CHAPTER-V

CARBON DIOXIDE FLOODING

Carbon dioxide is a colorless, odorless, inert and non-combustible

gas. It has a molecular weight of 44.01, which are one and half times
higher than that of air. The phase behavior of pure CO2 is given below.
CO2 is solid at low temperatures and pressures. The solid carbon dioxide
(dry ice) evaporates directly to gas at 78.5 oC and is used primarily as a
refrigerant. CO2 is usually transported as a liquid in refrigerated trucks
or tank cars when it can be utilized in small amounts. The liquid and
vapour phases of CO2 co-exist at the critical point: Critical point
temperature is Tc= 30.7 oC and triple point pressure is Pc = 73 atm. Below
the critical temperature CO2 can be either a liquid or a gas over a wide
range of pressures. Above the critical temperature of 30.7 oC, CO2 (pure)
will exist as a gas regardless of the pressure applied. However, at
increasingly higher supercritical pressures the vapour becomes and
behaves more like a liquid. Most CO2 pipelines operate in the supercritical
range. CO2 density varies with pressure and temperature as does its
viscosity and compressibility factor.
The viscosity of CO2 is 0.0335 cp at the critical conditions of
pressure and temperature. The CO2 is more soluble in oil than in water (2
to 10 times more). Water also is soluble in CO2 and must be removed by
drying to prevent condensation and corrosion in the pipelines. In solution
with water CO2 increases water viscosity and forms carbonic acid, which
has a beneficial effect on shale rocks (reduction in pH stabilizes) and on
calcareous rocks (dissolving effect).

CO2 has many uses. It is frozen to produce dry ice, it is used to

sterilize organic liquids, and it is used in cryogenics, foodstuffs
manufacturing, refrigeration, and beverage carbonation. In the area of
industry, CO2 is used in heat transfer in nuclear reactors, in welding, in
the manufacture of fertilizer and plastics, in neutralization of wastes,
and

in the

manufacture of

fire

extinguishers.

In

medical

and

pharmaceutical applications it is found in salycilic acid for aspirin, mineral

waters, and aerosol propellants, and it is used in cryogenic surgery. CO2 is
also used in pneumatic conveyor systems for coal and grain slurry lines, in
the manufacture of white lead, for oil and gas stimulation, and for tank
cleaning.

Factors that make CO2 an EOR agent

Carbon dioxide is highly soluble in oil and to a lesser extent in water. This
results in the following factors which contribute to enhanced oil
recovery:
Reduction in crude oil viscosity and increase in water viscosity
Swelling of crude oil and reduction in oil density
Acid effect on carbonate and shale rocks
Miscibility effects

CO2 Miscible Flooding

Dynamic miscibility of CO2 with light and medium gravity crude oils
is generated as a vaporizing gas drive mechanism. CO2 at appropriate
pressures vaporizes or extracts heavier hydrocarbons from the oil and
concentrates them at the displacement front where miscibility is
achieved.

CO2 Immiscible Flooding

Immiscible CO2 - oil displacement is best suited to medium and
heavy oils since the oil viscosity reduction is greater and more significant.
The CO2 flooding process involves alternating injections of CO2 and water
until a certain amount of CO2 has been injected, then water is injected
continuously. The water-alternating-gas (WAG) process is characterized
by an improved mobility ratio and additional recovery over that of water
flooding without CO2. In addition, the swelling effect of crude oil with
CO2 increases the oil formation volume factor so that residual oil behind
the water flood is smaller in volume at surface conditions.

Design Considerations
Before any calculations are made one must consider whether
displacement can be miscible or immiscible and whether flow is vertical or
horizontal. If the crude oil gravity is medium or light and the reservoir is
deep or of medium depth, then miscible displacement should be
considered. When the reservoir is of medium or shallow depth with
medium or heavy gravity oil the miscibility pressure, if it exists, cannot
be reached without surpassing the formation parting pressure. In this
case displacement has to be immiscible but will include the beneficial
effects

of

viscosity

reduction

and

oil

swelling.

The

horizontal

displacement developed in non-dip reservoirs with not so thick pay zone is

controlled by the mobility ratio of CO2 to oil. To avoid or diminish CO2
fingering, the process should probably use alternating CO2 -water
injection. Vertical displacement is a characteristic of pinnacle reef or salt
dome flank reservoirs and is controlled by the effect of gravity.

CO2 Sources
A reliable source of supply for CO2 is very important because the
gas must be available on a continuous basis in large volumes for long
periods of time between 5 to 10 years or more. The CO2 gas used must
have a purity of 90 % or more. If other gases such as methane or
nitrogen are present with the CO2, a higher injection pressure is needed
to render the gas miscible with the oil.
The best CO2 sources are naturally occurring high-pressure gas
reservoirs with high-purity CO2, mostly found while exploring for oil and
gas. In the United States the oil producing basins of Wyoming, Utah,
Colorado, and New Mexico have the largest CO2 reserves. The economics
of a CO2miscible project are improved if CO2 wells are located in the
same geologic basins as those that produce oil, since the CO2
transportation and injection pressure can then be partially supplied by
the CO2reservoir pressure.
Transportation of CO2
The method of transportation of CO2 from its source to the oil
field depends on whether the CO2 is liquid or gas. For small injection
rates of 1 to 5 MM scf/day and short injection periods, CO2 is liquefied
at its source and transported to the project sites by refrigerated trucks,
tank trucks, tank cars on rail, or in storage tanks located on barges.
Transporting the CO2 liquid at 0 F and 300 psi using existing insulated
steel containers is the least costly method of transportation. The CO2
necessary for large long-term projects is transported most economically
through a pipeline as vapour at pressures between 1400 to 2000 psi so
that two-phase flow does not occur.

POLYMER FLOODING
The first attempts to improve sweep efficiency in water-floods
were made by Detling. He patented a number of additives, including watersoluble polymers, to increase the viscosity of injected water and the
volume of the reservoir affected. Because of their low cost, the watersoluble polymers prevailed over other additives.
ALKALINE FLOODING
Alkaline or caustic flooding is another method by which oil displacement
efficiency can be improved. Despite the fact that alkaline agents are less
expensive, the benefits expected from alkaline flood have not been
confirmed by firm field results and still remain a possibility rather than a
reality. Indeed, the major difficulty is that the process appears to be
highly dependent on minerals on the surface of reservoir rock, which are
not

chemically

inert,

and

on the

crude

oil

and

injection

fluid

characteristics. Efforts have been made, especially in the last decade to

understand better the recovery mechanisms generated in alkaline
flooding. Since alkaline agents are cost-efficient materials, their use,
along with surfactant and/or polymer, could reduce the amount of highcost surfactant and co-surfactant required in micellar flooding.
MICELLAR-POLYMER FLOODING
It is well known that the water and oil will not mix until a third
component, soap or surfactant, that has affinity for both water and oil, is
added.. The micellar solution composition which assures a gradual
transition from the displacement fluid water to the oil displaced, without
the presence of an interface, is as follows: Surfactant: 10-15 % ; Oil:
25-70 % ; Water : 20-60% ; Cosurfactant : 3-4 %

OIL MINING, MICROBIAL EOR and ELECTROTHERMAL PROCESSES

Oil mining methods combine mining and petroleum technologies to

produce oil. This combination method can be achieved by approaching the
rock reservoir through underground drill sites or by excavating the
reservoir rock and then processing it on the surface by chemical or
thermal means to recover the oil.
Microbial EOR:
The concept of using micro-organisms to increase oil production as
a single-well stimulation treatment is more than 40 years old. The
treatment involves injecting potential bacterial species into a stripper
well (which produces less than 10 bbl/day) along with appropriate
nutrients. However, early field trials have not been conclusive. In
considering the feasibility of using microbial bio-metabolites in enhanced
oil recovery the concept of the mobility of bacteria and their penetration
deep within the reservoir in connection with water flood reservoirs has
been pursued, but few laboratory studies have been carried out to date.

Electrochemical Processes:
Electro thermal processes utilize electricity or electromagnetic energy
to stimulate heavy oil reservoirs and tar sands. The processes involve
heating of the formation to a temperature that will lower the oil
viscosity to the point where it can flow or be displaced by steam. This
temperature increase is achieved with electromagnetic energy produced
by using adjacent wells as electrodes. Reservoirs can also be heated by
radio frequency (RF).