The Development of Language Teaching.

Current trends of Language Teaching

of English as a Foreign Language. The Communicative Approach.
Good morning, my name is Juan and I am going to read this topic, the title of which
is The development of Language Teaching. Current trends of Language Teaching
as a Foreign Language. The Communicative Approach.
In order to develop the topic in a clear way, we have decided to divide it in 5
sections: the first section is an introduction to the topic, in the second section
we will focus on the origins of language teaching, in section 3 we will look at
different methods and approaches on English teaching as a foreign language at
different periods, section 4 is a conclusion in which we will gather together the
main ideas under discussion and finally we will mention all the books and resources
we have used for the elaboration of this topic.
1. Introduction.
As a way of introduction, we would like to point out that humans have always shown
an urgent desire and need of communicating with others. If the people we want to
communicate with speak another language, the need of learning the other language
arises. Humanity has been learning languages for more than two thousand years,
but it is especially in the last century when language teaching has evolved.
Nowadays there is an urgent necessity of learning foreign languages, especially
English, which is the predominant language in international communication.
As language teachers, our aim will be making language a tool that our students can
use to communicate with people from other cultures. This vision of language as a
tool is fairly new and it has given rise to communicative models of language
teaching. Throughout history, many different methods of language teaching and
learning have been used. The present work aims to provide a detailed account of
the evolution of language teaching and learning theories from its origin to presentday trends, where especial attention is paid to present-day communicative
approaches.
We will start by looking at the origins of language teaching.
2. The origins of language teaching.
It was around the 5th century that in India the first language rules were written
down. This was, in fact, a grammar of Sanskrit which effects went beyond the
original intentions of the authors. According to Howatt a thorough education
consists not only of the acquisition of knowledge, but the physical, mental,
emotional, and social development of the individual. Hence, the early Greek aim
was to prepare intellectually and socially young people to take leading roles in the

activities of state and society. In the 17 th century, Comenius, who is often said to
be the founder of the Didactics of Language; for him, the word didactics meant
the art of teaching. Language study and teaching was to be promoted in
subsequent centuries through the fields of philosophy, logic, rhetoric, sociology
among others. This was basically to study and understand the general principles
upon which all languages are built and in doing so, to teach them better. Some of
those methodological and theoretical principles and ideas are still used nowadays.
The importance of the evolution of language teaching, make it reasonable to
define some key concepts to this process, such as: method and approach. An
approach is a language teaching philosophy that might be interpreted and applied
in different ways in the classroom, and method is the practical realization of the
approach. Both concepts are linked together to a set of features which describes
the nature of language teaching methodology, for instance, learning objectives,
syllabus, types of activities, and roles of teachers, learners, materials, procedures
and techniques used. The proliferation of approaches and methods is a relevant
characteristic of contemporary second and foreign language teaching.
3. 19th /20th century approaches and methods on language teaching
We will start by looking at 19th century approaches and methods on language
teaching. So, first of all, we will talk about the Grammar- Translation method.
A) Origin and definition: Grammar- Translation method. As modern languages
began to enter the curriculum of European schools in the 18 th Century, they were
taught using the same basic procedures that were used to teach Latin. Emphasis
was on learning grammar rules, lists of vocabulary of the target language, mainly
through translation. This method came to be known as the Grammar-Translation
method, and this was the dominant foreign language teaching method in Europe
from the 1840s to the 1940s and a version of it continues to be used nowadays
where understanding literary texts is the primary focus of foreign language
study.
b) Characteristics: As its name suggests, this method emphasis the teaching of
the grammar of the L2, getting st to translate. Within this method, the t is the
authority in class, and the st do as he says. Theres little demonstration of the
st. (T-L process) St translate literary texts and learn grammar and vocabulary
by heart. T presents it deductively. As far as skills were concerned, reading and
writing were clearly superior. As we can infer, the use of the target language is
mainly for translation, and the language used in the classroom is the st native
language. Evaluation is accomplished through translation and grammar exercises,
as well as, reading comprehension. St are not allowed to make mistakes. If they
make them, t provides them with the correct answer, therefore, accuracy is
more important than fluency.

c) Techniques: Translation of a literary passage, reading comprehension

questions, antonyms/synonyms, fill-in-the-blanks, use words in sentences,
deductive application rule, composition.

A) Origin and definition: Direct Method. In the late 19th century, linguists, such
as Berlitz, increased their attention to naturalistic principles of language learning
given by other reformers, and agreed that GTM didnt prepare learners for real
life language. They insisted that it was necessary to change the method. In this
way, this method was born where no translation is allowed, and meaning is to be
conveyed in the target language through the use of demonstration and visual aids.
b) Characteristics: Its main objective is that st learn to communicate in the
target language. In order to do this, they should learn to think in that language.
Although the t directs the class activities, the st role is less passive than in the
GTM. (T-L) The T and st work like partners in the teaching and learning process.
Within this method, t introduces a new word/phrase trying to demonstrate its
meaning through realia or pics. St speak in the target language as if they were in
real life situations. In fact, the syllabus used is based on situations (going
shopping) or topics (Geography). Grammar is taught inductively, that is the st are
presented with examples and they figure out the rule from them. St practice
vocabulary by using new words in complete sentences. The intention of interaction
goes both ways (t-st; st). Vocabulary is emphasized over grammar. Although the
4 basic skills are worked from the beginning. Listening and speaking skills are
received special attention. Reading and writing exercises are based upon what the
st practice orally first. Evaluation is mainly accomplished through oral
observation, as st are asked to use the language in different situations. Errors
are allowed, and t uses them to prompt self-correction among the st.
c) Techniques: Reading aloud, question and answer exercise, getting students to
self-correct, conversation practice, fill-in-the-blank exercise, dictation, map
drawing and paragraph writing.
A) Origin and definition: Audio-lingual method. Although the DM enjoyed
popularity, not everyone had embraced it enthusiastically. As a result new
methods were developed, and one of the as the Audiolinguism in the United
States. This method had its origins during the Second World War when there was
a great need to learn foreign languages quickly to avoid Americans becoming
isolated from scientific advances in other countries. This approach is based on
the structure view of language (it means that structures must be taught) and the
behaviorist theory of language learning (in which stimulus- responsereinforcement form the basis of this methodology.
b) Characteristics: Within this method, st objective is to use the target
language communicatively. In order to do this, they need to over learn the target
language, to learn to use it without stopping to think. St achieve this by forming

new habits in the target language and leaving aside all habits. In this method, the
teacher directs and controls the language behavior of her st and provides a good
model for imitation. St are imitators of the t, and should response as accurately
as possible to teachers direction. If their response is correct, it is rewarded, so
the habit will be formed; if it is incorrect, it is corrected, so it will be
suppressed. (T-L) New vocabulary and structures are presented through
dialogues, which are learnt through imitation and repetition. Drills are based on
patterns present the dialogue. Culture consists of everyday lifestyle of the
target language speakers, and is contextualized in dialogues. Grammar is taught
inductively. Most of interaction is between t-st. Theres st-to-st interaction, but
this one is directed by the teacher. As far as skills is concerned, they follow the
natural order (L, S, and R, W). Oral part is emphasized, and R&W is based on the
oral work that they did previously. Pronunciation is taught from the very
beginning, often by st working in laboratories (discrimination of sounds). Only
English is used in the classroom. Evaluation is accomplished through observation
or a discrete-point test. Concerning sterrors, t tries to prevent any kind of
errors, and corrects them immediately.
c) Techniques: Dialogue memorization, drills (backward build up, repetition, chain,
single-slot substitution, multiple-slot substitution, transformation, question-and
answer), and use of minimal pairs, complete the dialogue, grammar game.
We are now finally coming to 20th century approaches and methods on
language teaching.
a) Origin and definition: Communicative approach. (CA) You may have noticed
that the goal of methods weve just looked at is for st to learn to communicate in
the TL. In the 1970s, educators began to question if they were going in the right
way. They observed that st could know the rules of linguistic usage, but werent
able to use the language outside the classroom. Therefore, it became clear that
being able to communicate required more than linguistic competence; it required
communicative competence knowing when and how to say what to whom. Such
observations contributed to a shift in the field in 1970s from a linguisticcentered approach to a Communicative approach. According to this approach,
language teaching is based on the idea that the goal of language acquisition is
communicative competence. Its underlying philosophy has spawned different
teaching methods known under a variety of names, including notional-functional,
teaching for proficiency, and communicative language teaching. Let us focus on
the characteristics of this last one CLT.
b) Characteristics: Its main goal is to enable students to communicate in the
target language outside the classroom. To do this, st need knowledge of the
linguistic forms, meanings and functions. For example, if st want to ask for
permission (function), they need to know that they can use may or would (form).
Therefore, they must be able to choose the most appropriate form according to
the social context, and the role of the interlocutors, as well as to manage the

process of negotiating meaning with their interlocutors. Within this method, the
t facilitates communication establishing situations to promote communication. He
also acts an advisor (answering st doubts or monitoring their performance) and
co-communicator. St are communicators as they are actively engaged in
communication, and they are also responsible for their own learning. It isnt a
teacher centered. (T-L) The most obvious characteristic of this method is that
almost everything is done with a communicative intent. St use TL through
communicative activities such as: games, role-playsAn activity must have these 3
characteristics to be communicative: information gap, choice and feedback. They
are often based on real situations. Materials used in class are authentic ones, for
instance: magazines, newspapers, slogans or TV for pronunciation, flashcards,
objects (realia), posters, songs, radio. Culture consists of everyday lifestyle of
the target language speakers. The intention of interaction goes both ways
(theres t-st e.g. when t presents the new language, or when he acts as a cocommunicator or prompter; and theres st-st e.g. when they participate in pairwork or group-work activities). Students work with language at discourse level,
that is, they learn about cohesion and coherence. Though the main aim is verbal
communication, the 4 basic skills are worked from the very beginning. A classroom
is based on different areas, making it more interesting and varied. The mother
tongue isnt allowed in class. T evaluates st accuracy and fluency. T evaluates
them either through observation (improvisation of a situation orally) or for
instance by means of an integrative test (4 basic skills). Evaluation is continuous.
Errors are tolerated during fluency based activities (T might take note of them
to be worked out on a later time during accuracy based activities). They are a
natural outcome of developing communication.
c) Techniques: authentic materials, scrambled sentences, language games,
picture strip story, role play.

A) Origin and definition: Total physical Response method (TPR). Let us now
consider the Total Physical Response method which is an example of the
Comprehension Approach, so called because of the importance that it gives to
listening comprehension. This method was developed by Asher. Most of the
methods weve looked at gave st speaking the TL from the first day. In the 1960s
and 1970s research gave rise to the hypothesis that language learning should
start first with understanding and later proceeds to production. After a learner
internalizes an extensive map of how the TL works, speaking will appear
spontaneously. Notice that this is exactly how an infant acquires the native
language.
b) Characteristics: Its main objective is to reduce stress so that st enjoy their
experience in learning to communicate in a FL. The way to do this, Asher believes,
is to base FL upon the way children learn their native language. At first, t is the
director of st behavior and st are imitators of her non-verbal model. At some

point, st will be ready to speak (usually after 10 or 20 hours of instruction) and

they may direct the t and the other st. (T-L) Within this method, the first phase
of the lesson, t issues commands to the st, who perform the actions. In the 2 nd
phase, the st demonstrate that they can understand the commands by
performing them alone. After learning to respond to some oral commands, they
learn to read and write them. When they are ready to speak, they may issue the
commands and the t includes skits and games. Theres t-st and st-st interaction.
Within this method vocabulary and grammar are emphasized over the language
areas. These are introduced through imperatives. Spoken language is emphasized
over the written one. In class, they dont use their mother tongue and meaning is
conveyed through body movements. Evaluation is made through observation, and
can be conductive. Teacher should be tolerant of errors and only correct the
major ones.
c) Techniques: Using commands to direct behavior, role reversal, action
sequence.
A) Origin and definition: Silent way. Let us now deal with the Silent Way which
was proposed by Gottengo. He believed that teaching means to serve the learning
process rather than dominate it. He also concluded that learning is a process
which we initiate by ourselves by mobilizing our inner resources (perception,
intuition, imagination) to meet the challenge at hand. In the course of learning, we
integrate into ourselves whatever new we create, and we use it for further
learning.
b) Characteristics: The main goal of the SW is that st are able to use the
language for self-expression. In order to do this, they need to develop
independence from the t, to develop their own inner criteria for self-correction.
They become independent by relying on themselves. In this approach, the t is an
engineer. The t, relying on what her st already know can give what help is
necessary to insure their facility with language and to promote their learning. The
role of the st is to use what they already know to get rid of any obstacle that
would interfere with their learning task, and to actively engage in exploring the
language (T works with the st; st-L). (T-L) St begin the study of the L through
its sounds. T lead their st to associate the sounds of the TL with particular
colors (sound-color chart). Later, the same colors are used to learn the spelling of
those sounds (fidel chart) and read and pronounce words properly (word
chart).The t sets up situations to focus st attention on structures of L. These
situations provide a vehicle for st to perceive meaning and sometimes call for the
use of rods. Structures are continually recycled. The syllabus develops according
to learning needs. At the end of the lesson or task, the st show how they have
felt or what they have learnt. This provides information to the t and encourages
st to take responsibility of their own learning. For much of the st-t interaction;
he is silent. He is still very active, however-setting up situations, listening to the
st, and silently working with them on their production through gestures and some
tools. He only speaks to give clues. St-st verbal interaction is very important as

they can learn from one another. Within this approach, pronunciation is worked
from the very beginning as st should acquire the melody of the language. Theres
a focus on the grammar structures, but explicit grammar is never supplied.
Vocabulary is restricted at first. As far as language skills is concerned, the 4 are
worked from the very beginning of the course, although there is a sequence in
that st learn to read and write what they have already produced orally. The
target language is used most of the time. They only use the NL when they need an
explanation for pronunciation. Meaning of vocabulary is shown through perception.
Evaluation is accomplished through observation. T doesnt criticize their errors
because that would interfere with the development of stown criteria, and looks
for a steady progression. Errors are seen as a natural part of the learning
process, and t uses them to see whether further is necessary. St are encouraged
to self-correct (cooperative correction).
c) Techniques: Rods, self-correction gestures, word chart, fidel charts,
structured feedback.
A) Origin and definition: Community language Learning. The method we will
examine in this chapter is called Community Language Learning and advises t to
consider their st as whole persons, that is consider not only their intellect but
also their feelings, their desire to learn. This method is based on the more
general Counseling-Learning Approach developed by Curran.
b) Characteristics: T who use it want their st to use the L communicatively and
to take responsibility for their own learning. The t role is that of a counselor.
This means that t recognizes where theres a threatening in a new learning
situation, and he tries to easy the situation so that his st feel more confident. He
also encourages them to become independent learners. (T-L) In this method, the
lesson starts with a conversation prompted by the t (e.g. what did you do
yesterday?). St seated in a circle talk to one another in their native L and the t
helps them to translate into the target language. This is what he records. When
he replays it, it sounds like a fluid conversation. The transcription of these
conversations, written both in English and Spanish are used for exercises. During
the lesson, st are invited to say how they feel. Theres t-st; st-st interaction. At
the beginning torganizes the lesson and facilitates the target language. T also
builds a relationship among the st to debilitate their anxiety and embarrassment
and create a spirit of cooperation. Later on, st take more responsibility. T
encourage them to work as a community as they can learn from one another.
Within this method, culture is an integral part of language learning. Particular
grammar points, pronunciation patterns and vocabulary are worked with, based on
the L that st have generated (st create their material as they decide what they
want to say). At the beginning the most important skills are understanding and
speaking the L, with reinforcement through reading and writing. St native L is
only used at the beginning. Concerning evaluation, t tells st what she is going to
put in the exam, and before it theyre provided with a model of the activities.
Theyre assessed through an integrative test. If therere errors, t gently

corrects them
c) Techniques: Tape recording st conversation, transcription, reflection on
experience, reflective listening and human computer.

A) Origin and definition: Suggestopedia. This approach, developed by Lozanov,

was based on the power of suggestion (one person guides the thoughts, feelings,
or behavior of another) in learning, the notion being that positive suggestion
would make the learner more receptive and, in turn, stimulate learning. Lozanov
holds that a relaxed but focused state is the optimum state for learning. In order
to create this relaxed state in the learner and to promote positive suggestion,
suggestopedia makes use of music, a comfortable and relaxing environment, and a
relationship between the teacher and the student that is akin to the parent-child
relationship. Now we are going to analyze in more detail how the principles of
Suggestopedia are:
b) Characteristics: Within this approach, t hope that st learns to use a FL for
everyday communication. In order to do this, st mental powers must be tapped
and the psychological barriers learners bring them to the learning situation must
be desuggested. These two actions will help to activate students mind
(preconscious part) to accelerate their learning. The t is the authority in the
classroom. St must trust and respect her. Once st trust her t, they can feel
more secure, spontaneous and less inhibitive. (T-L) A lesson is carried out in a
classroom which is bright and cheerful. Posters displaying grammatical
information are hung around the room, and changed every two weeks. Music
playing while they are working. St also choose a new identity, in that way they
perform as if they were a different person. Dialogues used in class are presented
to the st in the TL alongside a translation in the NL and some notes on vocabulary
and grammar. After st have listened and read the dialogue, they read it over for
homework. Next day in class, they become engaged in different activities such as:
games, songs to help them to gain facility with the new material. Interaction
between t and st happens from the start. Initially, st can only answer with few
words of the TL. Later, they can respond more fluently and even interact with
each other. Within this method, vocabulary is emphasized and grammar is studied
but minimally. The focus is on how the L is used. As far as language skills is
concerned, theres emphasis on speaking and listening. Although st also read and
write. The native L is used, but as time passes, st uses it less and less. He uses it
to clarify vocabulary and dialogues. Evaluation is conducted on st in classperformances and errors are corrected gently with a soft voice as the emphasis
is on communication.
c) Techniques: Classroom set up, positive suggestion, choose a new identity, role
play, first concert (activate concert), second concert (passive concert).

4. Conclusion.
We would like to conclude this topic by stating that throughout it we have
presented an overview of the development of methods on language learning from
the classical ages to the present. And we have also realised that there is still a
constant preoccupation for teachers and linguists to find more efficient and
effective ways of teaching languages. This proliferation of approaches and
methods is a relevant characteristic of contemporary second and foreign
language teaching. Nowadays, some teachers experiment with new techniques for
more successful teaching, retaining what they know from experience to be
effective and they seek a balanced development of the four skills at all stages.
Moreover, they try to enhance the communicative competence of their students,
rather than only the grammatical one. This trend based on communicative
methods is the theoretical basis of our present educational system.
5. Bibliography.
For the elaboration of this topic we have consulted the following bibliography:
-Richard and Rodgers (1992). Approaches and methods in Language Teaching . CUP.
-Howatt (1984). A history of English Language Teaching. OUP
-Rivers (1981). Teaching Foreign-Language Skills. The University of Chicago Press.