jDhQ fEG .UN IQf VH EG Jge dh ,OHCG KK
.Qh e QGL fCc eL eeCG fGh ,q e IQdG e G fa ;YU
AGS IQdG Yf f g .nb dG IQU e IQU jJ h
.jdG dBG hCG jdG
b fCH AdG IM Ys j dG dBG ddG YdG gh jDhdG AdG Gg
CG ,GdG Y dGh eh GedH fPCGh dG fQe Y

dG M e -H M EG- LddG G g J fPCGh dG
.cGh XdG AGOCGh
152
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Page 153
aOH dG J dSEG
dG jdG EG gMCG d b d be S GPe ,BGh .adH Lho
c ?QdG oJ dG dBG g fq ch GQdG EGh ?adH s J b JM
?"TCG BG Y Y H dG GQdG J
FSh c ee ,bW L S e e SG e BG GY H d
h ,fGh SDG cCG h ddG dG GP eG ,d MG IQG dG
.a jjCG H dG jdG Gg EG Gj CG Gj
J b J CG Hb Z dG e FGH cCG jdG BG fc GPEGh
dG .adH fJ b dG gGJ dG IQdGh dG J CG hCG H a ,adH
eh ,dG e YdG g a ,jdG j cCG kYGhh ke kJ J
.AT c Y QOdG dG N e c g ,dG Gg eh ,AdG Gg
G JdG LG LQG PCa ;kjCG PCG Y j f VdG
p jW Y H
- SdG PCG Jh ,SdG PCG EG UJh (hdG) PCG GU
PCG Jh ,NGdG PCG EG SJh J dG JdG HHdG jH -gQhH
ce dG jh .G EG SJh FHc GQTEG EG HHdG g jH NGdG
.a QHEG ce jDhdG J e G dG
Y he g c dG Y he G CG CG ;jCG PCG Y dG Vh jh
G NGO Ea kNU LQG G c a nK eh ,G EG dG j a ;AdG
hG a ;G g j GUCG VhCG Ea dP eh .ke Og
.QG Uh V c Jh GUCG c EG dG Y
AhdG CG Ld NGO dG ie d Vho kS
s M kGRL CG d dh
!G Y e dG
fEG PCG JOLG bGdG dGh ddG YdG H -iNCG Ie- Qd
Od G fEG H ,IQdG e G g c .J e dG fCG e Hh ,h
ILCG fEG OG g KCG bh ,UCG gj dG dG QGJh QGUEG dh
ZdH- fCG EG .dG S fCGh ,SG dY JU fCGh ,dG J
UdG j a -hG g GcQT jdG AGGh SG BGh ,dG g e
J ILCG MCG GeCJ .PCG J dG dG AUh Vh LQO f EG
153
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Page 154
QdG jN
Y a .SG ILCG G cdG TCGh cCG J dG dG
Y jRCG U QhU hCG ,e b V e H a ,ILCG g SGH dG J
L IOLG dG IK g dG GUCG eCG .dG S AH b RG a
fEG PCG J dG GUCa .OhG HCG EG aUh jHh ec fEa fEG
dG J PCa ,JdG ILCG j c jRCH h jH He J
.dG EG fEG N e j VdG Ggh .dH g c
kee fEG fCG dG dG e H bQCG J L EG :QNH
kJU kGRL EG j CG MC h .d S dG "dGh JNh cGdG Jee
fEG L IOLG dG g CH YdG a .adH GLho b jJ dBG hCG
J aOG e S f fJ J (jdG ILCG g e bQCG g dG)
?AJQGh AdG hCG QdH
Id KCG g ,L IOLG ILCG Lh ,fPCGh fEG Y CG a T
Yh ,AT Hj dG jdG dG N Y VGh dO GOLG gh .Ye dN
.H j dG Yh dG Jb
dOCG g e QdG IM a Y :g g Hh fEG d dhJ S EG
dG g OLh c J ADg MCG e -e kej- W e GPEa .G Y VGdG
J Y Y gd ,adG jW Y PCGh dG jdG dG Ggh ddG
dG M QdG IYO H j f hQGO EG H .e hCG e GL CG
dG EG : 1860 S (jHCG) f 3 jQH c dSQ a ,bG jdG
(134) !QdG jd SM e j dG
o
154
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Page 155
Y ddG dG
FG eGC QdG YGe aJ

Y dOCH QdG jf H SGQdGh dH HdG dG dhJ
e kGOY dG Gg dH hSh .jG LddG Y Qe eh ,GG
gGdG g .jf Y dOCc QdG IM bj dG LddG gGh gGdG
Y e hCG Y dO CG OLh Y J fEG M e "N LH e gGh
EG jQdG ADg A ie d J -f bdG - fCG c ,jf jDJ
.G dGh dG GG
Gf
C Gh dG
G dP EG j gh ,KGQdG Y n e UG (variation) dG
hCG OGaCG H J
n FN Ja hCG MGdG G OGaCG cEG j dG KGQdG
CG EG ,UCG KGQdG eG f -ke- #QCG X Y dG a .dG
b Hh ,fCG jW Hh ,dG MCG Hh ,dG Fe j H
.KGQdG eG g J MG Y kGOYG ...edG
Y dc J dhjh MGdG G H dG Gg QdG IYO jh
h hGJ f EG g e dG CG dP ,AJQG Y dO CG Y dG j H ,jdG
CG KGQdG eG EG j gh ,dH IOLe KGQh e L
.jL
Y Y j dG Ggh .KGQdG eG f kFGO j dGh
"G KGQdG #M IOLG FG d h ,KGQdG #M SG KGQdG
hP f j CG dG Gd ch .dG H TCH J CG e H
dG Gg CG Z .MGhdG e MGdG G NGO Z e bCG FGb hCG WCG jP
J jW Y hCG ,kjQ hCG LCG dEG j CH QW EG MGhdG q j CG kGHCG
eG EG IjL ee aVEG j dG Gg e EG .H UG jCG Y
155
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Page 156
QdG jN
.kGHCG dG e Z Ggh ,G FdG KGQdG
.OhM d d dG CG j ch ,jf YCG eY G g j hQGO j
:1844 Y d de b bh
kGMGh kdO LCG fCG EG ,kGOhM dG OLG d CG q dG e c ij
Y dO cCG fCG Y d Ic eCG GfCG UCG Hc Sh ,(135) hj e j
.jf
G dG GfCG H LhGj Gfc jdG TGG qHe CG -ke- ij hQGO c
EG -jdG - QHCG dq S G e cCG c qQpoJ IjL GfCG fEG H
j c e
u j e aCG HdG Hc OQh dG JBG IQdG dh !iNCG LCG
:OhM d d dG CG e hQGO
dG jW Y) HdG Fa e a JQG OGOj CG HU jCG LCG
Fg jdG Rj M ,ka kT gGaCG M IOjR e ,AH (dG
(136). c
G g QdG Y dG G Gg e OpQj CG EG hQGO aO dG dGh

dG dG eCG .a Y dG dG IFS fc dG FGdG QGh dG
jLCG Q f dPh ,KGQdG eG K GC e Y noj CGe KCG a jdG
fEG LCG e jLCG dG hGdG h L CG KCG GC G Ggh .M b Y
LGM G LCG H CG KCG c ,dH AH IjL GfCG
Y iNCG LCG EG jH QHCG tHe j CG G e fCG Gg Y bh .bGNG
.hQGO #aG c e GfCG jhJ jW
gL EG :a hQGO c IOYEG Hc VG Gg ce eQf hjh
,HK hJ LCG EG . CG OhM H dH J LCG fc GPEG a j dCG
f M H Geb jdG tHG H UCG dG eCG N Y kL S dh
.e GhDhH dG dG EG OJ JdGh fGG CG gY Ghd ,ghRhj e
G a ,edG e hb KK hCG fb GW e OL e dH ZdHh
(137). AGOS ff FT Y hCG AbQR IOQh Y
G g Y (GG HJ FNCG C cCG j dG) fHH Kd sY bh

156
07
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Page 157
FG eCG QdG YGe aJ
?HdG Y G QJ g
d !MdG dhM dG HdG Y QJ b G GC zGf
C G UGC { Hc hQGO qcGC
Gg GC KGC jdG dG dG d ,Ff Gf
C G H jdG MG GC -kC N- #aG
.g hn iS d QdG jQdG
dG eCG .(138) kffb J OhG gh ,kGOhM e Fc bG Qd EG :kFb

:VG Gg a fL cQGdG
CG gh ,gRh f Y dH j Ghh hQGO qcCG dG dG EG
(139). G QdG S j dG Gg e
"H QdG GAYOG

jG GOG eheh YG
jG GOG V ehe e jdG GfCG H jJ e CG QdG IYO Yqj
eCG fCG Yjh ,AJQG Y dO DDT`dG IOe V GG H J dG YGh
.OGG d VJ dG G FdG q GW H JCG G YGh ehd
Y kM HcG G d GGh jdG H J dG "GG g
FdG g YJ H fc a ;jG GOG Vh IOG g V QdG jW
GG #J bh G Od c jdG #J b "GG g jd G
OY (Scientific American) jeCG aG P g gh .jG Gd c
:Jh Qd YGdG GQG e fc ZQ VG GH J 1998 (Qe) QGPBG
GOG GSG b ehd KGQh ee jd fc jdG e c
157
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Page 158
QdG jN
GP aj c ,KGQdG eG g OLh S AdG j h .jQdG jG
(140) !gDhHEGh Y G
aJ dG KGQdG eG OLh J Y QdG IYO Y CG S j ;PEG

.QdG jf YGe J VGh M G OG cG b ehG
Medical J jW H G OG cG b ephG jdG OLhh
,1988 (jO) hCG fc 29 OY (beG dG YG e gh) Tribune

IQqdG H L Y QdG 1986 Y jLGCo SGQO a :kGe kKM hj Gh
dM X (1845 Y aSG b MQ AKCG GJeh #G HUCG jdG)
eYh ,Y SdG dG kGe c jdG e f Y eLCG oY c ,
e c V ehe "GN fCG pLho e "a jdG g Y jLCGo
(141) ! jdG dG EG LfEG j dG jG GOG
FGhdG ahe M dG cG b ehG e GfCG g e OLhh

ON YR g FJQG MGG iMEG fCG Y ehG g e J Ea dHh ,dG
.OhG HCG EG
?ehn d jdG cG qoj e -PEG- j c ,kM
jG GOd jdG ehe

(Resistance of Bacteria to Antibiotics)
YdG g Hh ,f jdG LCG NGO IjY YJ g

jdG #J eYh .iNCG OGe hCG Fc OGeh jhOCG eh KGQh ee
GfCG eCG ,AGhdG dP ehe J dG jdG GfCG J e jhOCG EG c
ephG Z GfCG J Ia Hh .KdG Ua d aJh IG b Y a ephG
jdG J ,kjCG Ia Hh .FY YH KJ dG ,ephG GfCG jh
G OG dP j K eh ,a QcG G OG dd phG dG dP EG c
f g J jdG CG g SSCG dGh .jdG e dG dP V ehe
.dG f g j dG CGh ,jdG
158
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FG eCG QdG YGe aJ

Y LJ ,QdG IM GAYOG e dG Y ,fCG g Rf CG G e
EG dh G Od VJ dG ephG Z jdG Q dN e j FJQG
YJ OSG g j e c .IjL KGQh ee HcG K eh ,ephe jH
.jGdG e ke LGJ fc ephG Zh ephG jdG e OY H Ie jH
g dG H ;kGQJ h kAJQG j c ,jdG e jL f QX j Ggh
EG M ke ADg Yj e Y gh ,IOLG YdG e J ANG gh ,dG
.gQKfG j KGQh ee
DDT G G V GG Ye
a QdG Y dO fCG Y kGQhR fejh QdG IYO Qu j dG dG G eCG
G Gg .dG jGH gcP dGh ,DDT IO (
n e hJ dG) GG Ye
GM EG dG a ;jG GOG V jdG ehe e H C j kjCG
-dH- jd fc GG a ,DDT IOe V e Ye Y M b e
g GNG H VfG b gV Ye jd J dG Ga ;IOG g V Ye
P OH kb gOY c dGh ,ec Ye jd fc dG GG eCG ,FdG IOG
c GG e dG dP UCG CG dP f e ch .bdG Qh gOY OGR a ,AH
IgdG gh .GG J Y DDT IOe KCJ bJ Gg M eYh .YG g d
YG GG cG :dH dEG Qj ,ue H c EGh ,keY dEG Qj e g
DDT! `dG V
hj :a G H (QdG IYO e gh) jCG fGa AMCG pdY jh

IOLe fc jG GG GfCG cCG V YG c HG KGQdG YdG CG
V fEG U dG FdG qcd VJ dG GG L id
(142).GG
jG AMCG Y aj jOdG dG e kGc CG kGL QdG IYO ah

j a GG EG hj fEa ,VG Gg SGQdG hCG dG h dG
.AJQGh AdG Y g dO fCG Y VG Gg ej e kGa .YGh ehH
159
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Page 160
QdG jN
GG Yeh jG GOd jdG ehe Ea ,BG kVGh j CG j ch
ADg O ie Y de N dh ,QdG Y FO DDT `dG V
.jf jdG S j hCG j CG Y YQJ Yh GG
jK
C G hGC IedG GC XhdG AY
C G GN
jDe Hc OOJ (Vestigial Organs) XhdG AYCG Ia X jW Id
.fH K eY ke kf UCG d ,AJQGh AdG Y dO fCG Y QdG
Y g dc Gh G H fbjh H eDj GdGR e QdG jDe H CG Z
.jf
H OLCG V :YR a .edG e b b dG GH Y ADg W
H -kjQJ- UCG d ,OGLCG Y OMCG KQh IeV AYCG IY bG
ae Y e gh kGHCG AH dG EG YR Gg .eGSG d f Xh
VhCGh .FXh noJ AYCG g Xh H dG AYCG :bGdG a .ec Z
jOS pddG g gh .Xh H dG AYCd jdG FdG bJ g Gg Y TDe
Y kdO Xh H dG AYCG J g GY d e G H j
:a ,QdG jf of dGh ?QdG jf
dG jdG EG Mh ,d hO Xh d d dG AYCG j fEG M
CG EG NCG fCa ,kY b GP d VG Gg nG dG H oj
(143). kb QdG jf dd dO CG J IedG AYCG
,jTQa CG dG 1895 Y YCG dG IedG AYCG Fb J
.fdG
o
r Yn Yh jOhdG IFGdG a ,Y e f (jdG Y G
a .eg FXh jTQa Fb IOQGdG AYCG d CG K dG J e dh
Y g XhdG AYCG e gQYH OQh dG jOhdG IFGdG CG K :G S
AYCG J : 1997 Y G g Vh bh .KGH G HUEG Qj hdp
dG fh jOhdG IFGdGh dGh dGh dG IZ e iNCG G fCGh
AeCG jH bQh G JRdG e) IdG jhdG fCG Yh
160
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Page 161
FG eCG QdG YGe aJ

(144).ihdG ehe Y G YJ AYCG a ,hdG RG e kGAL (bdG
J (IQcG XhdG AYCG Fb JOQh dG) JRdG CG kjCG o cGh

gh) fdG Y Y eCG .gGG S M UN ,ihdG e G jM keg kGQhO
,SdG Y #H G dG Yj fCG K a (dG OdG oY NCG
CG -MdG GYCG - K c .H dG Y IdG dG H Yj c
gH G Y adG RL qJ (XhdG AYCG e fEG b dG) dG IZ
bQdG IdG CGh ;edG fedG H fEG Y hDe HdG G CGh ;T jN
OdG e dG Y Y J edG IdG CGh ;WCGh qVd G dG aJ
eCG !XhdG AYCG e n oJ fc AYCG g ch ...S H fed IRG
- hDe a (Xh l Y fCH hQGO Uh dGh) dG dG T AdG
.dJh LG J Y -bGdG
.XhdG AYCG Ve c e C N QdG IYO bh bh
Y AHCG KQh b XhdG AYCG CG QdG jf hjDe Yq j :fH S a
G LCG IOLe Z eYG XhdG AYCG H Ea Gg eh ,SCG
IFGdG :G S a !fEG OhL fCG Yq j dG
S fCG GYR dG IOdG H LJ jOhdG
#Qj dG) fEG dG AMCG Y hjh .fEd
:a G C G Gg (XhdG AYCG jf
FHbCG id LJ g H ,jOhO IFGR fEd
IFGdG dh (kjQJ bCG)fdG IOdG Fa e jdG
e C WhCG JGe e jK H -iNCG Ie- J jOhdG
J QdG jf jD a .SHCG GM
(145) ?dP
QdG IYO J dG jQdG j :QNH
K bh ,e ANCG IY Y XhdG AYCG Ve
fEG M Xh AYCG fEG LJ a ,kY DN
161
AY
C G eGC c C N edG KGC
T dG :ka .XhdG
gcP AL dG) dG jFGdG
fGC Y Gf
C G UGC c
J fGC L ho (Xh Y
g GC e ZdH ,bdG W
eR ahe J XdG
.dG e dJ a ,hQGO
07
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Page 162
QdG jN
.jdGh edGh G T oN dh ,iNCG Fc Y adG jH j
KdG aGN
KdG SG AMCG Y Y noj G LCG H dG HdG EG
.AJQGh AdG Y dc KdG Gg J QdG IYO hjh ,(Homology)
CGh ,H a AJQG j G FdG H AYCG KdG CG j hQGO c
LJ ,JVGa ka .d ne YCG L e Ge fCGh H KG AYCG g
GP QdG c dHh) QdGh G CG Gg eh ,LCG Qdh d
.d YCG e L e JQG b (LCG
j h .NBG dO CG hO d kne LQG G e JG ON l#GaG KdG
Y e dG e Y Y Z hCG fc Y e hCG dO CH #GaG Gg
n G G Gg EG J #QCG W e m GC Ge Y jo c ,hQGO
KdG CG JBG dG VJ ,Gg EG aVEGh .KG jdG GP Fd YG
:QdG hM Y dO CG j
QdG IYO j dGh G GfCGh LCG AYCG K OLh .1
.H FJQG bY OjEG fCG
H Y l KG AYCG GP G FdG d KGQdG eG .2
.kGc kaNG dG
H Y kGL j G G FdG KG AYCd G dG .3
.dG
IM Y vc ,dG dG g hd BGh
G Gf
C G HG AY
C G
j dGh G G FdG a J KG AYCG e jdG g
,QdG EG aVEa .Gg Y e LCGh ,H QJ JQG CG OjEG QdG IYO
Lho d H .GG id LJ c ,jdG e gh G id LCG LJ
H HGb hCG bY jCG fCG QdG IYO ij h .LCG GP Ve IFW GQUjO
162
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Page 163
FG eCG QdG YGe aJ

.fGG e HQCG dG g
G fGG d q G HdG g VG Gg dG NBG Gh
h ,ke H Y Yf -ke- NCGh fEa .H QdGh
dG jb e c Y Ea Gg eh ;H QJ K CG nOLh ,lMCG p qj H ,j
CG Yj fCG AJQGh AdG IYO Mh .Xhh H M e NBG H
YR CG d cDJ (gZ ch) eCG g .YCG kce kGL NCGh fEd CG e
YCG e L e G FdG QGfG Y dO AYCG KdG CG QdG IYO
.Y S CG d d
MCG aGYa ;d d kGc kGQe J CG j g KG AYCG EG H
Y OLh c Y fH AL dGh ,QHdS fGa gh ,QdG IYO ge
:KdG RCe qJ Fc kGL He
jQdGh Qq G :Ie e cCG X b dG e cdG e kGY EG
dG Gg e H X dG dG dG dG e EG .G S Y Gh
cdG jdG J c GG e OdG Gg c QX dH a ,IMGh Ie
(146). QGhdH j Gg dG EG ?jG
L
C Gh KGQdG eG K RC e
FdG KG AYCG J CG H ,jH QdG IYO YGe N
n D oJ M
.ke d Gg CG EG ,DNA hdG G K e Ke KGQh GT GP G
GdG CG Gg Y OR ,H M EG KGQdG IdG J MCG e a
AYCH JJ e kGc G Fd DNA jhdG #MCG KG KGQdG
.ke
jf :QdG Hc ,jG AdG PSCG ,fGO je GSCG Vj
dG J e kGc :KdG J Y QdG hjDe LGj dG KGQdG RCG RCe
QdG d KdG e e kGQOfh ,Ke Z KGQh f Y f KG
(147).G
MGe) G dG MGe Ea kU KdG AYOG noj a ,iNCG Mf e

163
07
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Page 164
QdG jN
C
C G e c RGJ CG H KG AYCG GP GfCd (CG MQ NGO hCG jd dG
e f c ke AYCG d G dG MGe Ea ,bGdG h .iN
.G FdG
CG KCG LCG Y h KGQdG Y jLCG dG HCG EG dG ,keNh
YCG e L e LCG QGfG dO UH hQGO as Y dG KdG Ia
VdG C N KCG b dG EG dG Ggh ,GMCG e M CH kdO gPJG kGHCG
.iNCG J IG fhQGdG
jG KdG YR H
Y dO (Molecular Homology) jG KdG CG e QdG IM Yj e EG
jG ie Y dh ,a AYCG ie Y WH YR g jf U
LCG id JhdG cGJh pH hCG
DNA `dG GT EG dj a .jCG
hCG oY ce OhL e JQG b fCG Y dO KdG Gg EGh ,Ke G FdG

Lj :j e eYEG FSh J e kGc ,G S a .dG H e JQG
J jh ,IOdH UG DNA `dG ITh fEH UG DNA `dG IT H c HJ
.IOdGh fEG H AJQG bY OLh e fYj e Y kdO UH HdG Gg
id kehRec HQCGh S OLH j G e dG Gd dG eCG cCGh
IYO pjh .fdG e OhdG GfCG H id kehRec HQCGh fKh fEG
.FJQG bY Y dO G LCG H ehRedG OY QdG CG QdG
dP !WdG gh :IOdG e fEd kHb cCG g ne g Ea ,G Gg U GPEG dh
S a ;jQdGh fdG e fEG gOY EG bCG WdG ehRec OY CG
e Ggh .ehRedG OY f WdGh fEG e d Ea ,iNCG IQHh !HQCGh
Y kdO j CG DNA `dG GT HdG CG j (ke c EGh) QU
.FJQG bY
He hJ dG G FdG jL H Ic ha g ,NBG fG Yh
JhdG MCG gh)
Cytochrome-C
JhdG H ;ka .dG H e jbh kGL

164
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Page 165
FG eCG QdG YGe aJ

H a j Oj kGc kaNG J (d jQhdG
dG HCd kWh ,dG d J dG G bG
e Yf H NG Ea OdG Gg jLoCG
dG H hCG SCGh QdG H NG j MGhdG
H jG NG CH iNCG SGQO OaCG c .jK GMh
QdG g f H jG NG j QdG H
je QahdG
QdG{ :fGO
hJ dG jdG jL H NG CG K bh .jdGh
.zeRGC jf
H hCG FedGh jdG H NG j HdG IjT
M K fQe jLCG bh (148).GGh jdG
(149). He FdG fch ,Gh fedGh HZGh HZdG
bdG GP G e gZh FdG g Y fGO je QcdG jh
Je Zh kGMhh kGja -jG iG Y- noj AMCG e f c EG :a
jdG ASdG J Y -GG CT fCT- jG Y a nK eh .ASH
Lj ,jG iG a ;jW eR e QdG IYO e AMCG AY Y j
fCG T Lj Oj h ...FHbCH fQe mGQ hCG FGH Fc hCG YCG e L g Fc
d dG QdG Ia J a dG e b b kMe jG ddG Gg c d
(150). WEG Y b CG
G dG aGN
SH n jo c e -H eR e- SCG b dG LGG CG e ZdG Y
e QdG Y aGG dG GQGUEG H Ea (recapitulation theory) dG jf
ot J de Y Le J g Gg dG UGh .Y M fCG Y eJ GJ
SdG dG NGhCG g fQCG Qt dG AMCG Y WCG dG UC lJ OdG
.Y
MG g N G FdG LCG CG MW dG jdG g g Yj
-eCG MQ AKCG- fEG L CG YR a .eYG gOGLCG H q e dG AJQG
165
07
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Page 166
QdG jN
K ,SCG U khCG j
.fEG kGNCGh ,MGhdG
MdG GYCG K bh
a ,ke je jdG g CG
fCG oj c e CG BG hG
e hCG MGG J TN
G d dG G J
Ib d dhCG MGG iS
bQOQG IdGh SdG PCG
dP CG JG c ,dG IZh
c j c dG G e AG
e c hQGO e Qd k TGC g c
G Lj e oj c g G
dG fdG jJ OOj Gdh ,Lh
C G
Y WCG dG AG eCG ,dG e
.jdG e c GHGh
a jdG SG YJCGh g
jJ j jJ C EG Ad jdc hj dG ,fEG dG OdG G
.bdG
fCG QdG IYOh ,dG ShCG L id ahe FM fcP e c EG
:j e ,S OQjL QL gh ,jG fhQGdG SDe MCG jh .H uj
d k j kY dG K a ,dhJ dG FdG GC G g s T d
(151). OGLCG AJQG MG LCG CG
:j e (American Scientist) jeCG dG of e OQh bh
AMCG Y LGe e kGNCG M
o a .ke e b FMCG AdG fb EG
(152). jdG OG dG d Vc KfG b c EGh ,G
MGG SQ jH b kLO c g fQCG CG VG Gd IG LhCG e

SCG LCG CG jG g QUh SQ XCG d .MW dG jdG Yd G
e jNBG EG db g es b dG MdG adG c Gg jJ K Mh ,He fEGh
:jdG Gg Geb QdG IYO
166
07
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Page 167
FG eCG QdG YGe aJ
eN a d d jdG L
C G
jdG jJ
B G YGoC d
G j dG jON
C Gh
jJ S GC H dG
Y KhQe jJ fGC Y
GC H Ggh ;S
C G
H J jdG qL
C G
.f
E d QdG jQdG
AGdG LCG fCG d ,keh kfGe f Yo CG CG jhdG GH GYG H

q Y c
j jdG MdG e c H ,IG e e JG b fL EG iQCG CG
SdG e dG ddG Ea ,GP PEGh .beG AMCG AYh dG e Qb cCH
jhdH oJ CG e S Jh KHCGh AMCG Y LGe aCG IOLG
(153). iNCG hCG IQH jJ h bO Z kL fEG PEG ;QdG H
dG e Qb cCH j jdG MdG e c H IG e e g ;f
fCG dP ;jdGh H ,jdGh dH dYCG jdG ,beG AMCG AYh
Y e ZdH QdG jf Y adG gh CG ,Y hj kag YCG of GVh
.U Yj MGh Y dO aJ
167
07
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Page 168
Y HGdG dG
jOdGE jOe IQhV :QdG jf

S CG d d QdG jf CG J dG Gg gfOS dG eG c EG
h .dG acG c e jdG YGe c bJ ,dG Y H ,Y
H aGj b .dG g d jdG Y J dG IdG EG -iNCG IQH- dG
NBG edG dP .NBG gL eY OLH dG e e fCG EG ,jdG Y AdG
.jOG dG g
g SSCG eGbh ,jQdG jdG dG bCG iMEG g jOG dG EG
j OLe g e ch ,dRCG IOG Ea dG d kWh .e AT IOG CG gQYG
,dN OLH EG G e j G Gg e CG dG eh .a IOG e
eDJ dG jdG GG GfCG d kGhY RCG b e jOG dG fc a ddh
.dH
FSh iMEG Jh .M Y jOG jdG fc GPEG qY g GDdG j GH
,ka ;Y H -dH J dG YGe SGQO - e a C N hCG U QNG
c CGh dG S Y Se IT g CG Yj CG TdG dG d
bh ,#QCG EG S K Qdc dG IdG J aCG Y G FdG
Y fEG f CG Hh jdG dG dh ,fjh dG H dG H j
Y hCG g IdG g OLa .dG g e W eEH j dG S
.HdGh IgG jW Y CG ,dG dH e dG gOLh
fc GPEG e Qf CG CG ;dG dH jOG jdG YGe -PEG-
H f J CG J IOG fc GPEG eh ,IOLe Z hCG RCG e IOLe IOG
GH eb Y .J hCG M Fc jJ J IOG fc GPEG eh ,Y dN hO
H MWCG b RCG e IOG OLh Ia C dH QfG b jOG jdG CG S
IOG CH YdG eCG .dG e N
o b dG CG q oJ dG Big Bang dG QfG jf
,QdG jf SG Y f dG AYOG g da ,IH JCG fCGh H f f
.iNCG g gQfG KCG bh dG Gg
u dG jdG gh
168
07
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Page 169
jOdEG jOe IQhV :QdG jf

dH fEG Vhh ,jOH EG Y ke e T c GPEa ,dP eh
jOG d ke c GPEa .dG Gg Y aJ j a ,QYG c a j OG
jf Mj dG ij eY jOG Y j a dG G kdp Y K ,hCG G
jCJ EG dG N e Y AHEGh jOG Y adG hS ,dG Y H .QdG
QfCG j dG RCG g -dH- Ggh .FSdG fc eh e H QdG jf
.dG a fCG Y aGG QdG jf
KGQdG Y PSCG ADg eh ,Gh G H GH j H CG g jdGh
PEG ,QdG dd FGQBH jgG e gh ,fd OQjQ OQaQg eL dG
:kFb kpdY K ,hCG G kjOe fH j
OG dG b Y e H f dG fGdG hCG FSdG CG eCG d
SCH jdG H- Yae a ,dG Y dh ,GH Qn G ndd
d fc e ,jOe GJ p oJ gG e Yh d IGOCG N EG -jOG
d dG a Gdh ,e jOG Ea dP ah .sG d eZh jd
(154). MdG Y fe NCj CH dEG
dG dG Ga ,jd e g fd j dG (a priori) jH J EG
q n oJ eY jH J Ida ,Y ae jCG EG j e #GaG EG j
j ch .U EG J ee jCG Z M H dG jh U
dhj gh ,QdG IYO id jdG sG iMEG g jOG Ea ,MGU fd
j a ,dH EG aQ cCdH J jOG CG h .e d dG jJ
jf Hc b dG FG CH HY Z ,QdG jf gh ,d G MdG jdH
.kjH kGeCG UH U Gb b AdG ADg EG .QdG
f fc AdG IOG CH EG EG QdG IYH ODj G bG Gg EG
AdG PSCG jh .jCG G dj dh ,a dG dj e gh ,H
QfCG GOYG ,hHT HhQ ,DNA hdG G jN G ,Qjf eL
:dH GOYG g N edG jOH fEGh QdG jf
FdG OGG N Me e Uj CG j QJ CGe EG UdG j
QGdGh IOYEG Y IQdG Uh UN d Y hCG RL hCG EG e f dG dG
169
07
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Page 170
QdG jN
d IOG J hCG FdG QdG SG WEG h RNA). hCG DNA e Replicator (
H ,Jh bO H GC G Gg jJ BG M j dh . GC G Gg Y JGP
jOH Ed c GC G Gg OLH EG jh .BG M UCG OLh Y gdG J
(155) .djdG
HdG eYEG FSdG QGSH gGf dG ,QdG jH UG jYdG EG

EG a .LdjjCG IQhdG d IK EG g e ,jdG dG G h IQG
je QJ dG FGhdG dM a ,Y dG dG ATCG e noj UCG QdG
.be Rj dG SG MCG EG dG
Y hCG ,HGdG ddG jdG g Y ad je fCG hj AY g
hdG OcCG EG .dG gce Y d ,gV H dG Tj bCG
,jPSCG LQO Y d e Y Je d he HdG
H j jdG QdG IM IS c AMCG H nJ dG Gh
j CG Y AMCG Y a K eh ,J QdG jd #Qe MGh e
IQhV QdG q o jn dG FdG dG e AL kjCG gh .jdG g g JSGQH
Gg BG M gbf dG G dG c Y aGj a Gdh ,LdjjCG
.dG
jOG aGYG
ke (jQG QdG IYO MCG gh) QjO a eg CG AMCG Y jo
jd G cdG Y ke QjO q b CG a ,G OG dG Gd kGL
FdG g LJ CG G e c GPEG j a jG UGj ,G FdG
:a hCG adH
g Gg ?gMh adG dh aGdGh ZdG Gg e j CG ka G e g
cCJ H g `H GDdG Gg Y HLEG EG .AMCG QJ b FdG GDdG
dG dG j en EG dG ,jdG LdG a .jG dG dH Ed
H dG gGdG J EG j fC f j CG iS NBG QN jd d jG
eh .jae QeCG NJ Y OYG hO dG fGb e LSG hjh ee
170
07
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Page 171
jOGh fhQGdG
-VH d dG MO e ZdH- hQGO jf Y adG QGS MdG dG EG
,dG dG Y jOG dG H hQGO b a .jOGh jdG g H dG EG Lj
CG Y dG H fhQGdG Y adG (cQG ee h) dG g hjDe UGjh
.AT
:j e ,Ja ZhO LddG gh ,jUG QdG jf Sa TCG MCG c bh
O OGh dBG a kFQ kcQ hQGd QdG jf fc ,cQ jQdG jOe jf fL EG
NBG jDe b c .(1)Y aGG id QdG jf gCG j kGq L VGh GYG Ggh .j
d HK jOe a jhQGO W d :dZ S GG Y gh ,QdG jd T
:kFb (d e YdG ShdG IQd IHG dG MCG gh) JhJ d qYh .(2)d
XCG a ,dP eh .(3)edH jdG IOG d QfG YCG hQGO cG c
.dG g S Y eY d jOd kGQfG d fhQGdG CG dG
1 Douglas Futuyma, Evolutionary Biology, 2nd ed., Sounderland, MA; Sinauer, ,1986 p.3
2 Alan Woods and Ted Grant, "Marxism and Darwinism", Reason in Revolt: Marxism and
Modern Science, London, 1993.
3 Alan Woods and Ted Grant, "Marxism and Darwinism", London, 1993.
JhJ
hQGO
cQe
(aOG SGH CG) dG fGb SGH AT c J Ea ,dG g Yh ,Gg

(156)?aOH EG iS j Y GPa ,NBG AT EG AdG Y Y eY g
jW Y IG OLh J dG OG NG j ,QjO b ch ;f
GC G Gg J Oh .SSCG CGe dG dP onjh ,G CG ,QG NdG QfEG
dG d eCG Y QdG h ,dSG MG cCG J dG e j fEa
jd dG jDG ,UeO Y PSCG njh .kjJ AdG IM YCG c G
kW ,HdG dG fTCG CG S ch .Z jc e kGMGh ,cJ QdG
171
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QdG jN
Y Id QhdG Cytochrome -c JhdG J MG Ea UeO Y H U
dBG Y c ffEG jQd mOb Hc MG Oj kGL V MG g adG jW
(157) !ANCG CG hO Jc
dG Oe HCH FG #H dG j MG Gg e b CG T
kffEG CG cDj QdG e Ub Y kHe MGh M OLh Oa ;dG dGh
lJc qdCG b dG Gg CG e cCJ OGOj jdG jQJ Y kHc AG gj eYh ,c
H UG b J CG dG dG Gg hM CG bY fEG CG Yj a .e
!adG H fL EG
dG Gg j ,Qd jDG dG ,UeO Y PSCG CG ka jdG dh
:fdG Z VGaG e
j Oj kGL V MG g Cytochrome-c S t J MG CG G
g dG g q J MG EG dG a e S IG J GPEG fCG CG ,kGU
NJ b cGQOEG J jae iob J CG H a EGh ,dG IM IMGh Ie
EG dG e d H PEG .dG GgCG Sj NCG #dG Gg nbh .eCG
(158) !hCG #dG
NJ MG aj d G MG j fEG b EG gj UeO EG
U CH to G Gg CG VGdG eh .H dG H j d CG ,jae ib
UCG g ,NBG kYVe cj M UeO CG gdG Y j h .FOeh d
d ke kd fc e ZdH adG GC e MGU j ,G jQfcG
:dG
Y G C ;UG g Y jQfcG M c g G d EG
.gQJ dG j MG LG EG j ,MGh Oa SGH M ,adH
TCHh IN c Yd IYe eGc Jh dG J dG fEa
EGh ,edH fEG e dG g Y G J CG H a ;dBG d
,dG EG hCG kJ cCG J EG AdG iOf d fEa ,gh .e H eCG UCG
fEG d G OLdG Ia (e Y dP c EGh) f CG EG he a
d kd dP c e ZdH ,cCd hCG Id VJ b G dG
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Y jOG dG QfG
Oe Y CG SGH G FdG O dG
QdG jf Y aGG Qc MCG q jh .U
Y c e G H (edh QL gh)
QdG jDe e LddG a d :1995
dG bf N e j fCG GQOEG
dGh eH "N dhCG :ae Z fEG
eG e eM g G CG dP ,IOH "N
IOG e j QOdG UGdG Gg .e kT dh
be j OLd bf eGh
.(4)IM Y e c
W Z M OLh Y dO bG Gg
Y a ;KGQdG eG LGJ EG OCG
G je jh .H eG fEG IOG
QahdG ,LddGh Ajd GQdG CG
:kFb ,Z fa
qe Fc EG LG Y QdG c J
dh .YGW YGHEGh cGQOEGh IG JOGQEG j
J hCG Y hCG d he fb g
QX EG ODj CG GMCd he
.(5)IOG kqFJ eG
ch dG CG J dG FG g c
,Ff Yh Ib d dN N b G ATCG
Y a jOH j a eCG .dG N CG
:jdG dG Sa ge MCG ,Sc KQBG
a fCG YJ CG dG d G e j
.(6)Y
1 Henry Margenau, Roy A. Vargesse. Cosmos, Bios,
Theos. La Salle IL: Open Court Publishing, ,2991 p.
142
2 Paul Davies. God and the New Physics. New York,
Simon & Schuster, ,3891 p. 981
3 Hugh Ross. The Creator and the Cosmos. Colorado
Springs, CO: Nav Press, ,3991 pp. 411-51
4 George C. Williams. The Third Culture: Beyond the
Scientific Revolution, New York, Simon & Schuster,
,5991 pp. 24-34
5 Verner Gitt. In the Beginning Was Information. CLV,
Bielefeld, Germany, p. 141 ,701
6 Arthur Koestler, Janus: A Summing Up, New York,
Vintage Books, ,8791 p. 052
AdG jd dG SCG fCG M

Y SdG dG jOe MbG a ,QdGh
dG CGh j fCGh RCG e dG OLh
.IOG H YdG SGH J dG
edG CG KCG jdG dG acG d
Lho dG CG Va S a .VdG d
gh) Fg QfG f X fCG cH RCG e
15 b bh (Big Bang dG QfH Yoj e
dG OGG CG dG QfG ojh .Y H
d :iNCG IQHh ,AT e fJ b d
gh ,jOG jDe FGhCG MCG jh .N
o
:j ,a fCG G dG
CGHCS Gd ,hdG j GYG CG hG e
e H QdG G Y fCH GYH
,dG QfG G UG dG LEG
dG ddG eqj dG AY CG hj M
.(1)jGH d fc dG CG Y
j c dG CG kjCG dG QfG Vjh
VGh Ggh ,Me c IdG N a
c dGh dG QfG H M dG dG
Qf kf j CG e LQH ke
H QG dG jh .Id VN Z
CG fG ehe j :kFb bG Gg jO
Gd kSM hj dG ,d G jdG
H a .jH a dG b ,jG IdG
- jOdG dG VGdG G aGdG j CG
cCG -d SSCG HGd dG JOM dG
.(2)dG dG Y Y eGdG dOCG
EG dG Y kceCG kGPSCG G of aJh
Y Oo pj dOCG c LG f eY :j CG
b J CG H dG a Ib CG dG gP
feEH jOG #hdG Ea dc .(3)NJ
QfG b IOG H YdG SGH IG J
,"G Lh Yh .dG acG LGe
KGQdG eG UCG J H fEa
07
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QdG jN
(159). LddG dG
H dEG UdG jf d QdG CG EG S a fOQhCG e c e of

e nreGC b jdG g fh T Ea :dP e dG Y H ,Y SGQO
Ieh .MJ dG eGdG dG dOCG e ZdH IY EG d K ,jOG dG
gh ,OG g d kag g CG QdG jDe Hc e VH if CG iNCG
.dN U e g G FdG c CH OYG CG hO dG
a H kY d Y Kj e d ,Y fCH dG Gg QdG IYO qjh
JGP dGh .(QN AT CG hCG) IOG a AT CG OLh b H aJ jOa ,jOe
e FdG "SGh dG SGQO j da ,IdG g e d kGe d
g Gg EG .Gg dG j CG H a b dG CG FdG g H GPEa ,SGQdG
OJ dG ddG jOG FdH dH j Y adG ;G dp dG LGh
.Y SdG dG EG
jG jdGh G jdGh jOG

,dH jOG dG IM ShCG dfCG dG dG QGVEG ie BG M jCGQ
fCG ch ,J hO H GeBG dG QdG WSCG S dG Yj fCG ch
d Lhu G ShCG g CH qf CG jCG a ,Gg b bh eCG .FG j
.e b hO dP c EGh ,L eN ODJ jOG
Y (IG FGdG gQaCG jJ EG SGH j dG) eG g ej fEG
dG ,Gh dG dG bdGh G adG LhCG L c jW
dG sjG jdG c Y jG jOG g YS a .SEG SH noj
dGh ,dGh aGGh WdG Y j dGh ,SEG hCG BGdG EG H o
Iah QdGh bdG LhCG c jJh c j Ggh .HdG gGdG EG j
SH kC N J Z FGhO Y aGJ dGh ,js G jdG Y j dG G
.U dOCG CG EG OSG hO SEG
jdGh G dG X GQOEG Y dG e dG jOG Yj Ggh
.H YGh BGdG EG H G Qeh jdG hQ W Y fjh
174
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dG SH noj kHPc kjO J dG dG dV Y dG a ,Gg EG aVEGh
Oj dG G G Gg KCJ VEG Y hYjh ,SEG SH d sojh
.G e cCG AG
IH dG Ab d dG GUCG a ,d Quob ch ,GnHGC hCG GhDhT ,Ggh
Hc J dG j c .H V H jdG AGYCG aO jW Y ,G jO
:jdG
nC G rnnnnd m rnpH ronrnH n sdG psdG oranO r ndhn
npnd nrdG nnY m rna h oP nsdG spndhn o#rQ
(251 IdG)
e Y adG d k f CG QhdG e CG f fEa ,dG g Yh
EG ,OU H Ie GP GYT b dG ADg j a .Qd UG OG dG
,dG EG of jPcCGh ,SEG SH AL aGN KCJ jdG GV b fCG
G c UdG d b J Gdh .ddG e dEG GVJ FTh
HdG dhj jdG jdG VQ c e jdG GJ b ADg j Qh .fCH
aVEG ,ke SEG UCGh hQ H ,GAYOGh jPcCG Hh SEG H
GJCj CH ADg f dd .jEG J e c e ke j fCG EG
e UCG jdG Gj M hOh e H dG c GhDhj CGh e SCH
dG UCG QOG EG LdG a AT Y SG e GPEGh ,G Qe
.dGh dH BGdG hJ
175
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Y eG dG
QdG jd N Je Y
E G
.Y SCG CG EG J QdG jf CG BG M SGQdH dhJ j
M QdG jf CG jh ,G g cQj dG AfCG dG e dh
q e Hh J e YEG FSh H J e g dG dP j e cCGh .Y

d IG FG cP e d H c Gdh .d jYdGh jhdGh jd eh
.FYdGh dG G
jf Y QNCG e J OJ fCG a HdG YEG FSh eCJ e GPEG
H YVe J H KG IdG Gh IFGdG eYEG a ,QdG
M jdG g CG g fH a ,HSCG eCJ e GPEG eCG .jdG g M QhO
.GL hCG f C k j ,Wb IQH HK Y
jf CH OYG GC j YVGh QNCG g e OdG QdG GC j eYh
dG YEG FSh J a .VjQ fb CG CT fCT IcDe Y M QdG
g Y a .Fa YHh keYEG qJh G YEG FSh J idG
Ie Y QdG :J Y kf e Ic Me IRQH jhH FSdG
GdCG b AdG CG EG Nature J hCG .GG S IdG J IjL
M Y QdG Y YEG EG .QdG jf dEG GUh e MCGh NBG Y AdG
CG G Lj fCG dP ,dG T j QdG S IOG INCG UdG
dG qqH c jR JG gbS dG dOCG ch ,jdG g e JKEG fL
dG LGG d eG d H ,a eYEG FSdG Y eCG j h .HdG
.AMCG Y ch YSGh
idG cGe J dG ,OcCG FGhdGh YEG FSh EG ,QNHh
.d Jh Va hh QdG jf ke J f Lh J ,jd jOG
jCG Qh J QdG jf L e ddGh KCdG e #dGh dG Gd c bh
176
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QdG jd jYdG
dG G
dG IdG
Y NCG
dhDe JY
jhdG IOb
jd jYdGh
J QdG
keg kGQhO
edG J
db Y
.jJh
dG kVQe QYH QdG jf QfEG EG oj UCGh ,IdG j e EG

dG IdG dG e ZdG Y fEa ,dG Gdh .HdG dG Fd kZEGh
e UN) WdG dOCH K dGh H dG GdGh jdG g J
H fCG g GaYG b jdG g QfCG e AdG CG e ZdG Yh ,(G
jd f CG Y f Of dG fEa ,c Gg e ZdG Y ,GdGh dG
.eYEG FSdG hCG dG ShCG AGS QdG
kJh bGe dG He cCG - SGh f Y- oJ dG G e kGc EG
b
Nature, Focus, National Geographic... :e) dG dGh AMCG Y
jdG g RGHEG kGL dCJ gh ,d kja kge JJGh QdG jf YG

.IcDe c
OGY
E G e jPcGC
G Z efH d gaj dG IG e Ic IOSG hj QdG IYO EG
,H hCG J hO QdG jH eDj dG e a ;YEG FSh H J dG
177
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QdG jf QfGC aGN

Z jQS a .dd dN b g -jRQdG AdG MCG Uh c- QdG jf EG
e AcPh jS Ib IG EG J dG IOG CG #j ,kGHCG e Zh Y
IG AGdGh dG fGL H a jdG dG gh .cdG Ie M Fc N
QJ{`H G J jdG bS dG d IG jPcCG g e .QeCG H M
dG YG cCG e IMGh gh) aGZL fTf of dG ,zG
:(dG jLh IT
jdG jdG fGG eZ eY S e S b G M EG G QJ CGH{
GdG CGW QdG e Yh .AGdG Y kH AG EG dH dGh HQCG FGdG GP
d dG NG c ,fYR EG eeCG FGdG dh G FGdG Na ;kjQJ
d jdG T Jh ,CGdG YCG f fCG a dh ,G d S L EG
.(1)zAG NGO kGL j L CGH K ,kJ cCG
ld dG Gg e Ea ,cP kjCG j Y S CG OLh Y Y dG Hh
ie Y j EG aGZL fTf Jf dG AGdG Gg EG .dG YGb HC
.QdG jf fJ dG kjgX IOG YG dEG Uh dG dGh dG ie
fGG UCG EG dj QdG QfCa ;jdG fGG UCG g iNCG jPcCG iMEGh
d J YG dG Gg UJ T Y dh ,kb TY dG MGhdG MCG g jdG
:j e e ,Ie b
IQGM Y d SCG jJ IOQdG WG TY dG MGhdG H YT{
UCG eY QGG dG ie fGh OQdG G JJ JQGM fch ,L
LQO d iNCG Sh dG RGaEG ch .ha EG d K ,bCG L J dG QdG
(!) adH Mh .G J jW Y IQhdG Y G jd Sh gh ,G IQGM
Y RGaEG OdG H CGHh ,f Wd CG Y J CGH MGhdG g QU CG
.(2)zJ aCG jGH QdG ADg M ddh .d EG jdG ac cCG
UdG Lh dG RJ dG OdG e qdJ b (JEH AGZ gh) dG CG Ia EG
.Y SCG CG hO ,QdG jf UCG jZ Ff g cP dG iNCG
1 Victor B. Scheffer, "Exploring the Lives of Whales", National Geographic, vol. 50, December
1976, p. 752
2 George Gamow, Martynas Ycas, Mr. Tompkins Inside Himself, London: Allen & Unwin, 1968, p.
149
jdG g IYO eEH CG j Ggh ?GPh ?c e SCG W hj fEG M

.KCdGh bEd da Sh j e H jPcCG GhOhj CG
IG fG IgX QdG jd YGdG dG dG RHCG hJ ,G S a
hh (H J d Lj dG QdG jf gGX gCG e gh) HdG EG G e
FdG hCG CGh AG CGH IG CG Y J jda .jd e H gJ
178
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QdG jd N Je YEG
AdEG ,e d ,j GP YT SCG CG jdG cJh ,SCG fc kGQX G
Jh ,(G g MCG e dP H qj dG dGh) HdG Y f
fYdG e kH LQCG d UCG HdG Y IG QNG dG SCG CG jdG
.TG e H FpQh
Mh .dP hM c kGHCG bJ QdG jf M sdDG dG e CG nH
YdG Gg Y j e EG H ,dP hM d T Oj JGP dG dG RHCG
.HdG EG AG e IG fG Y e GQY N j aS e
G QN dG J SCG CG f f ?fG Gg M c dh
SCG aOh dH M b YG G Gg CH S GPEGh .IOhe FbO e cC
:VGh HLEG ?SCd j CG c dG a ,HdG Y dG EG fd
.iNCG J IMGdG ,FbO IY N S fc AG e LN dG SCG a
S :IMGh HLEG a ,GdG e jG Gd HdG SG d Mh
G FdG e dG jZ kM kGY CG dP .iNCG J IMGdG SCG
!IW hM jW Y CG ,Le aU jW Y j CG
fGh HdG EG AG e IG fG :QdG IYO Vj e g dH Gg dh
gJ j LG dGh fG YGe e dG gZh AGdG EG HdG e IG
Ea ,PCGh dG e dH IG AYCG t J Y eCG .G Z G H
!WEG Y kT Gdj CG qj QdG IYO
SJ CG EG Y e .dG OGh gH QdG LQ Y KCdG dG e EG
dG Gd J ASCG Jh HdG EG AG e IG fG Y dN IQU
GM gh) dfG SdG IQdGh HdG Y Y dG Sh AG Y
jGQ EG khCG hHSjCG GM :ne HhcCG dDJ K ,(J
dG g Vh e GPEG fEG .jW QJ Y SjEG EG K LHShc
bEG J a AdG WGh dG GQdG hP AdG MCG d Y
Y o J S QdG jd jhd gOL J dG YEG FSh C ,jdG
.Y SH I
u G AfCG g kje dG
179
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Page 180
Y OdG dG
YN QdG :dG
dh ,QdG jf oJ dG iNCG dG fGdGh dOCG e c LJ
M d j dEG UJ e CG EG .e kH EG dG Gg bf CG f
,YN EG g e -dG AGOQ uJ e ZdG Y- QdG jf CG gh :gCG jZ
jhdGh jYdGh G Z Y J YN ;jOG dG dd a Y adG j
.Y SCG CG EG GMCG e M CH J CG hO ,jdGh
:dG dG Y HdG dG dhJ e J BG feEHh
QdG jf QfG
IYO CG EG dP dG Ljh .JGN hCG J jf g QdG jf EG
h MG fGb a .MGh JhH J c J M j QdG jf
.adH fJ b IG CH OYd CG J CG FdGh FjdG fGdG
J CG jo a ,adH MGh JhH M Jh q J G Z e c GPEa
e GQG CGh ?M Fc N u d e JH b JhdG g e je
dP H sOGC ,M Fc d adH s K f AJ e fs J G jG
,QWh MGhR EG d HdG EG LN dG SCG J CGh ,SCG t J EG
H #QCG S Y X b G FdG e G LCGh GfCG je CGh
!?jdG g
fbu j QdG jf IYO CG EG (d e Z hJ fc EGh) aGG g EG
.H eDjh
g j MGh dO M jd d PEG ,fj IY O g YGG g CG H
GM e ,dfG IQU MGh GM Y GhY CG b j a ;nG dG
.FW NBG fh MGhdG e f GM hCG ,MGhdG e NBG fh S f
#MCG e kGMGh kq eCG kM M hCG) kGMGh kJhH CG KEG e Gj fCG c
180
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Page 181
YN QdG :dG
h ;#QCG S Y FGdG hdH SCG e q J b (Jhd fu G eCG
dP e dG Y H .IQeh jM ee e f e c e jJ G M
h nb QdG Y CG -L e dH e H- QdG IYO KCG a ,ke
.#QCG S Y bh CG KM b J CG
ke QdG jf KGE kjGC

RBG g
n oJ CG Gj CG EG fCG H hq j e QdG IYO ,dP Mh
YGe U Y dj CG d H .edG Qh jf LGJ dG
OGR dG J a ;ke dG Y H .edG e q e e H Gh d
.Gh fdG EG gQaGh QdG jf H J dG dOCG
FXhh H UdG e je cG a ,dH M e g Ggh
c kFGY fJ H H O d G CG ke VGdG e UCG ,G G
.hQGO eR IFS fc dG FGdG LddG gd kW oj c
IG UCG n LQEGh G M Qn fEG Ea ,VdG Gg c kVGh eCG c GPEGh
,YGG g Y adG Y QGUEG K ,bGdG KhM j Oj dG dG EG
jd G LdG fG a .IjT f Qd kS G j Q
j CG b jW bh d a ,d dG CGdG cG eh ,cCGh cCG QdG
M SH j a be H YCG YaOQdG jf Y aGG G
.gLh Ae M
QdG jf eGC idG dG

a .kH H j dG #QCG X Y G FdG LCG e jdG g
GG e jdGh ,dG hCG G J dG fGG e jdG LJ ,G S
.T C kLe hCG kjZ JCj HdG Ggh ,ge HJ
kGL kGc kGQb -e H- YJ OdGh fEG H gdG HdG LhCG CG Z
FGdG #hdG jJ M EG MCG H j b gG Ggh .gG e
181
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Page 182
QdG jN
;kGHCG kT J OdGh fEG H g gdG HdG LhCG CG Gh .QdG jd
dh CG EG ,cdG GMh cdG IM H gdG HdG LhCG H a
Y kGOYG (kqjK kfGM pNBGh kIM gpMCG c e) H FJQG bY OLh KEG
.jd e eCG HdG
e fEG EG bCG OdG CH dG a ,LQG G HdG Hh
f CG a AcdG ie QYG fNCG GPEG fEa ,bGdG h .iNCG fGG EG
T j dG dG hCG ,SdG jJ IG dG jN j dG dG EG
fEG e bQCG g H .OdG e fEG EG bCG ,iNCG g kSg kGRYEG dG
!MGdG H
Oda .OdGh fEG H Fg NG a ,LQG HdG Y dG Hh
eCG .GQOEGh YdG LQO M e dG hCG G Hh H a ,kGNCGh khCG GM
jdh ,Qjh jh jh j CG j ,jb IOGQEG hP ,Qe bY Fc fEa fEG
dG gh ,bG H id aJ dG g ch .QeCG Y G Y IQdG
CGh fEG H L HJ CG j dh ,Ic Ia fEG Hh H
.IdG g j CG NBG
Aj ch Aj e dG j
kT j dP EG ?dH M b QdG IM Yqj dG jQdG c d GPe
Y e fCG YJh ,QdG jf VJ dG MGG e Me c CG dP .kGHCG
Lho b IG fc d a .Ie H EG KM b J CG ,aOG
MGG J e IQe Me c Ea ,MGG e S bJ N e kjQJ dH
d adH J IG MGe OLh EG .YGh bqN IOGQEH EG LJ CG c e
.e fEG H ,a kGe
CG a G d FGdG hdG X s J b JhdG AL EG b GPEGh
AMCG Y fGbh MG jf fGb N e -dH- KCG b fCG cf
Gg CG #GaG e H j GPEG fCG nH .adH M b dP CG dSG AdGh
Ggh .Lh Y dG IOGQEG EG OLH jnj fCH dG Y PEG jH a ,s J b AG
182
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Page 183
YN QdG :dG
Y e dO g a ,G S Yh .eH QdG jf Y j G
e SCG hN j e jJ hCG FMCG hCG Fc hCG Fja dO hCG GG
Va GPEG fCG Y .dG Gg e hM a ,jH fGM EG dh HdG EG AG
YGG g #p e Ea ,MGhR EG dh HdG EG MR b SCG CG -kLGY eh .a c dH Aj e j CG Y QOb dN OLH kjCG dG e d H
.G Oe djh f bj IG d J e dP
- Ggh .J MCG Nh jH J f g Ia ;HKh L G EG
.YGHEGh Yh JQd OhM dN OLh Y NBG Wb dO -QhH
.H eh #QCGh GhdG tQ ,Jh fS ,dG g dG dP
183
08
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20:12
Page 184
Y HdG dG
G M
CG YJ dG) QdG jf QYG SCG ,dG Gg e HdG dG ,SQO
dG ha
o H c c jCGQh .dG FG ke bJ kde (oJ IG
CG ,VdG jZ M Y (jdGh jG AdGh GG Y e) jG
.G FdG L dN g Jh fS dG CG gh
IG FdG EG LdG EG -G g Qj d- j fEG CG bGdGh
LdG acG gJ dG hCG ,jG AdG ee AdG dEG Uj dG
dG Vh VGh dG GQOEGh dG J M OLh ga .GG Yh
L jJ kjH kJh Y J K EG .M Fc CG jDhQ h fEd
J H U a b fEG j h ,dG YCG IU S hCG V IM
e J e AGOCH J kY dG G FdG H EG H .dG dP hCG dG
.H dG Y j fEG M kLQO dG
dG G dGh jdG dG Ggh dG G g CG a T h
d .Jh fS dG g ,Y dN OLh WdG ddH j cCH dG Oj
OLh FO fEd XCGh bQN Uh FN G FdG L J dG gh
.JQbh
d M dG G dOCG e a eCG H JBG dG QSh
.dG
gjN QG AdG YhQh dG

jG dG dP J fCGh LMG e cCG kY J dG CG hG e
.SGdG dG gh ,d he jG g dG H j dG dGh ,dG
?VCG SN hCG K H jN dG J GP kej cMCG qa g dh
EG :Ie f EG GDdG Gg Y HLEd GS jdG VjdG AY UJ d
184
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G M
e Qb cCG GSG dG SdG TCG fCG g SGdG dG
.MG MG
J H ,Fd dG e c bC dG SGS a
SdG TCG fCG J dG Ea ,Ggh .dG e c cCG jH
.G
dG AH GC J da :dc ge a dG jG AH G dG eCG
e MGh BG jG S M GC J K , ceCG KK hCG fe e SGdG
Y- fEa ceCG e CGJ dG CG e ZdG Yh .KdG ceCG hCG fG jg
g H dG jG J K ,J HH SGdG TCG J -gOY Ic
TCG g dG f oJh .ke SdG e AdGh dG H e TCG
dG H dG b TCG g CG kGHCG M
n j H ,Fa IQe SGdG
.kjQJ
g Y IHe IOGQEG OLH dG EG j jdG FGdG AGOCG Gd jDhHh
IjdG dP QdG jf IYO qj H ,G FdG Gg LJ Y dhDG
H dG Gg c GPEG fEa ,dP eh .dG U e U O UH J dhjh
CG hO ke dG GH j H dG L Y J IjdG g fc GPEGh ,IjdG
g L Y J Y Ibh M g CG j Ga ,iNCG H J e f J
.bdG bG
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QdG jN
e dCG b bdG bG J N dG Jh fS dG Ea ,OCG IQHh
:J db kfb Y HQCG b dG BGdG H fNCG M gh ,H J CG Y j
rpe poc soK .n oTprnj spehn pnsdG rpehn kJ ooH p nprdG rpe ppsJG pGnC p rsdG ndGpE ntHnQ nMhr GnC hn }
p s pd Al np T ppa o ofG n rdGnC
,
l pn
r eo
l G n nT n pf o Ho
r pe
o o
r jn ,kodoP pHu Qn
n o S
o poS
r na pG n n sdG
u oc
B
.(69-68 dG) |nho snn jn m r npd kjn
n pdnP pa sGpE
H
C G d SdG YGdG
HCG dG H e kH gj e c j
CG dP ;gO dj CG #QCG a ke gH dG
QeCG N H e YJQG j dG) HCG dG H
eH dG g aJh .FGQ jQe J (Sh
hG j dG HCG dG dEG j e c G NGdG
Gbh ,jd f H HCG dG a ;L jJ W H dG AV
d UN Zh ,eCG Qh ,dG fE UN ceCGh ,bd Zh Gh
dG CG g dP c e ZCGh .AT c a :QNHh ,OQdG d iNCGh QG
(160). YCG eCG M g ,jdG dG g j dG ,HCG
-j dG dG H HCG dG M fQ- fEa G g e ZdHh

.Ie KH M e cCG kjQe kYhe H qf b HCG dG CG
MGG gh dG H e kH b e GPEa :iNCG ge U HCG dh
dgdGh dGh GG c CG S ,iNCG Ie gfYCG K ,b EG FH e hCG
EG nb dG
s jo Cc Y HCG dG UGjh .H e H bJh NGJ
!Z MGh Qe e eGhCG j fCch ,b
G Qf
j dG dG CG EG .dG hL H TYCG j G Qf CG j dG
186
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Page 187
G M
gh G jf EG G Qf #j c g dG e c dEG
M EG- j G Qf j a ,dG dG GH j
kffEG CG dh .SCGH QGG Qe H fEG b -e
K G ed khCG #S fCG LQCa ,dH b
43-38 H e j CG G Qd H ,a jd
h 2^10 H e hGj eR U Im T L If
.kGHCG AT j CG hO fK 2^69
oN b G Qf CGQ H CG g dP J EG
IT j f L a ;dG Gg Se
H UN ue fCG e j gh ,h HdG
(161)
. dH J G Y
GWdG Y QfdG f
SG f kee e CG hO eGdG dG GdG GWdG j
TCG jW Y OJ f gh ;(Sonar) QfdG SG Y f e gh ,jd kGe
.JdG LG iU N e G LCG
,fdG HHP dCG hY OOJ U HH dG Se fEG j
H e gOOJ GUCG ,jdG H ,QfdG f jW Y GWdG j H
gG L GUCG g Sj gh ,fdG HHP dCG e h kdCG N
j dG dG iU jh .fdG Ie KKh jY H hGj
j dc j H ,dM e m LCG OLh a Qj fEG M kGL kjb GWdG
(162). Ye J gh ja e
G
eCG .d Se H d Aa Gdh ,QGSH dG EG jdG fGG
gRL H G g Y dG a (jH jK fGM gh) G
187
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Page 188
QdG jN
.Ic jH fGM H M EG j dG dG
AGdG e H J a MGh aR j a
Ga Y EG d j dH gh ,J dG
e Ic c G q j ,bdG GP ah .kGL jW
,(Myoglobin) HZjG IOe H JY cCG
SH hG) G GfCG MCG j fCG g Hh
j c ,e N j Y EG "dG (Gin-Back
Mf eh .(163) WEG Y J hO bO HQCG I MdG
Y J dG jdG fGd kaN- X Y G fCG a LJ ,iNCG
.dH dG j d -HdG
#dG J
- dh .j M Fc fCG g #dG Y af e
e j K ,AG MGe j -eCG bGh
.AYCG e dEG j e H kGOhs e -ja J - AG
H OhG UG SGM f H #dG j
HM IFW -fCG H- j gh ,ja e jd
H .FGdGh HWdGh RdGh IQGG d ILCH IOhe
Y eGdG dG ja e j Y IQdG jd EG
.G FdG e J dG IQGG QSG jW
dG IjT dG e Y EG LJ a #dG Y dG e J eCG
N h ,Qc G a GT S e J dG d G j a ;jJ
#dG CH fEG j a G fCG QJ IOe #dG Rjo G K Y
Y #dG QGSG jh ,dG J -f bdG - FdG Ggh ,eO
Y dG e #dG nd UdG g e a MGh Y O f a .G
.f QGSGh JM Y G SG ndh dG
188
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Page 189
G M
Y Y L eY ,M dBV ZQh ,FGQ J e a bdG FdG Gg EG
:dCG hC J dG OLh j nc #dG j dG BGdGh .G
osfGnC n onrnna rGoneGB nj psdG senC na , nnbr na nna knVonH se knne nprnj GnC prnrnj n nsdG sGpE }
?kG pnc ppH prnjhn kGpnc ppH tpoj knne G nnpH osdG nOG nQGnC G nPne n od onna rGhonnc njpsdG seGnC hn ,rpuHsQ pe tnrdG
.(26 IdG) |
n ppSnrdG sGpE ppH
t pjo en hn
OG dG GP UdG QdG
aG b e OM H UdG QdG J
Ea dP EG aVEHh .ja LJ gh IjT bH
jDhQ j ,cCG jH jN Y IdG fY
.jH N e e cCG H "dG FdG a .aCG
QeCG BG j JQG Y u dG QdG EG
M #QCG d eh AGLEG OG gH J
aGgCG HG GFdG O a .IdG aG J e
ja e j kjCG dG j ,QeCG BG H Y
h .#QCG S Y d cM HC hCG LCG GdCG J bC IOG bdG jDhH
LCG IQU J j c ,LQO KK EG J SGh QHEG jhGR -dc- dG
KK J Me h e dG jh .VCG fK f EG Y gJ dG
fQCG dH jh ,e Nh BG HQCG JQG Y j gh Qg dCG
jdG Gg CG T e eh .e Nh dCG JQG Y j gh YCG H ec
.G Gd kN U b dG d gG
dG N
.dY U IQ ,(Dinopis) pHjGO G dG gh ,cdG GfCG MCG j
e Ija IU T H j H ,H ja bh jh T N j a
189
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Page 190
QdG jN
.MEH ja M dG g H dP H jh ,gOU ja Y jh Yf
dG T a ;f d AT CG a G IG J h
H SMEG OGORG c dG H kbdG OGOJ IG j f Y jd
Cc G e j ja AGMH dG j FGZ jdh .f j dhMh
.J hCG H j
cG J JEG IjT dG g e H j CG d c
adH IQG g e cG b dG j CG G e ?FdG cJh
fCG c ,cdGh dG Y IQdG da ;QdG jf QfCG j c dG
dG gh b IQG g CG PEG VGdG e .dG g d H j Y jd d
.AT c Y QOdG Jh fS ,G FdG Gd dG
e bCG b j dG G Ga ;Fg Ge NGH J dG N EG
H j dP eh .f tdG P dG dG e ibCG qG e dCG e MGh
EG (164). a eGZ 320 j G Gg e dG M dd j dG da .IjdG
dG OGG ibCG e j (YdG jQG kN J IOe gh) dG jG
e kSh Ib TCG kN L NGO j CG j da ,dP eh .fEG U
jG fEG hdG Y dEG UJ dG Jh eY j fEG EG .dG jG
,if ch ?G Gg U dG ej dG dG hCG dG g a ,dG
!dG dG FSdG EG nbJ d dGh dG FSdG c Ea
190
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G M
dG dG GP fGG
#fG e ZdG Y IG b Y J CG kjT kJH nJ dG fGG J
e J a ,LQG G IOLG J K IOhH LQO EG L IQGM LQO
?dP
hdG X - a eLCG CG CG ,NdG dG GP fGG e jdG EG
J Y j dG dG IQGG qe H kFGO HK JQGM LQO Y -dG
J dG dG QCa e) IdG jdG H Ea ,dP eh .QGSH IQGG g
dG AKCG jOdG L IQGM LQO J (LQO HQCG jOdG L IQGM LQO
kGc J c !e jJ Cch ,dG LQO e kb YCG LQO EG dG
dG HV OY jh ,kGL AdG dH GG GC jh ,G jCG Y
.bdG HV Yh HV S H hGj OY EG bdG HV 300 e
G fCG CWJ c ,jOdG GMCG dG p G G cM bJh
.Me M hCG Sb e j LQO EG FHdG
dh .dG GQP H geJh fCG cG GfG W MCG jh
FGH MG a ;N CG dj fGG g LCG UG GG H
Jh g LQO J K eh ,GdG K Fc OGe H dG dG AKCG G
(165) .G e jM
FHdG S
C G
dG AHdG (dG FT dGh fEG e) SCG GfCG H J
G FdG c LCG a .ja cM d hCG f Y ad eLCG e LJ
bdG g LJ j fEG CG Z ,AHdG e U Qb (fEG L a )
fEa kfBG gfcP dG G FdG eCG . eGS Y IdG hCG HdG
.FGYCG V LJ Y IQOb gh ,da N H Qs jo kFHc kGQJ L
.AHdG H S IQH KCJ SCG g Ea ,dP EG aVEHh
191
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Page 192
QdG jN
e f Y adG SG dG bdG ,e Ia H ,SCG g Jh
SCGh .iNCG Ie Sd IgL HdG bdG OJ dHh ,jQdG oJ
;a f Y ad dG L edG IdG FHdG bdG J J
a ,G QdG YCG gG ae HdG bdG g GSG fL Ea
GQTEG J SCa .gGJ CG hO dM LCG OLh GQOEG Y SCG YJ
SCG J U H eGUG H GQTEG g JJ eYh ,eLCG e Hc
G Gg Hh H aG j e SCG J jdG Hh .G Gg Y ee
(166) .Mh
jdG :fGG id u d cP N
Y jo e hCG ,f ANEG a JM Y d GG H j dG GG e
"bGh d kGOGSG eEG :FQ d f ANE J fGGh .jdG

dSCG FS Y j jdGh .iNCG UdG fGG e f j hCG ja
fGGh ,IQGh ,jdG AcdG e Ic UY Y j fC iNCG qdG
.ZdGh ,dG
MCG Y J IM G a ,H ge GG id jdG dSCG EG
a ,dG IQY dG ,dG Qh q b eCG .dG GQhCG hCG dG ha
GN EG SCG GH j gh .cT T dH dG S Y ij
.JdG g Y QdG CG jh ,FGYCG YCG gh ,QdG
J WG fG dG e kScCG G S W ja QqG eCG
Yh .H hCG AGOS hCG AGMhCG AGU -ddG - UCG g Jh .RQaJehc
,SG dG G Y Jh UCG Y dG jG J ,e N QSG
.jd Sh aCG kGe Y j dG IdG d QG NCj dHh
L AYEH f ANEG Qq G CG LQd jT JEH j Gg jdG fh
(167). MdG QG N J kWN
192
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Page 193
G M
Y bdG jW Y f j K :QdG GE YGC .QT

C G GTGC c QT
C G b :Y
C G
.Y
C G Y d GQh
C G MGC Sh J TGdG bj :QdG GE SGC .QT
C G Qh Y cG
jhD d f
dG LCG e gCG jZ kGeCG jDhdG n oJ jdG fGG e d dH
jDhd kde kJ e kfY jdG fGG e K eh ,dG Y adGh
.AG
Y Y UNh ,dG OjORH jDhdG Y IQdG QfG OGOj AG S h
e Ad N
o kfY dG Gg Y J dG G FdG ,dP eh .kGe KK
.hdG J
kde kSJ SJ jhc SY ,jdG fGG H ,jdG fGG h
(jhdG) gEG dH kfQeh .a J dG G aH UG LMG e
193
08
194
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Page 194
QdG jN
;AG jDhd eAe cCG hdG cdG Gg jo ,jdG fGG H J dG SGdG

HCG ae Y OLe L Y dG cJ eYh .b Y ATCG jDhd e fC
NGO IOLe dG e UN dBG IY AGQdG EG cCH SdG f noj
.dG
fCG dP ;SCG d hdG dG SCG e NBG kS AG AdG QfG jh
fG AKCG QfG CG j kjJ AG ac f d FH dG Y AeG H
Y LQG G IQU cH dG SY J dHh ,Y dG QN fe IQU
.kGL OM H ,fEG Y Y ,AG NGO dG J dd .kec kGcJ dG
V Y jd kf Ic kfY -NCG e- fGG H h
e cCG Y Y IOLG IdG dG GP SCd H ddh .AG YCG IAVEG
CG Y j c .MJ c H G G FdG eh J CG e KK
Qb Lj dG Gdh ,AG J dG aG AbQdG TCd "N H SM J
.SCG J Y SG AbQdG jG e c
d kN U I H M Fc c j ,eCG g e j ch
e J CG j c ke N
o b dG g c CG G g Jh ,UG JLH
.jHCG Ibh aeh M dN bp
d "N f
G dG CG dP .Yf e ja LdH cd kG s G dG j
eY dh ,ke bJ jedG JQhOh Jh b f CG c ,IG Y FO jCG pj
.dG e SG fCch dG f IG qJ G hj
LGj ,dP eh . Ic kGQNCG dG dM G FdG LGj ,IOdG h
K KCG RcdG e Iah j FQ S jd CG dP ;QNCG g e IMGh jCG dG
dG dG ie j ,ke dG dG je e a .dG J OLh A
IOY bdG Gg j) d/qe 550 EG fMCG J b kGL dY je EG dG Y
h .(dG d dH d/qe 5-4 Hh Od dH d/qe 5-1 H
194
08
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Page 195
G M
195
.jOdG bhCG IN e Rcd FdG cdG Gg j CG

AG IQOe hO jn cdG FdG RcdG Gg Ea G dG dM eCG
dG QdH Rcd jPdG jT d G AdG EG .fG c jd
IQGM LQO e G Rcd dG iG jh ,jG EG UdG Y j
Y K EG j GG NGO OLG FdG e kGL kH kGQb j dG
g AKCGh .kjCG IG jG j CG j RcdG CG dG VhCG bh .IOhdG
YdG e dG HEH -d dG ObdG fc EG aVEH- RcdG j IdG
.G G AGZ He OSG dPh ,jQdG J e jCG
:kGL e GG ?ICa J CG RcdG e ddG dG g j c dh
Y dG QX Oa ;G g Y hDe kGL "N H Ohe G FdG Ga
.RcZ EG a hG LdG fe H q j c dG EG dSQ J G
tJ e FbO N Hh .ahe Z dG EG G dSdG g W dGR eh
(168). e H JQG dG S ie GC j dSdG
Y JLMG H d kc jCG j H GG jhJ CG d h

PEG ;dG dG Vh ANCG e dN N N e EG k j ,hdG
.G G dG Gg e oJ CG aU jC
n r n dG FW
fOCG EG G bdG c Gd J ILG QdG J
e %92 J dG) QdG a .dG FW dG g J dG QdG eh ,M
.G fh QeCG KK WfG Y e MGdG M
n L #Y j (QdG a JM
LCG j hO Yd GdG j a :fGW c g dG FW e gCGh
OYH QGSH ML Hh AGdG fG jW Y dH jh ,WEG Y
.jdG Y
e AGdG G fh QeCG KK VY j mLCG J j ZdG Yh
195
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Page 196
j dG FW Ea ,Fg Ibh bW
dP Ljh .jW Yd dG GH dG
FdG Gd dG e dG "G jdG dG EG
j a dd ,HK dG FW LCG J GdG Nh .de e
LCG Y W H e LCG Jh ,Y Ib CG GSG EG
dG bdG c e j c ,dGh GdG dS Y dG FW Yj a
bW j fCG c ,MH j dG CG dP .GdG FdG j
Z bW Qe d a jdG Y ke kGe Yd a ,Me LCG AHEG
gQb a eGZc IY j dG dG FW M GPEG ,G S a .Oh
U bh .kGL V f kM gh ,a H kGMGh EG fRh e j fEa ec dCG
gG HSCG e kGe ,YGdG GFdG -d ke dG FW e kGe- fEG
(169). dGh GdG
dH aG IdG
IOdG Y JQb gh ;FGQ I OdG G J dG dG SCG J
OJ dG JM e kGAL FdG g J CG a .Ie hCG a a dG dG EG
.Kd HdG G EG
dh ,kbGH n MCG fd j dG FGhCG MQ dG SCG GC J eY
EG UdG hh MGdG e J ,Jg jGH ah .MQ jf OSCd j
EG UdG e Jh ,JOh e EG OJ M kIpHe SCG g gh ,QfCG
QdG V kHS ,QfCG GeCG GVG Y d YCG EG dH a a dG G
.VJ dG OhdGh dG keh
S fEG (ec BG HQCG f J dG) jdG MdG g Nh
EG a LN dG G EG J CG eh ,G FdG QcdG j c dG dG
Gg H cdG jh H BG Nh BG KK H e fCG J M Ie hC fdG
J dG fEa ;dG Vhh IdG Ia N Ic QGVCH SCG Jh .dG
196
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Page 197
G M
QcdGh fEG e c L d jh ,jdG fYR cBJh jT gQEH J dG
e kGjL kL dh .G dG SCH dP H dG j K ,OSCG EG AGdG Y
.IjL Ig MQ GC d H e a b j SCG
LhN H dG EG Uh ch ,MdG H dG dG S c eCG
.Y HLEG J GJ SCG c a ...iNCG Ie JOY jW Lh ch ,dG e
g a .SCG g Y aT Wb HLEG LJ a ,IjY J OLh e ZdG Yh
e EG IOd GedG BG dW MQ b EG dG SCG aJ dG IdG
gh ;Y Jh G FdG g c oY IOGQEG g CG -PEG- VGdG e ?aJ
.dG Q dG IOGQEG
G odG
ggRh bQh oj QTCG gh) dchCG QTCG Qh OLG jdG EG
Fc YaO Sh dG Gg uh .jdG fGG e d dH wS (W #GZCG
g Y j kGja kGMGh kfGM CG EG ,FGYCG V dchCG QTCG eJ
gh) GodG sj GG Gg :edG dchCG GQhCG Y ijh YadG SdG
T GQhCG e GodG j .(GG GhP e
Y j c ,Y ijh d ke dchCG
.kjCG e AG e LMG
CG GodG j ,jdG fGG e ch
p dG IOe j
Gdh ;QTCG Qh IOLG Rdo
NGO HShG jdG FdG Y j a
p dG g J dG dG RL
gh .Rdo
AeCG e bdG AeCG AdG f Y IH IOLe
G OGeG gh) QYCG GG Y CG ,dG
RG AGLCG cCG g QYCG GGh .(AeCd
RG e AG Ga ;GodG GM id HGZ dG
197
08
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Page 198
QdG jN
Qhe NCj H ,H HhG d Rdo pdG a q j aZ H g dG
jd dG KCdG HEGh dOe e GodG a dG RG QTCG GQhCG
(170). dchCG GQhCG IOLG
dG Vh e dG Y IQdG
nJ Ld IQoY bGQhCG RJh ,jaCG L j f g (Sundew) sjpqdG f
Yh ,AGM jW GH dG Gg GQhCG .jh a GG H
FdG Gg jh .GG FGQ GP FS IOe LJ GdG g GWCG
,LdG GdG g H J FGdG Qe f J dG Ia ,IjdG LhdH
dG jh .GdG H Y dG IG Y f dG bQh J dP Hh
(171). g jW Y IG e Lj dG JhdG GSH
feEG hO jdG "bGh U Y mf IQb J dG dG gG g EG

b dG j CG G eh ,FGQ J OLh Y Wb dO d fe e c
Y hCG IOG JOGQEH JGP AJ e "bGh dG SCG Gg e Qs Wh cG
YCG dG dG Yh OLh M f CG kjCG G a ,ddh .adG jW
.gG g dG
.e dG GQhGC :QdG GE h ,Me bGQhGC h jdG f :dG GE
198
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Page 199
G M
QdG jQ dG YhQ
eCG e GPEG fCG n H ,hCG gd kH d hj fEa QdG jQ cJ EG ff GPEG
b a dP eh kGL N QdG ja ,jd e cdG Gg CG a a dG
.AH KCj h kGL
jQh .eEG Qb kN fRh j CG H dH GdG QdG J dh
S fL e fL c a ,G Gg dG JGdG JhH e j QdG
LJ bdG GdG g Yh .bO IT HQCG Y c Yh ,hY LJ jdG
J dG) OCG dG GdG g H eh .K gOY j OCG iNCG GT
iNCG IT jY FdG L e eeCG AG e IOLG (U FW jQ
b b f e ke ;ke jQ c bdG GdG g HJh ,e c Y
e Lj IMGh jQ c h .dG H a
jh ,bO IT e KK e j
!Qe S f e FW jQ IOLG GdG
jQ S M j gL S gh
,HGh GdG g SGH H H dG
M FdG L Y kHK j CG j jdG CG dP
g Hh ,fc kjCG e cM CG QhU Y j
L Y IH kHK jdG j HGh GdG
hCG jdG IT H dG Y d j ,FdG
.dG g hCG jdG G
H Y OLG jdG Ea ,dP EG aVEHh
,jPh LCG Y OLG dP Y j FdG
,cG g bJ He dch FdG cM LJ aO H d kf cCG jdG ja
ja ,MH FdG a j dG dG MG qSod se a LCG jQ eCG
. Ib dH
199
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Page 200
QdG jN
p dG
AG Y dG G :
r p
IQOdG fGG g eh ,AG S Y dG J dG fGG g b
HUCG fL Y Lj .IQdG hj dGh ,SdG ceCG j dG
r ppdG
AdG Gg j .eH AG V e G j AZ IAn dG d G FGdG
AG S Y YH G CGj e m #J e GPEGh ,HdG Y GG M
cCG Me d j G FGb Y IOLG ZCG g oJ M IH hCG f
(172) .dH AG S Y d
bqN IOGQEGh Ib OLh Y VGh dO EG g e rppd jdG dG Ggh

.Ye
.AGdGh AG H kf pRGe cG J dG IQOdG fGG e :

r ppdG IAY
200
08
18/11/02
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Page 201
G M
FdG dG
kU kfe VQCG IdG L d Lj cCG dG CG a T
dG cdG IQGM LQO K Y ajh f dG AGdG d qj da ;Id
j dG g dGh .G dG IOLG GRdG
n fp H RGj fCG c ,Y f
dG FGdG OGG e c AL Qe fCG c ,f dG AGdG OLG cCG
Gg EG LJ c ,dG j "G dG EG LJ d FGdG dG EG .dhf
.dc d iNCG FG dG
dG bdG e IOSG -GGh fEG jN Y Y- dG N J
Ija UN H FGZ OGc fJh Fc bW EG dG bdG q a ;ITe
H jG J eCG bGh h .FdG dG SG dG g Y jh ,Yf e
cdG J gh ,(ahQdG hCG) QdG M -kGj- H J H ,dG
ioJ dG bdG jdG cdG g .NCG fd dG J dG G jdG
IOe dG bdG jJ J dG dG IMdG enG g G EG
.jY
Gdh ,kjS W Qe e f #QCG S Y dG j dG IOG c J
N e g fEG Y Jh .#QCG S Y G FdG jM gCG fEG
ahQdG M NGO IOLG UCG e Ba ;dG jZ Fc Y
Gdh .(fdG e dCG e AL N) s J OJ ge YH dG Ad J
.QdG NGO J dG dG e dG UQ BG M f dG
LddG GREG cCG e Fc hCG Hc bW EG dG bdG j jh
e kM J dG) dG N J H .jd IQe ILCH H d ojh ,jG
!dG je e dG H (IOG jdG dH jDhQ e j dG
f -Lh q Y- dG N a .dG OLh -iNCG Ie- j nG dG Ggh
dH Me IMh NGO Jge e H fEG .jdG H FdG dG
dOCG MCG g FT HJ dG jdG dGh dG Gg .QTCG GQhCG dG
.dG Q dG ,J fS dG N b L G FdG CG J dG
201
09
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Page 202
!J
BG JAGb Y eo fCG dG dG EG
.IG QGSCG e Y Gv S j
qfCG PEG ,jYh fG H CGJ CG a
G
k J j CG fCT e V qj
.LQG dG EG Jf SSCG
Lh O d dG Gg Va
a CGQ hCG ,jL be hCG ,f
KCG b M fEG H ;a J
c H uj CG jh ,UG dG
.eDe Z hCG c k eDe fEG
09
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Page 203
IOG AGQh c G q dG
e c CG cQj ,Gh Yh eEH H j eh dG eCj e EG
.''?bG g c dN e'' g GDdG j K eh .oN b OL hCG M e dG
AGLCG e AL qc VH J dG ,''G M'' CG HdGh VGdG e
CG Ia ,G S Yh .f dG OjEG f J CG ,dG
dch .H
n f uoJh pnJ dG YGh .f N b J
N b TGah AGG dG jch ,jHh ,fEGh ,f e FdG J CG
eCG g ''adH'' Lho b FdG g c J CG MG EG .H f
.J Y gf ,J M
e vjCG CG EG , YCG Y J e c :ddG dG EG f CG Gdh
YCG gh gf Y j da .''kdN'' JGP g j CG FdG g
bGh FdG c J dP eh ,ioj JH dGh .dG Y J ibCGh
.JUh OLh Y
hj CG Wj a ,dG OLH eDj jdG Y #j dG dG g g
.H GeDj CG b YCH
J dG G g QfEG EG hj ''G'' M Y Voj jdG ADg qGE
L FdGh dG qGC Y jq e dOCG J dhjh ,SCH dG AH
.#dG Gg d FdG Jh VGh e iS QqdG jf dh ,oJ
e c a bdG cQj ,dG OLh hj e a j dG ,SSCG C Gh
OLh d kWN kah kcGQOEG jd CG EG ,dG OLh G hj jdG dG
203
09
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Page 204
QdG jN
a .dG ''OLh e'' Y aGN Ge jd CG EG ,''G'' hj a .dG
H cc N Lj dG CG Gg gOYG M hQq jh ,''AqdG'' dG CG j
Jh fS da :GHCG Nj Qh ,NBGh G H ''fdG hDT'' Njh ,GL
.fCH gFe hOq j dG Jh ,fCd cJh dG N b
q c '' Jh fS dG CG cj dG BGdG CG GS b hNBG jCG gh

j dG qCG j -jQT -gh .eq J a dP j e Gj qfGC EG ,''e
j h Gj dh fEH j dG RdG e hCG ,jOGdG Le e AT H
.
''dG Lj jCG'' GDS Y HLEG a dG GG e Zh G Ggh
fCG dP .FT C N gQe (dP H dG OLh QfEG EG HUCH ODJ b dGh)
Gg g a .dG OLh Y WN AGQBG j K ,SCG CG Y j ke kjCGQ hj
?G CGdG
fEG J fG d .FNh IOG g G CGdG Gg j
a IOLe IOG fc GPEG a j qfGC LQO EG ,IqOG OLh Ve M VGaG
jZ bGh Y jh G CGdG Gd ij jG dG qEG .X O fCG CG , CG
.dG BGdG dEG QTCG dG bGdG Gg ddG dG qVSh .gCG
FHdG GQT
E G Y
SGM jW Y dEG J a f dG dG Y af dG eG c qGE
,afCG J eh ,jjCG J eh ,YCH Gf j f dG da .G
N Y j CG ''LQG'' dG CG d j h .fGPBG Jh dCG bhq Jh
.faXCG ef e Y f qfGC PEG G SGM d J e
EG J G dG ha jLCG dG HCGh SGQdG e Gc qCG EG
e qf eh G SGH J eg cT Jh ,af Y e ge
.dN e dG Y ee
204
09
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Page 205
e J dG dG
GQTGE GE J G
GKGC h Hc
fE a ''if '' eYh .G
GKC J gf G
HdG GQT
E G g
.dY
af c ''LQG dG'' CG g gG g e fG dG jGdG fh

d e jGH AT
q a .FHc GQTEG f eOCG J a OhOQ g fgPCG
, e ch ,cCH JSCGh ,dGhh JdGhh H G HUh MCG dG
FHc GQTEG e L J ,jjCG H dG dG Gg SCG Mh Yh de
.Z a eOCG
Gg BG M dG dEG UJ e
(Frederick Vester)
''a jQOa'' jh
:j a VG
fEG'' CG #J dG AdG H GjJ g ejCG KCG b dG CG hj

EG g e c dG CGh YONh bDe QeCG g Q e H e c CGh ''IQU O
(173)
VG Gg Y George
Berkeley
.''N
''cH QL'' hG dG qjh

:j
N e dEG J a fh ggf fC a ATCG OLH eDf f

cQf e a Gd .fgPCG LJ QaCG O g cQf e dh .cGQOEG FShh SGM
eGO eh .fgPCG iS LJ M QaCG gh ,QaCG O g SGMh SMEH
f e GNh J KCJ PEG f a ,fgPCG EG LJ ATCG g c
QN OLh d H j AT a .fgPCG QN OLh d ATCGh dG CG e fCH
(174)
205
.fgPCG
09
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Page 206
QdG jN
SG g ,QHEG SM eCf fYO ,dG g Y AdG e Gje f dh
.LQG dG Y eG ahCH fq dG
?hfh fh f c
EG e L gQj dG FdG ea .de MGe IY Y jDhq dG Y J
J dG AdG q jh .dG INDe qdG Y d dG Mb J dG
j G INDe J GL IU f EG j K FHc GQTEG EG dG jG
Iq Y H djh HdG GQTEG g QHEG ce jh .QHEG ce Y
IOLG dG IjT dG g J jDhdG Y qGC CG ,ec IQU EG Y
.GHCG Qq dG iJ GL e H gh ,G INDe
a ,''if'' fEG f eY .ggX jOY hJ dG dG g BG qa
GQTEG EG j H G EG SoJh fY EG J dG dG KCJ if bGdG
NGO Hc GQTEG fc hj G Gf e Ea ''if'' fEG f eY fCG CG ,qHc
.G
H M j dG QHEG ce j JM dM Gf e c qGE
aCG gGJ dG XG Lh BG DhJ dG da .G NGO q e GS
j iNCG f gh .IqdG dG g J ,d OhM dGh ,dG ie Yh
LQG AdG Y he JGP M G qGC ,b e H c ,gh gPCG Y J qGC
.GMCG e M CH AqdG e d Te JG Lj fC eGO X NGOh
ea ,T eeCG if qfCG #a .dG H G eCG Gg VJ h
a .UCG qdG AH Te qJG CG qd j ,eCf eeCG f
e Y if a .eGO X bQZ NGdG e G j ,dG AV if fh
.eGdG dG qj dG
q G NGO eh GdCH
dG ,QHEG q Y RYEG (R.L. Gregory) ''QjL ..Q'' dG d jh
EG f qfGE M ,GL jOYh adCe d hJ QHEG qY qGE '' :H qe T gGf
206
09
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Page 207
IOd G gG
LQO J h e e j eOCG NGO Ea ,JQGMh QdG AH a f dG dG M

.GHCG JQGM
EG IQdG J gh .e H dG Y SCGQ J G e J dG FdG G

a AdG Y he G CG h .G INDe Lj dG QHEG ce EG Jh Hc GQTEG
dGh AdG e a k ndY if fCG j Ggh .QHEG ce EG j CG Ad G Z
.AdG Y dhe dG ge H
q e dG Y j fCG Gh .qM j ce OLh GQOE J J

e if f H ,Seh Tq eh IU J fY Y J dG Qqda .eCG
dG H J dG IcG P Hh .dG H Y e VGh eLCG dM
IG Y GH d Ggh , LCG e H eh LQG dG if ,dG NGO
(175).
207
''AT
09
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Page 208
QdG jN
qdGh qdG jW Y f a .GG H EG q dH dP Y bh
H "G cG cGQOEG jh ,FHc GQTEG T G EG j qdGh hdGh
.GG g e
H G JqdG LG q LQG PCa ,dc jCG g
q dG q Yh
FZ SGH GUCG J qLQG PCa Ggh .SdG PCG EG UJh
J dG JdG HHdG SdG PCG J K ,SdG PCG EG Jh LQG
K FHc GQTEG EG HHdG g jH NGqdG PCG Jh ,NGdG PCG EG
ce qdG Y J ,G QHEG ce QHEG j ch .G EG SJ
Y he g e ke LQG qdG Qe Y he
q Gh .dc H dG
kFOg NGdG e qG j ,QG AVdG IqT fc a .LQG AdG Qe
.e
fEG PCG CG Gj j Ggh .g
q G j GUCG
q OCG q a ,dP eh
qdG ce jW a .NGJ hCG jJ CG hO VH GUCG qc J dG
J fEa ,LQN U Qe
q c Y he cG Gg qCG e Zq dG Yh ,H
G Gg e J a
C G eC J eY
if a dG Gd ,dG gG
OLG G M L
C G
cQj dG G gGf GE h ,QG
.G
JM gGf dG QdG c
ce j G e AL J
gh ,G IND e Ljh ,QH
E G
M e a e GS H j
jj H GC J dG dG e vc GE . G
gGJ dG gedG dG XGh
B G
09
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Page 209
IOd G gG
qc Jh ,MqdG AVqdG Jh ,GcQhCG aJ fS EG
jH AfGh QTCG Qh M e GAH G GOOdG GP iNCG GUCG
g -bdG ILCG MCH G NGO qdG Iq T b dhM d dh .Kq dG IFdG
g G dG qGC fLd -LQG GUCG EG dH a f dG dG
.G NGO Oj dG
ATCG e IjG GQqda .jdG H j f dG FGhd cGQOEG qGE
qdG ge bdG GdG Y J dG G EG J e Im gR hCG fdG e
Y G EG j YdG Gg .YdG j e d j K ,fCG j e
W -FGhQ e f e a .FGQ g Y G gj ,FHc GQTEG T
IjG IdG GQqdG Y i dG Yd G J Y IQY g -jc hCG fc
FGQh QgdGh QdG FGQ f a .FHc GQTEG EG d b J CG H
.G jW Y qf hCG f dG iNCG FGhdG qch dG FGQh f dG qdG
.GHCG G EG J IjG GQqdG qE a ,QHEGh qdG qSM EG dH G g ch
dG FGhdG
q c qGE ,NBG h .FHc GQTEG Oq a G EG j dG eCG
H f FHc GQTEG EG g e ,LQG LCG e QJ fCG ,JOh e ,#f
.jdG qSGM N e
G e GfCG HQCG a .hdG qSM Y H ij S eh
GG Y dG Y dhDG gh fEG d e eeCG AG Y J ,qFdG
IH q CG H -bGG jH G g J .eGh Gh Gh dG
G j GQTEG gh ,
q G EG SJh FHc GQTEG EG -Fc Y
g ca IK hCG JT b hJ e f dG Ga . bGe fCG Y
PEG ,QH OLG G EG bWEG f fh .FHdG GQTEG d
q G J
hdG YCG fG GPEG ,G S Yh .JGP J
q dG hf hCG f hCG if fEG
.e hdG qSM Sh ,cCJ Ge CG j hCG G Qj d ,d UG
eW dhJ Y H f e qCG e qcCdG fCG gh ,iNCG M d J gh
209
09
18/11/02
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Page 210
QdG jN
Y GqKD e e f e qGC hCG ,f qdG dhJ Y NBG T H j e f g e
g Yh .f qdG S Y GKDe e NBG T j e f g e U S
:j e ''fQH dd'' j ,G
f e j e hCG ,MCG d e e T Gj e c GPEG e Oqf CG f f''
(176).
''GHCG dP e qcC j CG MC .jh Z Gj e f g ,SG (hO) e
,e L f ea .gdhJ dG GG H Y Gc dG qSM J h
,LCG e H eh H G LQG dG Y fYS dG eG c qE a
e AT H Qda .G Y IOLG
q G YCG jW Y G EG S
GWCH f eY AqdG Qf f ,FdG OYG Y a .G NGO j
ch .G NGO MEG ce J dG Y qGE H ,G jW Y hCG jjCG
JJ SMCH f ,e L e J dG FHdG d G jd
eG L q f a ,IOhdG hCG fdGh ,eq dG hCG HqdG e ,LCG e f
,jCG q G G g Yh .`dG g N e H e L Y fYJ dG
(B. Russel & L. Wittgeinstein) ''jh . h ,SGQ .'' SdG ge e KG c
:j c gAGQBG
da ,IdG g Lho ch eY e qdG IK OLh b be ''
,dH Th d e Gf eh ,fCH FGQ e f eh ,qdH W e bhf Y IQY
M Qj CG da ,dGh SGQd J CG dG g a qdG gh
(177).
''ajh dG
dM dG ATCG a .d jOG G EG j CG idG dG Y j

.dGh dGh QHEc SGM SGH cQf dG GKDG e Y Y IQY g
LGj ,G MEG cGe e Zh QHEG ce gj dG fdG jW Yh
g dh ,jOG LCd NGO fs J dG IQdG ,G JM MGe N ,G
q M IO eCG g q dG hCG QqdG g qGC VGaH fEG j gh .JGP LCG
.LQN IOLe
210
09
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Page 211
IOd G gG
G j GC fE a ,YUG d f
d f bGdGh f qdG LQO d Oe Y
d fh .G kOLe j GC hO dPh ,af dG
,JQS Oj fGC dG j GC fE a ,YUG
.de dL G g H
dY qj c ''LQG dG''
fh Gf e qGE :ddG dG EG fOJ BG M gH dG jOG FG qGE
FHc GQTEG Y IQY g SCH ''dG''h ''dGh'' ,IOG'' UH cQfh fh
.G gj
dG IQqdG H ,H cdG G LGj e kca hj dG dG qGE
GQTEG e j e T EG dH ''cdG'' dG a .d G cQj
dG dG dG b GPEa .FGQh bGeh cdG g H UN FHc
H JG fG d dch .jCG ICa S cdG IQU qEa ,ICa G EG
SM GfG EG dP iOq D a ,G EG fCG MEG ILCG e IG YCG
.FHdG GQTEd G J qGE d cdG IQU EG ,H IQHh .e dG
Gg Hh H aa ,aH MEG g Y bf CG H dG NBG eCG
j dG LCa ,G j dG GdH QdG dP g G S Y dG
j ,AdG dG fEG bGj eY,a . NGO jCG LJ Y IH AG
ce G NGO jCG Lj e ''Gj'' e dh ,FdG dG je Y J fCG
211
09
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Page 212
QdG jN
H ,a dG adG NGO -J c -d ,SCG g hDhJ Hh .QHEG
fCG J fEa ,eLCG jDhQ J fC dh ,NGO LJ dG g adG EG
NGO fJ QU jCG g eLCG qGC GhcJ CG Y Ea ,dP eh .adG NGH
.NCG
IG jdG U J fCG J ea .GG H Y j S eh
a .e YJh NGO Lj dG dG J bGdG fEa ,IQhG
da .NGH jJ e Qj kJU g qGC h ,d IQh aZ OLh KEG
gc ,e dH NBG e T jj dG KOGh e QeCG H Y J dG
hHh .H qdG ce g He GS H iJ IU H NGO j
CG CG ,G hCG eCG hCG QdG hCG dG H qj e Lj a , Gg G GQOEG ce
e M hCG gG g e q CG e JCj qdG
.d OLh JGP ga ;AGdG
g f a ,f dG FGhdG dch
Y jdG dEG j e CG f H ,H Y FGhdG
IOLG LCG FGQ g G dG ce jW
NGO J IgdG IQU CG a ,dP eh .QG
NGO J dc IgdG g FGQ Ea ,QHEG ce
Igd LQG dG OLh a .G dG ce
jD J jGC jG AjdG e GE
e Y GE g e OG dG GC
f) .GG cQn e
b ahG je
C G (jS
QD G gOY G g dhJ
Ve ch .1999 jj 30
AGQh GPe'' :dG GD dG dG
Y IQY dH dG g :G
IOG gh dh
C G eG e g
' ?a GS O
.FGd h
EG g e SGH cQf dG ''LQG dG'' EG
QGe Yh .G EG J dG ''FHdG GQTEG''
,G d GQTEG g J ,JM
e CG #GaH a bh dG C G Qf CG hO a
bh .''LQG dG'' e j dG IOG UCG g Gf
.SGH JGP IOG EG f CG fC V
e AYEGh dG Y hDG g G qGE
212
09
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Page 213
IOd G gG
EG :dG SM G S Y NCdh .''LQG dG'' g fCG #f dG GQTEd
CG ,fS EG ''LQG dG'' JdG LG j dG g eCG M G
if ea ,jdG Hh .G gLj dG G cQn G e f g SG qGC
Gh ,LG dG FHc GQTEG O g YCG EG j e qE a , fGdCG
MdG a .''LQG dG'' GdCG CG LJ a .GdCG EG GQTEG g j dG g
fC g fGdCH hJ a .NCG fd QTCG h QRCG fd AqdG h ,MCG fd
.GQOEG Sh Y c j ''LQG dG'' qGE .dG GH f
dG H ia ,GdCG H HUEG EG dG T H N iODj bh
hNBG ijh ,QRCG MCG dG NBG dG ijh ,NCG d fCG Y QRCG dG
Gc j MG g ah ,OedG g a MGh d e LQc c GdCG
. CG dH fe LQG G c GPEG e
:dH G g Berkeley ''cH'' hG G bjh
dG ''dH LJ'' ... FGhdGh GdCG CG g FdG OYG c eCG jGH ''
g EG gOLh CG K a ,H a Y dG g dG Lh dh ,LQG
(178).
''JSMEG Y ube
hCG H "G fd d C fe LCG if fCG g dEG of dG dGh

dG dG c CG g IOG M EG .LQG dG G OG gOLh d C
.''LQG dG'' dh a NGH LJ EG LCGh ATCG Y f
?''LQG dG'' e PEG nj dG a ,dc eCG c GPEGh
?''LQG dG'' OLh e q e GC

NGO j cGQOEG e Y Yh ''LQN Y'' Y BG M jM Qq J d
CG cCf a ,''LQG dG'' EG GHCG f d eOe d .Gf dG dG gh ,dY
?dH Lj Gc kndY
Y g gGf dG LCG c eGO a ,cCf CG feEH d eCG bGh
213
09
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Page 214
QdG jN
dG EG f CG kbO cCG j fEa ,gPCG EG LJ dG G cGQOEG e
NGO j dG g af dG MdG dG .G cGQOEG Y g OLG MdG
.OLh e j Y f dG MdG dG g Ggh ,G
CG cGQOEG a ,Oe UCG d dY NGO cQf e CG KEG f fEG
.gh gQe j
IQU dY NGO J CG gdG dG EG :j e Mf CG d h
dG jM J RL a :dG G NCdh .OG d e dN
G fdG L f g H f e hCG dh ,Jh FHdG GQTEG L
g jH Gg dG RL EG (bG Gg UY MCG L dh) e b
,G QN j CG eEH CG e a ,fKh .FHc GQTEG EG fdG
jW Y (L QN OLh #G) Gh dG RL H Ha ,GNCGh
EG J S dG GQTEG Sf K ,(YCG XH J) FHc Ue
,H fCG ''U'' be J fCG g dG g HS dG QdG EG .G
GQOEG Y jh .jqdG jdG Y JQS OJ fCG J CG dG e jh
dG Gg OLh j Y NGO Y jJ qC iS AT e J fCG
''e'' dG Qe j CG ke G eh ,J OLh a j H dH
.HdG G dG RL e
(Bertrand Russel): SGQ fGJH'' dG dGh dG j Gg Yh
GVG EG Lj a ,e dhW Y HUCG GWCH f eY H f e eCG''

Wh ,HUCG GWCG IOLG fJhdGh fhdEG j dG FHdG
Y IOLG fJhdGh fhdEG QJ H j fEa ,jG AjdG d
CH M b HUCG GWCG M dG f FHdG GVG Gg CG dh .dhdG
(179).
''dhW CG S HUCG J dh f QdH fd , SCG
jOe U CG d d dG G cGQOEG a f CG d
q dG e ,f
hJ bGeh ATCGh SfCGh KGMCG if CG Gc j eMCG a .M ATCG bGdH
214
09
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Page 215
IOd G gG
H G cGG cQJ SMEG iS d G dh ,e bGh d
f e a ,''bGdG LQG dG''h MCG H gL a g a .cCG
.dG
?Qo rdG e
Y f e hCG a f fCG f dG dG CG T H j ,BG M bf
,gCG e c Qb Y GDS j gh .a dY EG Lj ''LQG dG''
Y GPa ,G NGO M cGQOEG EG g e af dG jOG GMCG L fc GPEa
j fEa ,NBG AL CGh dGh GQdG CT fCT OG dG e AL G CG a ?JGP G
.e iNCG LCG H e M GQOEG O dc j CG
H f c GPEa .VG Y AdG e je AdE e MCG e NCdh
G AKCG e T ndC S e GPEGh ,kh kYh kfHh kYGQP jd CG dEG a ,jdG
c .Y f e CG Lj fEa ,dP eh .'' iQCG fEG'' :LC ''?iJ jCG''
a dG QdG g ij dG FdG eCG .N eh N CGQh N H dg e
.H bQCG NBG Fc dh ,G Gf dG ''G G'' d
dG VdGh G AKCG a f dG VdG H gL a Lj fCG f f
(''iJ jCG'') HdG GDdG CoJ ea dGd .f dG bGdG IG Y f
e ke d e J '' '' `H HLEG Ea ,bGdG IG Y f dG VdG
,G g d Qjh ij dG Ea ,dG c a .HdG G d e fCG jCGQ
.a IM dG e kb fc hj dG
fG gh ,JhHh gO EG H Lj fCG a ,G H b e GPEGh
f dG dG b Lj fCG CG ,iNCG qG AYCG e c LJ f
dG e c id pLj hCG ,YdG jd j hCG , GQU if j e ''G'' Y
.''fCG'' j dG
O OEH j a dG a j dG C G EG (R.L. Gregory) ''QjL . .Q'' jh
215
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QdG jN
:G QdG GQ
.G NGO QdG q J dG CH dG EG fOj dG AGZEG f CG j''
jDhd iNCG Y j ,jDhd NGdG dG j e j G IQU OLhh
S hj eCG j ,QdGh YCG e Ff OY ...dGhO Ggh .IQdG
Z AT OLH eDj jdG ,jOG J dG FdG dG g g (180).''jd
? d Jh iJ e QJh iJ dG ''NGdG dG'' J a :RCe ,IOG
gh ,dGh dG dG GDdG Gg Y (Karl Pribram) ''GjH Qc'' cQ bh
:pQG ge
fEG'' h ,''dBG NGO OLG dG'' Y hj SdGh ,ffdG Y e''
?''fCG LhCG jCG'' :GDdG dP Mjh .dEG ,''dG fEG NGO OLG dG
jdG j a ?jh Qj dG FdG dP g e ?Y j dG dG
(181)
.''ij dG FdG g Y f e EG'' (Saint Francis of Assisi) : ''uSGC '' e fa
QqdG c QNHh ,a dG IGh DhJ dG dG :Gg a BGh

GQP gh ?QqdG g iJ dG g PEG GQdG a . NGO gGJ eeCG dG
h UG g GQdG H cG GPh ... GQOEG h d Yh ,AU ,AY
QTh cJh GQOEGh ah ,J e f e c gh ?GQdG e gZ J
?GQdG g H fe FHc YJ e j G hCG IOdH
.Y jN e s e gh ,gO jLh JhH e fs G jG e V Y Y IQY G

f e a d hGC ,Yh hGC GQT dD d hGC ,QdG gJ d dG e dG g IQb LJ h
.' f'
216
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IOd G gG
IOGQEG Y dG hf CG G Z e fCG SCG g f eYh
Gg .H IOG e bQCG Fc g jh jh ij dG FdG CG VGdG a .GQdG
cQG H Hj FdG Ggh .IO IQU hCG IOe O dh ''M'' Fc g FdG
.L IQU ee eeCG dG G
''hdG'' g FdG Gg
M Y IQY g ,''OG dG'' k Y f dG ,G cGQOEG g EG
d OLh eMCG Gf dG OG dGh dG G CG a .hdG g J
.jOe M d d dG Gh a Lfh f dG dG dc ,bGdG
M cGQOEG iS a IOG eCG ,hdG g OLG MdG G FdG EG
e cQ O d QdG g GC jh j dG cPCGh bQCG Fda .hdG gGJ
g FdG Gg EG .H J dG FdG YdG e Yh jGh GQdG
.''hdG''
G G FdG
dG Y af e c GPEG .gCG jZ NBG GDS eCG J FG g c qGE
?cGQOEG g Qe g a ,MGhQCH gGf M cGQOEG H e j OG
d d IOG EG :QYG ddG FG NCf CG j GDdG Gg Y HLEG Yh
eh .''e'' AT PEG a ,a GQOEG Y IQY IOG eGO eh ,e JGP c
EG aVEG .N
o b j CG H fCG CG ,iNCG Ib GQOEG Gg Qe j CG H fCG Gg
IOG Y f e Ea ,dc J GPEa ,Ie J CG j G Y Ea ,Gg
SG W jdG TT Y IgX J dG IQdH dP J h .j S
C
C Gh dGh #QCGh dG MGhQCH fh Qf j dG PEG a .jdG dG
?dP H Gf e ch eLCGh "T
e j dG ,SCH OG dG N ,Y dN OLh IQhV PEG j
217
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QdG jN
j dG Gg EG Mh .Aj e EG G Y jh ,G cGQOEG
dG Gg EG .AT c Y IQbh jHCG Ib hP PEG a ,G Y FGdG dOCG J d
fS ,f Uh dG dP h ,n e kHc dEG SQCG a .H aq jo dG
.fOLh S d Hh ,dG Uhh ,Jh
.dG BGdG g Hch ,Jh fS dG g dG Gg
gOLh CGh ,dG CG, JK Yh #QCGh GhdG QGSG Y M EG
,N AfEG jdG
q dG Aj eY S dG Gg CGh N b dG C a
:ddG dG fBGdG jBG S JCj
pprnH rpe mnMGnC rpe nonnreGnC rGpE nndGnR rpndhn honJ rGnC n#rQ
nC G hn pG hn nsdG oproj nsdG sGpE }
.(41 jBG ,Wa IQS) | G kQ onZ kpnM nnc osfGpE
M cGQOEG dG cQj dG H Ea ,jGdG fcP CG S ch
Gg SCGh .fdG hDT Nj h GhdG e e GOLe Fc fjh
e e Lj dG CGh jOG fG e Y Y IQY dG Gg CG g OYG
iNCG jOCG H dP jh .Gc Y j e H ,OG dG Gg QN
.OYG Gg Y dH EG J dG
G G FdGh .a SMCGh Ye e J ,`q H c ,IOG dh
c CGh :GS MCG h OLG g Mh dG CG dP eh .Jh fS dG g MdG
g QN Lj e Fc dG CG Qq J j dHh .qdc OLe GY e
.AT c e jh ''e c'' OLe Jh fS da .gSCH jOG dG
:j c G g BGdG Vjh
p#Qr
nC G pa en hn pG hn n
s dG pa en o nd l r nf hn ln pS o oN
o rC nJ o t nrdG
t
n rdG n go GpE n ndGpE o sdG}
rpe mArnpH no poj hn ronrnN nehn rpj prjGnC nrnH ne onrnj ppfrPpE pH GpE onrpY onrnj psdG G nP rne
nC Ghn pG hn nsdG otpSroc npShn nAnT npH GpE pprpY
tpnrdG n oghn noo rpM ooOonj hn n#rQ
.(255 SdG jBG -IdG IQS)
218
| opnrdG
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IOd G gG
iNCG jBG d dG Va ,AT H h G Y gqoe dG c M eCG
IQS) |lpnY lpSG hn nsdG sGpE psdG orLhn snna G tdn oJ nnrjnC na oprnrdGhn oprnrdG pspdhn } :dH
.(115 jBG -IdG
dG CG Z .dG iJ CG PEG a ,M cGQOEG O jOG FdG eGOeh
:dH G g BGdG Vjh .dTCG H N dG IOG ij
nC G opQroj n oghn oQnrH
nC G oocpQroJ }
(103 jBG - fCG IQS) |opnrdG o psdG n oghn nQnrH
fCG qJ e jh fQhU dG dh dG QJ CG fQHCG EG
hO f h H .Y hO H f a .fQaCGh fQfCG J jCG EG jh
.e
g MCG g d dEG FdG bCG Ea ,Gg SG Y f f Hh
:G g cDJ ddG fBGdG jBGh .Jh fS dG g H ,SG
|pj pQn rdG p rnM rpe prndGpE onrbGnC ornfhn oornf ppH oprSn oJ ne onrnfhn n nrfpE rdG nrnnN rnndhn }
.(16 jBG - IQS)
g Qj hCG j CG j ,''IOe'' e e L CG fEG j eY dh
dEG dH dG G Ea ,''f'' g dG g CG YG GPEGh .edG G
,IOe j e Lj fCG QOCG e GPEG dh .e S 30 - 20 H Y S LQG dG
J dGh NGdGh QG b e ge Ea ,N O dM GOLG c CGh
.jQdG M e ''d bCGh'' fEH G g dG EG .ge
ufpE na unY pO npY nndnC nS GnPpEGhn }:ddG jBG G dG GH dG J dG jh
p n
p GoC
IdG IQS) | nh o oTr jn r o sn nd pH Go ep Dr o rdhn dp Go
r n rna fp Yn On G nPGpE Yp G s dG nIn Yr On
o L
l j pnb
- AGSEG IQS) |...p sdpH n nMGnC nsHnQ sGpE ... } :iNCG jBG BGdG dGh .(186 jBG .f G cDj (60 jBG
j .fCG e dEG bCG da .f EG bCG fCG j eY fEG j
:
q Lh q Y dG
219
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QdG jN
VdG Gg H QS e Ya ,IQdG g #he g e c m H f

E G eC J GPGE
....J O q iS d dG GM
C G c GC gh :FSG gG
r p ndhn r or pe pr ndGpE
o n rbGnC
o
r nfhn .nho o nJ mpn pM r o rfGnC hn .n or
o rdG
r nnHn GnPGpE r nna}
j ,fBGdG jBG VGh g c d .(85-83 jBG -bGdG IQS) |nhoproJ
.YCH fhj fC gG G H dG
IOGQEG GP j CG ,udc Fc iS d dG fEd ,iNCG Mf eh
:J dG IS g H e ch H f e c CG J ddG jBGh .dG Y e
G g j dG BGdGh .(96 jBG - adG IQS) | on r nJ en hn r onnN
n o sdG hn }
.(17 jBG - fCG IQS) |...nenQ nsdG spndhn nrnenQ rPGpE nrnenQ nehn ...} :jCG ddG jBG
H j CG j fEa .dG eCH g fEG H j a CG CG Y J jBG gh
g da .H QT fEG j Jh fS da .dc Fc fC H edG
j fCG VGdG a ,JOGQEH AT CG j fCG AG
q X GPEa ,ddh ,AT c j dG
. f GN EG
220
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IOd G gG
e Fc fCG a G H dG Oj b fEG dh ,G g g EG
G d fEG QfEG a .T eCG M e j Gg dh ,dG IOGQEG Y JGH
.J dG eh IOGQEH g
Nh gh f
E G e c
UCG d d ''LQG dG'' CG Gh dG FG e Ea ,d j ch
,dP eh .gGJ c MGhQC QGSH dG j dG QdG e Y g EGh qOe
.dP hjj a iMCH hCG ,G Gg AT c kIOY j da
e H eh de CG a ,dCG g ICGLh H dG eCG e GPEG dh
fGNh ,dG HMh JGgh eh ,jM jTG Q dG JQSh ,KCG
LQG dG e AL EG g e ADg c ...AeRh dWCGh LhRh He
SGH cQJ e c QNH -Jh Jh GJ e ch .d j dG G
dG G HUh ,G e U :G dG Gg e AL g -G
FdGh ,G fGdCH IgdGh TCH aJ dG dGh ,J dG dGh ,Y
JdGh G jMh ,G jS j dG QdGh ,Jaf eCG j dG
...jG dG RL hCG ,Y eJ dG
gh .dG QN EG jo QdG g e j dG dG C bGdG g Ggh
eb QdG gh .M Z IQH IdG JM QGe Y QNd j
BGdG G g dG cP bh .GOe dP ch ,GLh L T d
:J db dG
psprdG hn pgn sdG
r pe pIn n r no rdG p pW n nrdGhn
n pn rdGhn pA
n u dG
r pe pG n n
s dG
t M
o p s pd
n ju oR}
nC G hn pen s
|pB n rdG
o
r M
o o n r pY o sdG hn n rft dG pIn
n rdG o n en
n pdnP pr
n rdG hn p n rf
n o rdG p r
n rdG hn
.(14 jBG - GY BG IQS)
jJh dHh cCG jh ,fL jO qj dG e EG
dGhdGh fFG bdGh dG HMh GgGh GeCGh dGh gdG
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QdG jN
gadG TCG c j a ,QNHh ,GQdG MCG eGh HH SG
B
B G jh a dG Gg Y hcjh ce jgL j dG hCG f dG
O OCGh AGdG EG MEGh IdG jh jRh fdG IG NH Yj fEG .IN
aCG e d EG'' :e H dP hQj gh ,INBG RdG EG gOS dG GOdG AG
m c bh d d''h ,''dhDG e dG d'' ,''BG
AfEG Y j'' ,''dP aC
dG dh JM j gh .''e IcdGh IdH dCS'' ,''YCG H
dG dG Y gd fEG N J ddG fBGdG jBGh .a fdG IG
p
B G
- hdG IQS) |noap nZ r go Ip n N
r Yn r go hn n rft dG Ip n
n rdG
r ep Gk gp Xn no nr jn } :dEG fTCG
.(7 jBG
IQU iS d AT c CG J dGh - dG Gg gS dG G qGE
g KEGh .d e OhGh ZdG c CG J fC gCG e c Qb Y fc dG IhdG e ,ce jh fEG AT c CG VH j G
HG FbUCGh ,f EG bCG fCG Yj dG LhRh ,H gj dG jQPh H
e Gg c ,gb dG dGh H QO dG QGGh ,dGh IdH dG eh
Gh faj dG bdGh fdj dG OG c Ea ddh .Nh gh EG g
.GQe Ag gS YCG j dG
hCG FGKh gH gj eY ,e Yh hO L hj dG H qGE
RGh cdGh fGh UG HcdG GFdGh dG'' e J
jH gj jdG AjKCG ADa .dH LJ ATCG g c Cch ,''GQdGh
CG hjh ,JGhK Y jG e j h JGQSh Jj QfCG J
j ,a ATCG g d Lj M CG jh dG FS a Ue
EG g e Gg M CG j eY Y S dG dG e dG Y
.Nh gh
jCG dG ,eMCG a .Gc MCG dP gf eCG bGh fh
e ee eGcCGh GQhdG RQh GL K Ggh jS GQSh ,a Re
222
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G M
j fe h ,aQ Ue fCG hj jCG eMCG h .dGh gdG
,dG e c Y IdG H j e IdG e h ,dG e BG a
Qe j fEG CG ch ...fSGh G YEG j e dG e jh
Gg gj eY jS Qe j dc ,eMCG gj eY jS
.a Y Jh QU O ga .a j dG dG
dG dM i dG GMCd dG H j dG jdG qE a ,Hh
.G cQj eY fCG e H gJ CG j
jh Yjh H jh ,SGH H H Qj jdG ADg EG
jh ,G aGH dGeCG Sqjh Hj jdGh ,jhdH ejh ihTdG
B
B G Y MH hj jdGh ,FdH jh jNBG j jdGh ,jNBG M
,gZ hj jdGh ,
q dGh UG j jdGh ,bM Yh jN
ADg c ,dG FS Y ASGh fCG jJ dhj jdGh ,hNjh
.M O c dP c qGC cQj eY INBGh fdG G S
Mh dG a ,QdG g c j dG g Jh fS dG EG Mh
:J dG b G g dG BGdG Rjh .AT d d jT
nC G pa nehn pGhn nsdG pa ne pspdhn }
- AdG IQS) |k poe mArnT uopH osdG n nchn p#rQ
.(126 jBG
gh SMCGh Ye S fL fEGh jO AG j CG AdG e d fEG
.hj dG dG g dG INBG IG a
jM e g bf e qGE :dG eCG GL f CG MG g Y j
JLhRh jQPh JhKh J c CG'' J LGJ dG G CH j
a Gdh ,LBG hCG LY EG S gdH QdG a j dG eh AbUCGh
O gh SSCG d OLh fCG d hj e qc CG'' g f e dh .''T J
.c dG H dG qEa ,iJ ch .''d J dG d jj QU e j oM
f j CG jh QdG Y G H GYG jj fEG CG e ZdHh
223
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QdG jN
FYh ,G gh NCG e LGS fEa ,dH OLe e c CG #j CGh
M Y AT c fEG S dG dP a .iNCG Ie noj eY G J
b c EG gh .(22 jBG - IQS) |l jp M
n n r n rdG
n o nn na...} :dG jBG d VJ c
e j fCG d INBG j a ,dN #GZCG AGQh S jfdG JM b
p nrdG
| fp n rS
o u Yn
n ngn . dp en u Yn n rZGnC en . nn V
r nfnc n n r nd jn } .fdG IG J
.(29-27 jBG -bG IQS)
Gj gh dG Gg M Qjh j CG hj CG Y a bdG fEG eCG
Sh ,MCG AGQh S JM S EGh .edG e a jj Hh Y
AGQh'' hCG G AGQh j jdG ADg bY d j J dGh .GdG TCG jdG
:dH dN Sjh ''GdG
k r nT o r pjn r nd o An L
n GnPGpE s M
n Ak en oB r s dG o o
n
r jn mn ppH mG n
n nc r o odn Yr GnC Gho nnc
n jpsdG hn }
.( 39 jBG - QdG IQS) |pnprdG ojpnS osdG hn onHnpM osan na onrpY nsdG nnLhn hn
jOG f Lh G QdG LhGC

H ,jOG Yqnj c e OLh GP d IOG CG dG Gg jGH e s`s`H d
Gg jT J ehj jOG dh .dG N dG SMCG e Y g
.AT G e d gGh M J dG a j dG G bGdG
qOG dG Y aGG TCG MCG (George Politzer)- ''QdH QL'' d S d
.IOG OLh Y ''dO YCc'' aG Y e - cQd Gh jdG dG
Hj ,GQOEGh MEG Y IQY IOG CH eDj jdG SdG M :''QdH'' j
(182).''GOLh IOd CG Y dOh KEG EG Gg eh ,ghCGQ e GPEG aG Qe Y je
Y IQY IOG EG ,(Johnson) ''fL'' g ,NBG Qe Oe b eY eCG
gOLh ''d'' eH QMCG cj CG hM CG EG e c a ,SMCG e Y
(183). OG
q
QdH jj Y J dG PSCG ,(Friedrich Engels) ''EG jQOa'' S bh
fc GPEG'' :b M QdH e j e ,(Marx) ''cQe'' e dG jOG SDeh
224
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M
C G Y
G AKGC dh .dH jhD Qh dH e c g dGE dH bGdG GE
fGE ,e
C G bGh dh .''H iJ GC h jH J'' GC jGC J
j Oe bGh g a .jhD Q hGC e Lj h ,Y h Gj
H j dG a .Gd #J WH fC a .Y GE AT
C G g
dH dG f c GPE a .dG NGO j e c GE ?bGdGh G
.f dG dG Y jGC J da ,eMGC M Z Y
NO fC H OYG e e S Lj ,G e f eY a
eMGC GC f j dG dGh .''G IG'' j Ie WGC M
fQaGC h fOY a Lj M a f dG dGh N Y g
f fGC f dG #Q
C G Y IG e f b fGC j Ggh .G
.G e f e e ,
B G
(184).
''dH f L dN IQUh MEG O dhf dG dG b
dG eCG g e dh ,EGh ,cQe eCG jOG ge c EG

.''Lh Y U J e GPEG IOG OLh AG QS'' :e GQY J
g ,eCG g e bj j dG , ah jOG GQOEG G EG
CG j a .''FV YN IOG'' CH ''M GQOEG Y IQY IOG'' CG J dh
225
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QdG jN
bGh a dG e iNCG G cGQOEG eCG ,jDhdG Y Qe G GQOEG
O d a .aG eU d ,GhfG'' :dj e T aM J a .Oe
e KOM fEG H j e c CG g fj dG eCG EG .''PEG M GQOEG
.a G j ,CGh ,GUGh ,HU e aG OJ
M
C G e
ij b fEa .MCG g Mjh G g Y AdG j e aCG EG
a dG Y j fCG G fEG ij b .j gh e bGh hJ KGMCG
e b cCj fCG hCG ,eU b aM CH j bh ,Yhu noe IQS OM ij hCG ,eb
.YL d dG
- G Gj gh - Y j b ,eU aM CG G ij dG da
ij bh .M S Gg c d ,bq oe UCG b fCG jh ,e f a
b INBG IG CGh ,MhQ Gb b G Fe CGh ,IQS OM e fCG jCG
c SMCG Y IQY g dG ,fdG IG UdG H j bG Gg) .CGH
(.e
jh GUCG jh XG ij ef GMCG g ij dG dG EG
.OG GH G iNCG SMCG H jh GdCGh AdG ijh HdH
dG dGh .''G'' IG c W J ef H j dG SMCG gh
g JGP M dG CG dP ,SMEG EG d fCG ZQ dH oJ ef dhj
TGa Y e j eCG bGh dG Gg dh .MEGh QT O dc
h ,aM h ,Qhe h ,S
o K a .GMCG g c a ij dG dG f
Mh .H LQG d Yeh SMCG j j dG da .c
CG j Ga ,''LQG dG'' LJ GMCH fh gfh if f eY fEG
.SMCGh Ye EG d JGP bGdG LQG dG
eY dG Mj cQG UNh jOG dH eDj jdG dhCG EG
Y e ie GP Z S eCH jh .IOG M ,G H nLGoj
.WY jJ jh ,dh ,EGh ,cQe
226
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IOd G gG
a .eMCG jCG jdG g j b fCG Ghcj CG ADg Y dh
hCG YLG MCG Gcj hCG ,''G CGQ'' (Das Kapital) c GhDhj CG eMCG
dh .CH hSh ,dP Z hCG ShDhQ Y HV Gj hCG ,WdG e GhLj
e e ,''e IOe'' e jCG j H hjh fhj e CH S G GS
hCG j GfcCG AGSh .''e IOe'' g j fhj dG ATCG CG Vj
.SMCG O g H hjh fhj e c Ea ,edG JM j
RGdH Y
C G HQ e
G GG YCG fNCG e GPEa .QdH bS dG OdG OM e NCdh
,NBG T e e RGdH gsUhh ,Od #J dG dG id H G
M QdH S dG Gg aG a eU dG dG a ,QdH dh
#J dG dG H T dG SMCG qH S fEG H .H dL fCG
gc YS e dEG J dG ZCG g dd J VhCGh ,Od
QdH Ea ,OdG OM AKCG H OLh e Zda .dG RL H e
Sh ,dG jf gjh ,L Y gQheh ,aG ea U jh iS
ebh YGQP Y G HH jh ,dG aZ dNO Y f ijh ,dG BH
.YGQP H S c ,IQG
e NBG OY CH RGdG Y G d G YCG UH b dh
bh dh .e QdH e jf EG jGH e OG S L Ea dG
g H b d fEG H .HZ gQhH hNBG S HZ G dG
OG S NCG Gg Ea ,e T e EG gf K se RH SMCG
.jCG H aG GUH jh
dG EG ?M "TCG ADg eU dG aG g e CG :BG Cdh
Ghe ADg c CG g dG HLEa .GDdG Gg Y IO HLEG jd d jOG
.a fgPCG UJ H OdG OM HH
GG AYCG YCG CG a .QMCG cQh dG eCG Y GC G f jh
,RGdH NBG T HQo b ,dG d dhJ H dH T dG EG id
227
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QdG jN
YCG CG dh .dG EG cCj eY AeGh dH jCG NBG dG nnd
RGdH HQo b ,G cQ eY eb CH T dG fL id G
.f CH NCG d ,NBG T
Y jOG dG J fdG Idh ?PEG M jGh dG e Ca
Th gP dG cCG b NBG dGh EG e la ,GDdG Gg Y HLEG
MCGh gP G cQ pT b NBG dGh fL e vc CG c ,dH
.a M e H
G d G YCG uUdp :QdH e Y jJ AGLEG hdh
.G dG ,de dG ,QdH id G YCG Ufh QdH
dG eCG ,de SL ZQ eU b aG CG QdH S ,dG g a
.QdH e dL fCG Sh GUd KCG CH j a a Od #J dG
.Gh dG nde Y f fQGh f jdG AGLEG h
fEG ha .e Qjh SMCG Rhj CG j fEG CG BG d j
M Jh Oe OLh d d fCG e ZdH SMCG GfCG #J CG
KK QdG g CG #j fC ,G g Qj CG AG Y dG eh .OG Rd
dG SMCG Y f L fCG dP ,gOLh e j Y j Ojh M OHCG
.G fDhYCG dEG fOJ
a QaCG Y (David Hume) ''g jO'' dG jdG dG d jh
f LCG ,''f'' SCG a f NOCG eY ,MGH'' :dc G H j
,gGdGh Gh ,dGh AdGh ,IOhdGh IQGH J e SMCH TCG FGO
f LCG CG SMCG g hHh .SMCG e dP Z hCG IhGh IQGGh
(185).SMCG H EG AH QdG SCG h ,e bJ e be
d fgPGC J dG SM
C G
Y M H a
QYG dh .a f Lh g BG M fOS e CG qOG dG QfCG Yqj
J dCe d SMCGh QGG e Y -f c -''LQG dG''
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IOd G gG
dH dG Qj dG c fEG M .VGh Y M g H dH
.G YGh QdG J c
H J ,AjdG Y UNh ,jdG dG dG KCG dG FG g
J Y VJ e gj q e MGh c CGh e M OLh d d IOG CG Wb
.gP YhQG ''TdG''
c H ,dP Z hCG c jPH ,ge c jCG ,dG FGh dH eDj e c EG
hj b fCG jOa .G g j CG j ,iNCG f Lh CG j e
.dG G g QfEG j d dG OLh
jQjah ,cQe Qc Ia Gc ie j dG dG CG e ZdHh
G g a Y JQb Y Qj h QH d Gg Ea ,QdH QLh ,EG
,jG acGh LddGh dG dG Hh Gg bh ah .VGdG dG
.cGQOEGh G g a dG e UCG
d a e a d ,c M EG Hb G
C M jCG Y jOG dh
.a T hO MJ G g CG e gcCJ e dh ,G
jOG h cGC
gL a OQ CG cJ OG dG FGhO e Qj CG hO bdG H qe d
,GQOEGh MEG O EG d IOG CG gh ,dG Gg gfKCG dG dG V
je EG j Gj eCG CGh eCG dG Y ff Lh f fCH YfG fYCG
YfGh dG gQhS b jOG CG dEG M j bdG dh ,VdG e
jdG H GhT fCG ,dP e cCGh ,dG g H M dG dG H
.dP Y Jj
h GDG h fhj a aN
C G Y j bdG d jOG X d
MJ ,jdG dH J dGh e ALQ dG Jeh JHa .dG gFGhO
fCG Yj dG -QdG jd dG dG AL a .IOM ja eRCG e fj fCH
IQN Th Y fCG cQj AhCG gg ,BGh .d eU H -a SCG
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QdG jN
eU fa ,JGP ''jhQGO jf'' e cCG S d g dG -(IOG) JGP dG gL
aK e MJ'' fCGh LGj ''jJ cCG'' g dG g CH GMU d .TCG
.''G
jQ'' g ,MGU dG cCH gYPh jOG b Y GhY jdG MCG ch
(Science
''VdG jGh dG'' Jch OcCG gh (Renan Pekunlu) ''fH
g Je a .jOG Y adG e JY Y NCG dG ,qjQhdG and Utopia)

YN'' c fH j ,gj dG GDGh dG FGhdH JjJ ah G
YfG bh .OG d hCG jdG Qe fCG Y (Evolution
Deceit)
''QdG jf
d .jhQGO jf a fa dG dG e cCG BG JAGH J dG AG e fH

'' J dSQ ("TCG M Y jj dG) QL Yh FGb Y fH dCG
gH fEG Y GaMh dJh dG ge hQO AGQh fd fCG GcJ
ShQ jedG cGTG IQdG YR (Vladimir I. Lenin) ''d Oa'' kGcGP ''OG
c dG d c IAGH G f CG H fH a e c ch .db e Y c
g (Materialism and Empirio-criticism) ''qG dGh OG gG'' GH e b e
jOG jW Y aS EGh ,dG g GhJ '' :J dG d Ff nQsc CG
Y JBG f ,fBG IQcG H c dG Je iMEG h .''jdG QJ ajh
:d
S c dH N b fJ ,SGM d J dG OG bGd cQfEG Qa''
fJGdG hCG ,jQOCGdG N fG b fS fC ,qEG gG HQ H
gG j e c g Ggh ,(JGdG IG SCG Y aG j a ge gh)
Gbh b L fQfCGh ,a MGh Y d dG j Fda .EG
dG Gbh d .
q EG gd Ice s IQU T CG ,q dG T
''e hCG Y'' dh LQG d IQU d MEG CG a GhYG dG dG
Q QEG h ,H d f h ,H d Y h ,H d MEG a ."N
(186).
'' H d IOG
CG hMh e ah d cQOCG dG G CG VH J GQdG g EG

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IOd G gG
e Zh fH dh .jUG jOG jCG YJ ''baQ'' gPCG eh gP e Lj
BG boJh #oJ G g CG cQj fC ,bh TCG iNCG eRCG fj jOG
Ie hCa .e Y 100 e eCG Y c YbEG cCG jHh cCG Hh VH
.ehe dG SCG GH beh VG Gg J j ,jQdG
GOe be hj jOG AdG e c OY Gj ,eY Hh ,dP eh
dG Gg MW dG VG EG .''gh EG d IOG'' CG M e jd S
a .c JM QGe Y fEG C IQKEGh gCG YVG cCG e g dG e
OhOa ,Gg e dh .gCG ddG eCG Gg e b e GaOU b Gfj CG jOd
.Sh gJ dV Y j Jeh jM SCGh daCG
VG b jOG H HSG CG LQO EG dGh ddG e fEG H
a Gdh ,e G e Yf S b jOd YCG gOfG CG J g IOQGdG
,(Alaattin Senel) ''S JCG'' CG ,a .cGQOEGh VG Gg a Y j e HCG
dSQ SQCG Science and Utopia ''VdG jGh dG'' Jch OcCG jCG gh
g Ga ,jhQGO jf QfG e YO'' :a j fH jQ SQCG dG d He
.d SCG a CG j gh ''dJ e KEG Y'' :Fb dWh .''G jdG
j f g fCG a c GQS c f JdG Gg CG ,dP e Y cCGh
.GjJ gGj dG G g a e
j fCG ,VG Gg VSH a bj e S c ,G S a
g CG dP H Yj dh .gdG j QUh N Y IQY LQG dG c
CGh ,q OG bGdG dP d d iNCGh Oe bGh d QU :b EG J QdG
e'' j ,YR dh .Se WJQG d LQG dH J dG QdG
dH WJQG d gP QdG fc e GPEG YCG fCG'' :c e ch .''dG
,dG CG ea .dG Y j AdG f dh , CG LQG
GQCG eY KOG g cDhGC CG SCG dh ,dEG CG dG dG jDhQ `SCG
(187).''Ld Lh M
cQGe f c GPEG'' :dG g M JdG Gg j a ,Gg dHh
N Y Wb dO Gg dh .''e fh f IOd f CG ,SMCGh
ifh dY e f CG .f IOG M EG f CG G e fC gG
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QdG jN
CG bGh g gh dG Y KOf dG dG U dCeh .''QH'' g e
j gh eCG g cCdG Gg M dh .JGP dG N e cCJ da
.a dY
ij CG j b ,a .jCG eMCG GMCG g ADg ij ,bGdG ah
j eY KOG g AGLEG e cCj K dG Y T u j fG G S
CH AGdG jh j gh jCG ''e GjJ'' LGj fCH fH j bh .Ld Lh
CG GHCG gQh a ,ADg hM e dh .e b e c dG d c GhDhj
.fgPCG QU EG g e dEG GK jdG "TCGh H Ghe dG GMCG CG Ghj
bGh WJQG d gP gGj dG QdG CG e cCj CG Ad c dh
fH j ed GQe Ghj CG G e jOG CG a T ?eY e
.OLh cDjh d LQG H J
AG CH bdG GP #GaG e ,G J iDhdG c CH dG dh
jOh Y j LQG dG iDhdG g cDjh G Gg j CG
.e Nh dG Gg id HSG GQdG
CG Gh dG e dG iG P d g bf dG Gh
QNG fCG ,g fOS e c a e GPEG ,S G Z da .cQj
dG GQH j jOd YCG fG CG hj fCG EG .SGH LQG dG OLh
e e GjT GQb hUG jOG jo ,dG Gdh .ADg id GQOEGh
.dG hJh G cH IOG OLh ''KEG'' GdhM jdG JJSCG e
g dG Y IQdG Y C ,gd YJ ADg bGe CG Qf CG Y j
:ddG dG jBG U dG j dG BGdG ah .jadG jMG c S
.(58 jBG - IFG IQS) |n oprnj lr nb...}
jQdG c cGC jOG bh d

CG j ,a e H fcP dGh ,cJ jOG j dG YdG e EG
MEG O IOG c a .jQdG b e gj eJ g LGj jOG
Ghgj CG jOG Y jh .Ibh Vh H VYo h jG dG FSH JKEG
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IOd G gG
.Y hjh Z Y fY j dG SCH OG dG QfG
e KGh jOG ch ,ffEG jQJ QGe Y Fb OG OLdG Ia fc
.N dG Jh fS dH Ghc fEG M H eDj dG ah fCG
.oN b J CG h jf hCG jGH d d IOG CG f dG jQdG #jh
.M GOLh d CG GhYG dG IOG EG GhC ,gOYh gd dG OLh GhfCG Hh
.dG KEG G e CG b Gj fEG M a e J j Y Gfc bh
G dG "H dG Gg cP dG FG CG dG g Ggh
h ,e jf SCG j g fcP e EG .Ic LQH dG ADg gOCG b IOd
gQaCG c Y GSCG dG IOG ICa QfG d .bG e j CG j
?IOG LJ eY jOG dG LJ a .gQfEGh gQhZh JMh
ornN osdGhn osdG oornjhn nh oornjhn ...} :j a .jd dG J dG U e
.(30 jBG - fCG IQS) | njppcnrdG
CG hO qdPCG dHh ,M LJ IOG CG j L CH jOG dG VCG a
Gh Ueh dGMCGh ,f AT c jOG YG a .dP fCG g Gj
eCG Ghq J a ,dP e cCGh .kFb kM n N
n GB Am T ch SCH dGh dEG j dG
dG Y H GhO d .Jh fS dG e H jOG g Y GhYGh dG
EG ,qnnJ e c IOG Y GhYG bh .gOLh goc e Gg OGa dH GgJh
jh . eh ba e H j dG CG GQOEG Ga ,a V H fCG
nh o j pjo r GnC }:ddG dG jBG gOY H hadG dEG Uh dG dG dG d
.(42 jBG - QdG IQS) | nho p n rdG r go Gho nnc
n jp sdna G k r nc
hOGOj fCG jOG X a .jQdG H J g cCG g g J b
J GfYh d dG f dG dG EG aj Gfc ,Jh fS dG eCG Gpc
d j ,ddG dG jBG a .d jH dG V gqT dG HM dG dG
cchn } :jf d qjh j e cQj Jh fS V GhQK jdG ADg CG dG
p ofnC pH GpE nh o or jn en hn n ap Gho or n dp n ep p
|nho o
r jn en hn r p
r eo n pHncGnC m jn r nb
u oc ap n rn L
n
n dp nn
n sdG nYo pO
n jo } :a iNCG jBG G g dG cDjh .(123 jBG - fCG IQS)
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QdG jN
.(9 jBG - IdG IQS) |nhoornj nehn ronofGnC GpE n oYnrnj nehn GoneGB njpsdGhn
db HdG dG jBG bS eg Gqj ,cG Hh
oU ghn g fhj AT c CG gh .|nho o
r jn en hn r o
n ofGnC GpE n Yo n
r jn en hn }:J
NBG Y CG e ,a Y g H ej dG G h c CGh ,g hd
Gbh a ddh Jh fS dG e gMh fCG JbM H Gf d .H ej
.aG N T
N c S bGh g ejCG cG LGS ,aSC M eh
:J dH ge J gh GhR EG gFe CG fj BGda .SSCG e aG
eDG BGdG j c ,(76 jBG - AdG IQS) |kpnV nnc pn rsdG nrnc sGpE ...}
.(120jBG - GY BG IQS) |... k r nT r go o r nc r oct ojn ...} :dH
oB rs dG oonrnj mn ppH mGnnnc rood nrYGnC Gh onnc njpsdGhn ...}:sLh sY j iNCG jBG h
HGS S jCG jOa .(39 jBG - QdG IQS) |... k r nT o r pjn r nd o An L
n G nPGpE s M
n Ak en
dG VCG a .Nh gh fhS H j eYh ,jBG cJ c GnnY jd
ADg c EG .M fhj dG QdG g c CG hj Lh GdG GH
Y dG H gGY e ch Ajah AMCG AYh Aa OGhq oQh ,IJSCG e ''jQG''
GhJG fC dPEG S dP ch ,WCG e WH GYN
o b HdCGh Ue
Y GHh ,e M d QdG e YG g CG GVaG d .d dEG IOG
d .''ja jM'' SCG e je dM OL f GWfGh gQaCGh a
gCGh ,dG M M GL GTd gDj e Gh AcdG e jd CG GhCGQ
n nen hn Gh o nen hn } :dH gQj dGh .IOhG a dG OLh Gd ,dP e
.(54 jBG - GY BG IQS) |njppcnrdG ornN osdG hn osdG
dG dG d ,a bdG T fdG g FdGh G H EG
e c jCGh GdhM a .eeCG e e fCG LQd jG ADd dG f
hn ...}:db dG fNCG c dPh .Gf h dh dG hO e Ghj a ,dEG hCj
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IOd G gG
.(173 jBG - AdG IQS) |Gkpnf hn vpdhn psdG ph oO rpe rond nhopnj
jM g e c huoj a dG Gg e Gj CG b jOG bj
cCG gOYh gQfEH Gj CG feEH CG GX bh ,VGZCG e jdG dG
:dH dG j Y S W dG dG Ggh .
u dGh odG EG dG Gbj CGh
rog nfrsenO sfGnC rpgprne onpbnY n nc nrnc ro fna @nhoornj roghn Gkrne nfrnnehn G krne Ghonnehn }
.(51-50 jBG -dG IQS) |
n pn L
r GnC r o en r nbhn
CG cQj jOG j CG dG b d :dG jBG gRJ dG G g gh
a .AdGh Qed f e c #J ddh Nh gh EG d f e c
LGhRCGh JLhRh dWCGh dGeCGh gPh feh J hgj
e j ,dH GOLe fj e ch ,gOLCG Mh Ueh gAbUCGh
gh .dG IQS e 51 jBG cJ c QedH Y dG JCjh J a .jh jjCG
.hQ O g H AT IOG e Gd FY
e c CG a .jOd j CG e GC SCG T H g G g GQOEG EG
.''a fEG CG b G'' gJ M Y Oj Nh gh g f
M fCG EG gfG j da .fS dG e gMh G g cJh
|Gk pMhn ornnN rnehn pfrQnP} :a ,OLdG Gg dG e GMh j e c eCG
.(11jBG - KG IQS)
nrnnN nnc i nOG noa nfoorpL rnndhn } :e iNCG Ic jBG dG gcDj G g
.(94 jBG - fCG IQS) |...r ocpQ o Xo An G Qn hn r ocn rds N
n en r o rcn nJhn mIs en n hs GnC r oc
.(95 jBG - e IQS) |GkOrna pnenprdG nr nj ppJGB rotochn }:jBGh
b dEG fhjh IOH eDj jdG ADg CG g jBG dEG J dG G EG
BG gh .GhAj hCG GhAT AGS dG EG JOGQEG GqS bh .Le dEGh dG N
ZQ fc e ,S IM Y e c a iOo S dG G j hj
.cGQOEGh dP a Y
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QdG jN
dG
CG fEd dG FG YCG e IMGH j g H dG VG EG
g VG Gg qGE .''gh c'' LQG dG qGC KEG gh .WEG Y LGj
OLG MdG FdG g dG CH EGh ,AT d Nh cGQOEGh dG OLh a SCG
.e GOLh
d e fc d da .dG j c d dG CG Qj eCG Gg j eh
Y hLj jdGh ,QGdG g H dj jdG ADg j c M OLh
gj jdGh ,qoG YGh gG dL gh hNj jdGh ,CG
e Y iS d da .gGh GgC JM Sj jdG hCG ,J
Fc g fBG gfcP e c EG M .gh Y IQY fEG ,iNCG IQHh ,SMCG
.dP cQj a dP eh ,Y YGh SMCG g QJh iJ ,dc
dHh dG OLh J dG jOG a qoj fC gCG jZ G Ggh
MLGh ,dh EGh cQe eCG jOG YdG fG Gdh .gQfG j
GNCG GUCG eY ,G Gg ''dG Y'' e gAeR GhQMh ,dG
fCG LQd dG gJ N e fj ADg e CG eCG Mh .LGe
CG Vj gh .G J SMCGh YG CG gh G g a
gh VGdG G GQOEG j h G dG g fgPCG fhj dG dG
.e j e Y
dP a adG Gh dG MLH ADg Y j Jh fS dG EG
:ddG fBGdG jBG dH dG BGdG fjh .cGQOEGh Yh f dG
n pH n o n
l oob r o nd...}
l o Yr GnC r o ndhn n pH n o nrjn
r jn lG nPGB r o ndhn n pH nh o pr jo
nC nc
.(179 jBG - GYCG IQS) | opanrdG r go
n pndhr GoC
t nVGnC r go
r Hn p n rf
n pFhr GoC
.''dG JeCJ bW'' eSG e GPEG eCG Gg Y cCG J CG feEH EG
e ATCG H iJ dG jdG GL J CGh J CGh cJ CG j ,dP J dh
bdG FdG CG S ,GL a e GPEGh .ATCG H J dG jdGh dM
iJ hQ O g ,dG g dG Gg GC jh jh jh jh ij dG
fEa ,GL Gg Qj CG SG eh .e TT Y IOG qoJ dG SMCG gJh
M EG fG b jh dG e J dG OG dG IS e Q b j
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IOd G gG
.G OLdG
bh .jQdG QGe Y G g a SdGh dH eDG H d
g ,ec feh ,HY H jdG h ,Hq Q eEG e SEG qe H QOCG
dG Sa H UJ bh .gJh Y YEHh dG BGdG jBG e G
dG CG FSQ Hq Q eEG c bh .Gh dG N e f G EG jCG
:dG g G OLdG GP MdG FdG CGh Nh gh g SCH OG
SMCG e dG dG N H .dG g FdG g dG e N dG gG EG
FdG iS QG AT Lj ,G h .jOe W d d gh Nh
(188) .Jh fS dG gh YCG
UCG d dh Nh gh EG g e fEG gj e c CG qHQ eEG VhCG d
dh ,J e QG gGf fh a dY J dG IFGO EG .QG Oe
dG N dG YCH dh if fCG d hj ,G Gg QNh .Y H ij dG dH
gKCG AbG h Oe c d d a ,dH dc d eCG dh .ShDhQ
,IBGG e T Lh fG if eY M .Gf CG e g a .QG
efGh gGf dG IQdG g K CG a T h .QG d SCG Gg a
(189) .QeCG WGH j dG g Jh fS dGh .a dN g
BGdG jBG N e cG dG f G EG ec fe UJ d
G e j Q fCG Hq Q eCG AY he c c .G dG dHh
.H bGh a j d e EG M G g Y dG WEG
FdG EG Jh HK G g UCG ,a f dG Gg fY h
dG GH G g a J dG hCG IG fEG .d dG KEG H gGdGh
.Gg fY M dG jdGh VGdGh WdG
L dG Qj eY jQJ f hdGh OG dG S Gdh
Ge GhR S hdGh OG da .dG jW EG hOjh dEG FG
dG OLh dG QSh ,jQdG gZ gAa h -jOG GG -Y SdG dG
o M
o e jdG QSh ,edGh G GfG e FM G Sh ,Nh
a KDJ hCG j CG G QG Gd dh .H dG aGGh Gh VG hdG
.gh Fc CG
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QdG Mh edG f
j M g EGh ,''OHCG KK hP e'' bGdG Lj fCG S e c e d j

Y cJh .''edG'' c JM Oj AG CGh ,QdG eh G GQOEG e e
VGh dO Lj M ,dG FGh G Y H aGH EG EG g e dP
dG jOG d hCG VdG G g Jh .OHCG KK P Oe Y OLh Y
fdG VdG eCG ,jHCGh e M IOG CG #J dGh ,QdG jd SCG J
e aGN jCG gh ,jHCGh e M edG c a jOG dG Y J dG
.HdG
edG GQOGE
,iNCH fQe a j f bGdG g ,edG Y f dG MEG EG
Gg nf e GPEGh ,k e kJU a e k L T f e GPEG :G GH dP T h
H Ia g CG AG Qj dHh ,NBG kJU a FbO N H f G
j dG dG S Y fCG EG .''eR'' IdG g u jh ,dGh hCG dG
Y ''ed'' cGQOEG j Aa ,JcGP ee O hCG gP N EG hCG dG
j a fQG g J GPEGh ,JcGP OLe g j dG dG fQe jW
.bd GQOEG g
Y jh IG H e Nj T ij eY fQe AG oj ,Hh
J G Gg dG a j dG bdG a ,IG J Sh e
T dP c ,G EG gdGh IG NOh dG a H JG QdG
dG H AG Qj eY j bdG GQOEG Ea dHh .gdG ee
238
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Page 239
QdG Mh edG f
.jd IaG eG Y Hh G dG
Ea ,gdH fG QdG e Y H fQG f JCj edG Ea QNHh
CG jd Lho c e dHh LSG H d gP c e ,IcGP Ad j
H Je ee cGJ g Y e KdG fEG AG b dGh .ed GQOEG
EG Y h JM e HdG IdG AG sa IcGP g J a ,gP IdG
.j dG dG
eRd dG dG
jGh AdG AGQBG e H J N e VG Gg VJ BG hS
UGh hG Gh KGQdG Y PSCG j edG LGJ Yh .a gdH GdOCG jdG
d) "Le Jeu des Possibles" Hc (Francois Jacob j GfGa) Hf dGe Y
:j e (G
Y ,d edG a j Y f CG G e L d aCG #Y EG''
Y ;FYh EG Ld AGdG dG jjh ,dG dG IdG Y dG a j
Qe e hG e H ,HPL ce d GQG e TCG eM a J
AG Gb e Ff OY f T c M a j Y ;Ad
,edG e a J dG dG Gg e fCG EG .AG e dG Y GQOb G
.d d eG IcGdG H dG jdGh gdG Y dH S
Y g e Y dG d hS M Gh VG EG dH U f AdGh
.''e
(190)
dG jdH j dG Ea ,GMCG e e J OYG fgPCG EG Mh

f SG Gg CG EG ,eCG EG j FGO edG CG #f fh ,HS gUh
, CG c GPEG M hCG edG Qhe c f bGdG a ,gPCG dEG UJ
.GQOEG e f O g EGh e M d edG CG EG TDe Ggh
dG Fja Y cCG j dG (jjBG) JKEH b M g edG fh
The Universe and Dr. Einstein
:Hc (Barnett Lincoln fQH dd) c bh .jdG

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QdG jN
j Je e c edG
e eR Ia hJ a ,H
fE a ,e T GE dH k jW
GE dH GL Ib hJ b
GU Y jGC a h .Z
QOe e d H a ,jJ
jJ h .dGh Ydc
hH U H edG
.QOG H fSG
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(191).
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(192).
240
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241
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QdG jN
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(194).
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243
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245
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QdG jN
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246
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NOTES
1
3
4
5
6
7
8
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
23
Cliff, Conner, "Evolution vs. Creationism: In Defense of Scientific Thinking", International Socialist
Review (Monthly Magazine Supplement to the Militant), November 1980.
Ali Demirsoy, Kaltm ve Evrim (Inheritance and Evolution), Ankara: Meteksan Publishing Co., 1984, p.
61.
Michael J. Behe, Darwin's Black Box, New York:
Free Press, 1996, pp. 232-233.
Richard Dawkins, The Blind Watchmaker, London:
W. W. Norton, 1986, p. 159.
Dan Graves, Science of Faith: Forty-Eight Biographies
of Historic Scientists and Their Christian Faith, Grand
Rapids, MI, Kregel Resources.
Science, Philosophy, And Religion: A Symposium,
1941, CH.13.
J. De Vries, Essential of Physical Science, Wm. B.
Eerdmans Pub. Co., Grand Rapids, SD 1958, p. 15.
H. S. Lipson, "A Physicist's View of Darwin's Theory", Evolution Trends in Plants, Vol 2, No. 1, 1988,
p. 6.
Although Darwin came up with the claim that his
theory was totally independent from that of Lamarck's, he gradually started to rely on Lamarck's
assertions. Especially the 6th and the last edition of
The Origin of Species is full of examples of Lamarck's
"inheritance of acquired traits". See Benjamin Farrington, What Darwin Really Said, New York: Schocken Books, 1966, p. 64.
Steven M. Stanley, Macroevolution: Pattern and Process, San Francisco: W. H. Freeman and Co. 1979,
pp. 35, 159.
Colin Patterson, "Cladistics", Interview with Brian
Leek, Peter Franz, March 4, 1982, BBC.
Stephen Jay Gould, "The Return of Hopeful Monsters", Natural History, Vol 86, July-August 1977, p.
28.
Charles Darwin, The Origin of Species: A Facsimile of
the First Edition, Harvard University Press, 1964, p.
189.
Ibid, p. 177.
B. G. Ranganathan, Origins?, Pennsylvania: The
Banner Of Truth Trust, 1988.
Warren Weaver, "Genetic Effects of Atomic Radiation", Science, Vol 123, June 29, 1956, p. 1159.
Gordon R. Taylor, The Great Evolution Mystery,
New York: Harper & Row, 1983, p. 48.
Michael Pitman, Adam and Evolution, London: River Publishing, 1984, p. 70.
179.
Ibid, pp. 172, 280.
Derek V. Ager, "The Nature of the Fossil Record",
Proceedings of the British Geological Association, Vol
87, 1976, p. 133.
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
255
Mark Czarnecki, "The Revival of the Creationist

Crusade", MacLean's, January 19, 1981, p. 56.
T. Neville George, "Fossils in Evolutionary Perspective", Science Progress, Vol 48, January 1960, pp.
1, 3.
David Raup, "Conflicts Between Darwin and Paleontology", Bulletin, Field Museum of Natural History,
Vol 50, January 1979, p. 24.
Richard Monastersky, "Mysteries of the Orient",
Discover, April 1993, p. 40.
Richard Dawkins, The Blind Watchmaker, London:
W. W. Norton 1986, p. 229.
Douglas J. Futuyma, Science on Trial, New York:
Pantheon Books, 1983, p. 197.
302.
Stefan Bengston, Nature, Vol. 345, 1990, p. 765.
Gerald T. Todd, "Evolution of the Lung and the
Origin of Bony Fishes: A Casual Relationship",
American Zoologist, Vol 26, No. 4, 1980, p. 757.
R. L. Carroll, Vertebrate Paleontology and Evolution,
New York: W. H. Freeman and Co. 1988, p. 4.
Edwin H. Colbert, M. Morales, Evolution of the Vertebrates, New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1991, p.
99.
Jean-Jacques Hublin, The Hamlyn Encyclopdia of
Prehistoric Animals, New York: The Hamlyn Publishing Group Ltd., 1984, p. 120.
Jacques Millot, "The Coelacanth", Scientific American, Vol 193, December 1955, p. 39.
Bilim ve Teknik Magazine, November 1998, No: 372,
p. 21.
Robert L. Carroll, Vertebrate Paleontology and Evolution, New York: W. H. Freeman and Co., 1988, p.
198.
Engin Korur, "Gzlerin ve Kanatlarn Srr" (The
Mystery of the Eyes and the Wings), Bilim ve Teknik,
No. 203, October 1984, p. 25.
Nature, Vol 382, August, 1, 1996, p. 401.
Carl O. Dunbar, Historical Geology, New York: John
Wiley and Sons, 1961, p. 310.
L. D. Martin, J. D. Stewart, K. N. Whetstone, The
Auk, Vol 98, 1980, p. 86.
Ibid, p. 86; L. D. Martin "Origins of Higher Groups
of Tetrapods", Ithaca, New York: Comstock Publising Association, 1991, pp. 485, 540.
S. Tarsitano, M. K. Hecht, Zoological Journal of the
Linnaean Society, Vol 69, 1985, p. 178; A. D. Walker,
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Pat Shipman, "Birds do it... Did Dinosaurs?", New
Scientist, February 1, 1997, p. 31.
"Old Bird", Discover, March 21, 1997.
Ibid.
Pat Shipman, "Birds Do It... Did Dinosaurs?", p. 28.
S. J. Gould & N. Eldredge, Paleobiology, Vol 3, 1977,
p. 147.
Pat Shipman, "Birds Do It... Did Dinosaurs?", p. 28.
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49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
Ibid.
Roger Lewin, "Bones of Mammals, Ancestors Fleshed Out", Science, vol 212, June 26, 1981, p. 1492.
George Gaylord Simpson, Life Before Man, New
York: Time-Life Books, 1972, p. 42.
R. Eric Lombard, "Review of Evolutionary Principles of the Mammalian Middle Ear, Gerald Fleischer", Evolution, Vol 33, December 1979, p. 1230.
David R. Pilbeam, "Rearranging Our Family Tree",
Nature, June 1978, p. 40.
Earnest A. Hooton, Up From The Ape, New York:
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Malcolm Muggeridge, The End of Christendom,
Grand Rapids, Eerdmans, 1980, p. 59.
Stephen Jay Gould, "Smith Woodward's Folly",
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Kenneth Oakley, William Le Gros Clark & J. S,
"Piltdown", Meydan Larousse, Vol 10, p. 133.
Stephen Jay Gould, "Smith Woodward's Folly",
New Scientist, April 5, 1979, p. 44.
W. K. Gregory, "Hesperopithecus Apparently Not
An Ape Nor A Man", Science, Vol 66, December
1927, p. 579.
Philips Verner Bradford, Harvey Blume, Ota Benga:
The Pygmy in The Zoo, New York: Delta Books,
1992.
David Pilbeam, "Humans Lose an Early Ancestor",
Science, April 1982, pp. 6-7.
Solly Zuckerman, Beyond The Ivory Tower, New
York: Toplinger Publications, 1970, pp. 75-94.
Charles E. Oxnard, "The Place of Australopithecines in Human Evolution: Grounds for Doubt", Nature, Vol 258, p. 389.
Fred Spoor, Bernard Wood, Frans Zonneveld,
"Implication of Early Hominid Labryntine Morphology for Evolution of Human Bipedal Locomotion", Nature, Vol 369, June 23, 1994, pp. 645-648.
Holly Smith, American Journal of Physical Antropology, Vol 94, 1994, pp. 307-325.
Fred Spoor, Bernard Wood, Frans Zonneveld,
"Implication of Early Hominid Labryntine Morphology for Evolution of Human Bipedal Locomotion", Nature, vol 369, June 23, 1994, p. 645-648.
Tim Bromage, New Scientist, vol 133, 1992, p. 38-41.
J. E. Cronin, N. T. Boaz, C. B. Stringer, Y. Rak,
"Tempo and Mode in Hominid Evolution", Nature,
Vol 292, 1981, p. 113-122.
C. L. Brace, H. Nelson, N. Korn, M. L. Brace, Atlas of
Human Evolution, 2.b. New York: Rinehart and Wilson, 1979.
Alan Walker, Scientific American, vol 239 (2), 1978,
p. 54.
Marvin Lubenow, Bones of Contention, Grand Rapids, Baker, 1992, p. 83.
Boyce Rensberger, The Washington Post, November
19, 1984.
Ibid.
Richard Leakey, The Making of Mankind, London:
Sphere Books, 1981, p. 62.
Marvin Lubenow, Bones of Contention, Grand Rapids, Baker, 1992. p. 136.

76 Erik Trinkaus, "Hard Times Among the Neanderthals", Natural History, vol 87, December 1978, p.
10; R. L. Holloway, "The Neanderthal Brain: What
Was Primitive", American Journal of Physical Anthropology Supplement, Vol 12, 1991, p. 94.
77 Alan Walker, Science, vol 207, 1980, p. 1103.
78 A. J. Kelso, Physical Antropology, 1st ed., New York:
J. B. Lipincott Co., 1970, p. 221; M. D. Leakey, Olduvai Gorge, Vol 3, Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1971, p. 272.
79 S. J. Gould, Natural History, Vol 85, 1976, p. 30.
80 Time, November 1996.
81 L. S. B. Leakey, The Origin of Homo Sapiens, ed. F.
Borde, Paris: UNESCO, 1972, p. 25-29; L. S. B. Leakey, By the Evidence, New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1974.
82 "Is This The Face of Our Past", Discover, December
1997, pp. 97-100.
83 A. J. Kelso, Physical Anthropology, 1.b., 1970, pp.
221; M. D. Leakey, Olduvai Gorge, Vol 3, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971, p. 272.
84 Donald C. Johanson & M. A. Edey, Lucy: The Beginnings of Humankind, New York: Simon & Schuster,
1981, p. 250.
85 Science News, Vol 115, 1979, pp. 196-197.
86 Ian Anderson, New Scientist, Vol 98, 1983, p. 373.
87 Russell H. Tuttle, Natural History, March 1990, pp.
61-64.
88 Ruth Henke, "Aufrecht aus den Baumen", Focus,
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89 Elaine Morgan, The Scars of Evolution, New York:
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90 Solly Zuckerman, Beyond The Ivory Tower, New
York: Toplinger Publications, 1970, p. 19.
91 W. R. Bird, The Origin of Species Revisited., Nashville: Thomas Nelson Co., 1991, pp. 298-99.
92 "Hoyle on Evolution", Nature, Vol 294, November
12, 1981, p. 105.
93 Ali Demirsoy, Kaltm ve Evrim (Inheritance and Evolution), Ankara: Meteksan Publishing Co., 1984, p.
64.
94 W. R. Bird, The Origin of Species Revisited. Nashville:
Thomas Nelson Co., 1991, p. 304.
95 Ibid, p. 305.
96 J. D. Thomas, Evolution and Faith. Abilene, TX, ACU
Press, 1988. p. 81-82.
97 Robert Shapiro, Origins: A Sceptics Guide to the Creation of Life on Earth, New York, Summit Books,
1986. p.127.
98 Fred Hoyle, Chandra Wickramasinghe, Evolution
from Space, New York, Simon & Schuster, 1984, p.
148.
99 Ibid, p. 130.
100 Fabbri Britannica Bilim Ansiklopedisi (Fabbri Britannica Science Encyclopaedia), vol 2, No 22, p. 519.
101 Richard B. Bliss & Gary E. Parker, Origin of Life, California: 1979, p. 14.
75
256
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December 1977, p.674
127 Jeremy Rifkin, Entropy: A New World View, p.55
128 For further info, see: Stephen C. Meyer, "The Origin of Life and the Death of Materialism", The Intercollegiate Review, 32, No. 2, Spring 1996
129 Charles B. Thaxton, Walter L. Bradley & Roger L.
Olsen The Mystery of Life's Origin: Reassessing
Current Theories, 4. edition, Dallas, 1992. chapter
9, p. 134
130 Ilya Prigogine, Isabelle Stengers, Order Out of
Chaos, New York, Bantam Books, 1984, p. 175
131 Robert Shapiro, Origins: A Sceptics Guide to the
Creation of Life on Earth. Summit Books, New
York: 1986, s. 207
132 Pierre-P Grass, Evolution of Living Organisms, New
York: Academic Press, 1977, p. 103.
133 Ibid, p. 107.
134 Norman Macbeth, Darwin Retried: An Appeal to Reason. Boston: Gambit, 1971, p. 101.
135 Loren C. Eiseley, The Immense Journey, Vintage Books, 1958, p. 186.
136 Charles Darwin, The Origin of Species: A Facsimile of
184.
137 Norman Macbeth, Darwin Retried: An Appeal to Reason, Harvard Common Press, New York: 1971, p.
33.
138 Ibid, p. 36.
139 Loren Eiseley, The Immense Journey, Vintage Books,
1958. p. 227.
140 Stuart B. Levy, "The Challange of Antibiotic Resistance", Scientific American, March 1998, p. 35.
141 Medical Tribune, December 29, 1988, pp. 1, 23.
142 Francisco J. Ayala, "The Mechanisms of Evolution",
Scientific American, Vol 239, September 1978, p. 64.
143 S. R. Scadding, "Do 'Vestigial Organs' Provide Evidence for Evolution?", Evolutionary Theory, Vol 5,
May 1981, p. 173.
144 The Merck Manual of Medical Information, Home edition, New Jersey: Merck & Co., Inc. The Merck Publishing Group, Rahway, 1997.
145 H. Enoch, Creation and Evolution, New York: 1966,
pp. 18-19.
146 Frank Salisbury, "Doubts About the Modern
Synthetic Theory of Evolution", American Biology
Teacher, September 1971, p. 338.
147 Michael Denton, Evolution: A Theory in Crisis. London, Burnett Books, 1985, p. 145.
148 W. R. Bird, The Origin of Species Revisited, Thomas
Nelson Co., Nashville: 1991, pp. 98-99; Percival Davis, Dean Kenyon, Of Pandas and People, Haughton
Publishing Co., 1990, pp. 35-38.
149 W. R. Bird, The Origin of Species Revisited, pp. 98-99,
199-202.
150 Michael Denton. Evolution: A Theory in Crisis. London: Burnett Books, 1985, pp. 290-91.
151 G. G. Simpson, W. Beck, An Introduction to Biology,
New York, Harcourt Brace and World, 1965, p. 241.
102 Stanley Miller, Molecular Evolution of Life: Current

Status of the Prebiotic Synthesis of Small Molecules,
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103 Kevin Mc Kean, Bilim ve Teknik, No 189, p. 7.
104 J. P. Ferris, C. T. Chen, "Photochemistry of Methane, Nitrogen, and Water Mixture As a Model for
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105 "New Evidence on Evolution of Early Atmosphere
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106 Richard B. Bliss & Gary E. Parker, Origin of Life, California, 1979, p. 25.
107 W. R. Bird, The Origin of Species Revisited, Nashville:
Thomas Nelson Co., 1991, p. 325.
108 Richard B. Bliss & Gary E. Parker, Origin of Life, California: 1979, p. 25.
109 Ibid.
110 S. W. Fox, K. Harada, G. Kramptiz, G. Mueller,
"Chemical Origin of Cells", Chemical Engineering
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111 Frank B. Salisbury, "Doubts about the Modern
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112 Paul Auger, De La Physique Theorique a la Biologie,
1970, p. 118.
113 Francis Crick, Life Itself: It's Origin and Nature, New
York, Simon & Schuster, 1981, p. 88.
114 Ali Demirsoy, Kaltm ve Evrim (Inheritance and Evolution), Ankara: Meteksan Publishing Co., 1984, p.
39.
115 Homer Jacobson, "Information, Reproduction and
the Origin of Life", American Scientist, January 1955,
p.121.
116 Reinhard Junker & Siegfried Scherer, "Entstehung
Gesiche Der Lebewesen", Weyel, 1986, p. 89.
117 Michael Denton, Evolution: A Theory in Crisis. London: Burnett Books, 1985, p. 351.
118 John Horgan, "In the Beginning", Scientific American, vol. 264, February 1991, p. 119.
119 G.F. Joyce, L. E. Orgel, "Prospects for Understanding the Origin of the RNA World", In the RNA
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120 Jacques Monod, Chance and Necessity, New York:
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121 Leslie E. Orgel, "The Origin of Life on the Earth",
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122 Chandra Wickramasinghe, Interview in London Daily Express, August 14, 1981.
123 Jeremy Rifkin, Entropy: A New World View, New
York, Viking Press, 1980, p.6
124 J. H. Rush, The Dawn of Life, New York, Signet,
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125 Roger Lewin, "A Downward Slope to Greater Diversity", Science, vol. 217, 24.9.1982, p. 1239
126 George P. Stravropoulos, "The Frontiers and Limits
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257
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152 Keith S. Thompson, "Ontogeny and Phylogeny
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153 Francis Hitching, The Neck of the Giraffe: Where
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154 Richard Lewontin, "The Demon-Haunted
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155 Robert Shapiro, Origins: A Sceptics Guide to the
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156 Hoimar Von Dithfurt, Im Anfang War Der Wasserstoff (Secret Night of the Dinosaurs), Vol 2, p.
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157 Ali Demirsoy, Kaltm ve Evrim (Inheritance and
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158 Ibid, p. 61.
159 Ibid, p. 94.
160 Bilim ve Teknik, July 1989, Vol. 22, No.260, p.59
161 Grzimeks Tierleben Vgel 3, Deutscher Taschen Buch Verlag, Oktober 1993, p.92
162 David Attenborough, Life On Earth: A Natural
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163 David Attenborough, Life On Earth: A Natural
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164 "The Structure and Properties of Spider Silk",
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165 Grsel Bilim ve Teknik Ansiklopedisi, pp.185186
166 Walter Metzner, http://cnas.ucr.edu/ ~bio/
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167 National Geographic, September 1995, p.98
168 Bilim ve Teknik, January 1990, pp.10-12
169 David Attenborough, Life of Birds, Princeton
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170 James L.Gould, Carol Grant Gould, Life at the
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pp.130-136
171 David Attenborough, The Private Life of
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172 Encyclopedia of Reptiles and Amphibians,
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173 Frederick Vester, Denken, Lernen, Vergessen,
vga, 1978, p.6
174 George Politzer, Principes Fondamentaux de
Philosophie, Editions Sociales, Paris 1954,
pp.38-39-44
175 R.L.Gregory, Eye and Brain: The Psychology of
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176 Lincoln Barnett, The Universe and Dr.Einstein,

William Sloane Associate, New York, 1948, p.20
177 Orhan Hanerliolu, Dnce Tarihi (The History of Thought), Istanbul: Remzi Bookstore,
6.ed., September 1995, p.447
178 V.I.Lenin, Materialism and Empirio-criticism,
Progress Publishers, Moscow, 1970, p.14
179 Bertrand Russell, ABC of Relativity, George
Allen and Unwin, London, 1964, pp.161-162
180 R.L.Gregory, Eye and Brain: The Psychology of
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181 Ken Wilber, Holographic Paradigm and Other
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183 Orhan Hanerliolu, Dnce Tarihi (The History of Thought), Istanbul: Remzi Bookstore,
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185 Paul Davies, Tanr ve Yeni Fizik, (God and The
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186 Rennan Peknl, "Aldatmacann Evrimsizlii",
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187 Alaettin enel, "Evrim Aldatmacas m?, Devrin
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188 Imam Rabbani Hz. Mektuplar (Letters of Rabbani), Vol.II, 357. Letter, p.163
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190 Franois Jacob, Le Jeu des Possibles, University
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William Sloane Associate, New York, 1948, pp.
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William Sloane Associate, New York, 1948,
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194 Paul Strathern, The Big Idea: Einstein and Relativity, Arrow Books, 1997, p. 57
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pp.17-18
258

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gQEd UG G jOG dGh jhQGdG

ARAPCA EVRIM (009-020).

dGh edH dG eGC d

ARAPCA EVRIM (009-020).

gQEd UG G jOG dGh jhQGdG

ARAPCA EVRIM (021-037) son

cQe Qc e je SGH IjY Y ha Y SdG dG

jH fCH TdG gJ e ZdHh .jOG d ITG dG g - fEG e

ARAPCA EVRIM (021-037) son

ej J jG dG acG CG dP .Sa SCG dP Ea ,dP eh

Gg VQe IOb "The