Perceiving Affordances as Basis for Determining Cloud

Computing Needs in Language Teacher Education.

BY
Abdulmalik Yusuf Ofemile
School of English
University of Nottingham, UK
email: aexacof@nottingham.ac.uk

ABSTRACT
An organism's interaction with artefact, tool or context depends on its perception of the uses or
affordances. With pervasive ubiquitous computing, the development of web 2.0 and the emergence
of cloud computing infrastructure and service, language teacher education in low technology
contexts like Nigeria is facing a technological thresh hold. In Nigeria, this demands that teacher
educators need to have critical IT skills and the ability to explore how cloud computing can
improve Language Teacher Education. The study sought to understand Teacher Educators' and
Student teachers' perceptions about uses of cloud computing. This paper will however report part of
the study that aimed to understand Teacher Educators'(TEs) and Student teachers' perceptions of
unclassified affordances of the college portal as basis for identifying their ICT needs. The study
found that Interactive perception is dynamic and may indicate universal needs and peculiar needs
that reflect the diversity in background, training and experience. The practical implications for
language teacher education include the need for a strategic IT policy and a comprehensive training
programme. While future studies should widen the scope for representativeness.

Introduction and Background Information

This paper reports a study that tried to understand the role of cloud computing in the challenging
paradoxical context of Nigerian teacher education system. The paradox is apparent when policy
exists but reports still indicate that there are huge deficiencies in Nigerian educational sectors
(UNESCO, 2005/2009). Moreover, conventional tertiary institutions are called upon to expand
access through distance education without a policy on distance learning (Jegede, 2007). In
addition, there is a vague national ICT policy and a National Policy on Education crippled by
ineffective implementation (Durosaro, 2005).
The National commission for Colleges of Education (NCCE) through the minimum standards states
that the aim of language teacher education in Colleges of Education is to
Prepare students to perform competently in spoken and written forms of
their chose languages. Prepare them as competent teachers of their
chosen languages literatures in Primary and Junior secondary Schools.
(NCCE, 2004:2)

As technology is increasingly been used in education it empowers participants and

continues to affect the way people work, communicate, learn and succeed (Horizon
report, 2010). The report also observed that there is an increasing change in the
perceived value of innovation and creativity, the interest in alternate and informal
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learning and the way language educators think of the learning environment. Thus, this
paper will report part of the study which aimed to understand Teacher Educators'(TEs)
and Student teachers' perceptions of unclassified affordances of the college portal as
basis for identifying their cloud computing needs.

Literature Review

Perceiving Affordances and Cloud Computing

The theory of affordances was founded upon environmental or ecological psychology a field of
study developed by Gibson (1971) to understand the mutuality between people and their
environment. The theory was given a broader relevance by Norman (1986, 1999) whose work in
Human Computer Interaction (henceforth HCI) created a shift in focus and meaning of critical
terms. Gibson simply described affordances as the interaction between an actor with the
environment or surroundings of the actor itself.
Perception from an interactionist viewpoint believes that, an organisms action depended on the
relevant information available in a given context. This implies that as the environment changes an
organisms behaviour or actions change. For example, time is constructed not as a linear
measure of centuries and eras, but as the passing of events directly perceived by an organism
(Gibson, 1979:12). This means that people see time in contextual measures (Sadler &Given, 1987)
like soon after I got this job or right before I got married not numerically.
In addition, the concept of Mutuality (Gibson, 1972) or 'complementarity' (Sadler and Given, 1987)
holds that perception provides an opportunity for us to assess the level of engagement with an
environment (Layne, 2009) and supports user activities(Greene, 1991). It indicates that the
interaction between the environment and organism is dynamic (Hutch, 2001) and mutually affects
them either as positive enablers or restrictive constraints (Dainoff & Mark, 2007; Leonardi, 2003;
Hutch, 2001). This implies that the possibilities allowed or provided by an environment determine
our behaviour or actions. For example, what happens when we see a table? Our first thought might
be to sit but, we could also clean, write on, pass under, deface, or just turn it around.
Gibson believes that actors are organisms interacting in the environment and the enabling
conditions for this include both the properties of the actor and the environment (Gibson 1986).

While Norman (1988) stresses that the appearance of the device could provide the critical clues
required for its proper operation (Norman, 1999:39).
Secondly, Gibson holds that an object (table) does not have affordances of its own until a user
imbues it with a meaning for a purpose (Sadler & Given, 1987). While Norman (1988. 1999)
argues that the fact remains that the carpenter designed the table for seating as its real or intended
affordance. Another study tried to end this argument focused on the differences and overlaps
between intended and perceived affordances (McGrenere and Ho, 2000).
In summary, while Gibsons view of affordances is grounded on visual perception of the world
(Sadler & Given, 1987; Layne, 2009; Vicente, 1999) Norman believes that experience and training
influences the level of perception of and engagement with an object.
Cloud computing refers to the emerging Information technology development, deployment and
delivery model enabling real time delivery of products, services and solutions over the internet
while cloud services refers to the services, products and solutions delivered in real time over the
internet(IDC, 2008). However, Barnatt (2010:14) defines cloud computing as:
where dynamically scalable, device-independent and task-centric computing
resources are obtained over the Internet, with any charges (where payable) being on
a per usage basis. (2010:14)
For the purposes of this paper, cloud computing is defined according to Barnatt (2010:14) because
it is more encompassing and reflects the papers focus. Secondly, cloud ecosystem as represented in
the college provides the research environment where interaction takes place and perceptions may
emerge from.

ANALYSING USER NEEDS

Needs Analysis (henceforth NA) has been described as what the learner needs to do to acquire a
language (Bowers, 1980), a deterministic decision making tool (Queeney, 1995), and a systemic
learner-centered project development process constructed through compromise with learners by
finding institutional and social roles for them (Richterich and Chancerel, 1980). However, for the
purposes of this work, NA

 is a learner-centered process of data collection and processing

from and about the learner, Institution and Society that provides
information used to design, implement and evaluate learning
experiences to meet their needs (Ofemile, 2010:10)
NA has been used historically to identify and classify learner or user needs for example, Target
Situation Analysis (TSA) (Mumby, 1977) Present Situation Analysis (PSA) (Richterich and
Chancerel, 1980/1997) Learner-centered Analysis (Allwright, 1982; Hutchinson and Waters, 1987).
Mumby employed a two-step approach to establish the learners profile of needs and the relevant
aspect here is setting described as the physical and psychological (Mumby, 1977) and virtual
location in which the target skill is located like the clouds in this case.
Richterich and Chancerel's approach believes that needs are derived from actual complex
experiences in a system that is learner dependent. Of relevance here is the emphasis on a systematic
process, data gathering and analysis that makes the approach scientific and rational for NA.
In addition, learner-centered approaches and processes (Jordan, 1997; Allwright, 1982; Hutchinson
& Waters, 1987) focus on learner determined learning and the process. It is relevant here that they
emphasize negotiating with the learner when learner wants clash with learning focus and agrees
with Rhotons (2010) view that cloud computing democratizes knowledge and builds collaboration.
NA enables the systematic classification and analysis of needs thus Hutchinson and Waters have
target needs and Learning needs;(McDonough, 1984) has present and future needs; Bedri(2010) has
current or immediate needs and remote vs hypothetical needs; while Masahura(1998) viewing it
from the view point of ownership has learner needs, Teachers needs and Institutional needs.

OWNERSHIP
LEARNERS
NEEDS

TEACHER
EDUCATORS
(TEs)NEEDS

IT
MANAGERS
NEEDS

KIND

SOURCE

PERSONAL
NEEDS

Age; Sex; Sociocultural background;

Access to IT resources
outside the school

LEARNING
NEEDS

Previous IT Learning
experience; Gap
between target and
present levels of IT
knowledge (e.g. cloud
tools and their uses);
Gap between target
and present levels of
awareness, critical
online skills and
strategies expected of a
language teacher in a
low technology
context. Preferred
learning style

FUTURE NEEDS

Requirements for
future practice: Key IT
competences needed as
a teacher; as a student
in Higher education

PERSONAL
NEEDS

Cultural background,
educational
background, IT
proficiency; Access to
IT outside the school

PROFESSIONAL
NEEDS

Preferred teaching
styles; Teacher
training; IT training;
Teaching experience;
Key IT expertise &
competences needed as
a TE Access to IT
resources

INSTITUTIONAL
NEEDS

Socio-political needs;
market forces;
educational policies;
constraints (e.g. time;
budget, resources, IT
infrastructure)

Table 1: User Needs identified in Needs Analysis and ICT Literature

Table 1 above is derived from needs analysis literature (Masahura, 1998) and research on critical
competencies of an online teacher.
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Research (Dudeney & Hockley, 2009; Porter & Sturm, 2006; Gottschalk, 1995)indicates that
critical online competences desired, developed and passed on to learners by the TEs include how
to use assessment tools with learners; use synchronous and asynchronous online tools, give
appropriate feedback, motivate and encourage students at a distance. It also includes how to create
a positive online learning environment, manage discussions online, organize and monitor projects
online, retain students online, learn on a web based environment, and where to grow and update
their skills as new online technologies emerge (Sturm et al, 2009:375). Thus, needs are identified
by 'ownership'(i.e. whose needs); 'kind' (i.e. types of needs identified), and 'sources' (the sources of
these needs). This enables the researcher assessing needs to looks at each owner's self-perception
of needs, the needs of the owner as perceived by others and needs as objectively measured.

Research design and Methodology: Needs Analysis Framework

The NA framework used in this research is influenced by Queeney's (1995) prescribed NA steps,
Jordans (1997) views and Simpson (1996). The framework hopes to aid respondents differentiate
between interests and needs as well as identify their IT needs as they perceive them. Jordan's ten
steps provide clarity while Simpson's summary of needs and checklist analysis provides insights in
the setting of the research contexts. The framework is used to assess perception and triangulate
research methods relying on Long,( 2005) for effective management, comparison validation and
credible interpretation of different sets and sources of data as shown (fig 1)below.
Set the Context

Define the interest

Define the needs

Frame specific questions.

Administration and analysis

Figure 1: Needs Analysis Framework for checklist design (Ofemile, 2010:38)

Setting the context refers to stating the background to the problem from the perspectives of the
learner, teacher, and Institution/ 'other' (Simpson, 1996). Defining interest means specifying the
research focus which is assessing participants perception of CC affordances as used on the college
website. Defining needs means recognizing, putting personal and perceived expectations in context.
6

This leads to framing specific questions through focus and population specific questionnaire design.
The final stage comprises administration and analysis. Administration refers to data gathering
instruments like questionnaires, guided interviews, informal discussions and discussion interviews.
Analysis focuses on data classification, management and presentation. These might seem too short
when compared to Jordan's but, I believe that they are easy to use and adequate for my context and
purposes.

Study Population
This study population includes students, TEs and IT managers in the college in order to identify the needs of
the learner, teaching establishment, user institution and getting appropriate responses. Participants

identities have been anonymised for ethics and to ensure confidentiality.

Table 1: Instrument Log (Ofemile, 2010:39)

A combination of sampling procedures was used. The first being purposive at Institutional levels
FCT College of Education Zuba Abuja and the school of Languages. Then Stratified Random
Sampling was used in the selection of students from the general population and staff. These ensured
equity in representation and checked possible absenteeism (Long, 2005). The population for this
research is shown on the Instrument Log (Table 1) above.

Data Gathering and Analysis

I adapted Schutz and Darwing's (1983) steps as used by Cowling (2007) to gather data because
they triangulate sources and ensure reliability and validity of methods. And like Richterich and
Chancerel (1980) recommend, this study used surveys, questionnaires, content analysis, job
analysis and interviews to gather data with the learner at the center of the process in a system that
includes the society and all its institutions. The steps are briefly described below.
Discussion and Interviews were conducted with TEs in order to informally gather information
about their perceptions of the students IT/CC needs
The self-completion survey questionnaires used have three sections comprising respondents'
characteristics, subjects' felt needs, learner-centered needs, gaps in IT facilities and process oriented
needs (Vernon et al, 2007; Nokelainen, 2006; Bartram & Gibson, 1997).
While discussion questionnaires (Cowling, 2007; Richterich & Chancerel, 1973/1980) were
administered on students, oral interviews were conducted over Skype with a student, TE and ICT
specialist randomly selected and these were transcribed using Audacity for accuracy. The
interviews aimed to understand what students and TEs want from the college website and how they
feel the current set up affects the potentials of the school of languages. Oral interviews were
conducted using interview guides (Sadler & Given (1987) to monitor conversation, allow free
flowing dialogue and where interviewees mentioned issues that needed clarification follow up
questions were asked.
Information obtained from interviews and questionnaires were analysed using the content analysis
matrix (Bartram & Gibson, 1997:32-33). Content analysis was used to identify and describe the
intention, focus and perceptions of affordances by students and TEs. The process began with
focusing on themes generated from ideas expressed. The number of concepts was not limited since
they emerged continuously and similar ideas were grouped under one theme. The concepts were
interpreted in their daily everyday use except where registers were used and irrelevant Ideas were
discarded.

Findings: Perceptions Emerging

The analysis of responses resulted in some emerging themes among the research population. The
results from the students indicate four trends. They were able to identify gaps in the services
provided in the areas of slow internet speed, difficult access, poor management, high cost of access,
and power outages. They also identified successful activities like partial registration, research and
getting information. In addition, there were academic and non-academic activities that reinforce or
aid learning on the internet like emails, Facebook, chats, research and collaboration. However,
facilities needed included comprehensive course materials, Personal Learning Environment (PLEs),
online multimedia and chat facilities, high speed internet, college Facebook forum, college emails
and adequate storage facilities for students; office applications, online editors and access to free
quality journals for academic and research work
TEs were expected to express their opinions and perceptions on the Strengths, Weaknesses,
Opportunities, Threats, e-tools available and those required without limits. These were grouped as
themes from statements and questions. The TE perceptions are presented in content analysis matrix
(Table 2) below

Table 2: Content analysis matrix of TEs responses (Ofemile, 2010:52)

Themes emerging from table 2 (above) indicate that TEs perceived the college website as good for
student registration and record keeping. While weaknesses identified include lack of information,
poor network and access and one TE said I hardly have access to it. They however saw
opportunities for the facility to become better if it is made into an interactive learning environment
that is highly with free academic materials, supported with constant power supply, creating more
awareness and engaging in consultancy services. Threats include poor resource management and
inadequacy of learning facilities available like projectors and Interactive White Board (IWB). They
felt that they needed virtual meeting tools like Skype, chat facilities, dedicated staff emails,
facilities for virtual storage, uploading and downloading teaching materials.
The ICT specialists Hardware, software managers and website managers were interviewed and their
perceptions (Tables 3, 4, 5 below) were technical and managerial.

STATEMENTS AND QUESTIONS

Hardware
Strengths

Hardware
Weaknesses

Internal/
External
Opportunities

Internal/External
Threats

E-Tools E-Tools Needed

Available

Online
student
registration

Power supply

Regular Internet
access

Frequent change of
equipment

Email facilities

Record
keeping

Virus attack

Regular power
supply

Initial cost

Text, chat facilities

Weather

Updated antivirus Maintenance cost

Table 3: Content Analysis perceptions of Hardware specialists (Ofemile, 2010:53)

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STATEMENTS AND QUESTIONS

Computer
Apps
Strengths

Computer Apps Internal/

Weaknesses
External
Opportunities

Internal/External E-Tools E-Tools

Threats
Available Needed

Edu portal
results
uploading

Data
inconsistency

Regular training

weather

Email
facilities

Results
processing

Virus attack

Regular updating of
apps

Improper
maintenance

Text, chat
facilities

Database
admin.

Lack of IT
CPD

Considering end user Lack of security

requirement
Radius/
Bandwidth
tester

Table 4: Content Analysis perceptions of software managers (Ofemile, 2010:54)

STATEMENTS AND QUESTIONS

Platform
Strengths

Platform
Weaknesses

Internal/
Internal/
External
External
Opportunities Threats

E-Tools
Available

E-Tools
Needed

Online
student
registration

Shared
bandwidth

Regular
training

weather

Email
facilities

College PR
point

Virus attack

Regular
updating of
software

Obsolete
software
applications

Text, chat
facilities

Managing
student
records

Frequent
change of
ISP

Managing
Lack of IT
staff records/ CPD
information

Table 5: Content Analysis perceptions of website managers (Ofemile, 2010:55)

From the perceptions of ICT professionals (Tables 3, 4, 5) the following themes emerged. They
agreed that the Colleges ICT system is good for student data management and publicity but, it has
problems with virus attacks, shared bandwidth, frequent changes of Internet Service Provider (ISP)
and high capital outlay for initiation and maintenance. However improved access, regular training
and upgraded facilities provide opportunities for improvement. Conversely, problems like weather
11

and obsolete software and equipment halt success. They believe that the system needs virtual
storage facilities, multimedia editors, dedicated college email, instant messaging and chat facilities
that enable collaborative learning.

Discussion: Analysing perceptions as needs

The perceptions expressed were analysed as needs and I recognise that details tend to get lost in
generalizations as the voice of the majority becomes more dominant. Demographic information was
classified as personal needs in fig 2 and fig 3 below. They indicate that 97% of the students are
digital natives (born after the information revolution) while only 3% are digital immigrants (were
born before the information revolution).

Figure 2: Age, Sex and course Distribution of Students (Ofemile, 2010:45)

Figure 3: Student's exposure to the Internet (Ofemile, 2010:57)

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Fig 3 indicates that the younger ones (100 Level) have more exposure than older ones to the
internet. This background information form part of the students rich experience in the context and
may have profound impact on their perceptions.
Secondly, perceptions have yielded target needs (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987) and these come as
gaps or problems associated with the system like slow and difficult access, poor maintenance and
lack of information. In addition, learning needs (McDonough, 1984) aid successful learning for
students as presented in academic activities possible on the college website.
For TEs the needs are professional (Masahura, 1998) which include virtual meeting and teaching
tools, facilities for chats, downloading and uploading teaching materials. Similarly, ICT
professionals need regular training, increased supervision and periodic audit reports.
Furthermore, these perceptions yielded future needs (McDonough1984) or hypothetical needs
(Bedri, 2010). For the students it was comprehensive course materials and information, personal
learning environments, high speed internet and collaboration facilities. While for the TEs it was a
more interactive learning environment, training workshops and the establishment of a more robust
campus-wide ICT facility.
The institutional needs (Masahura, 1998) cut across the spectrum but resounded more with the ICT
specialists and they perceived the site as effective for managing student registration and
information. However, they saw the need for a robust and strategic ICT policy, efficient power
supply, increased funding, revenue generation through consultancy, upgrading obsolete
infrastructure and software, providing faster campus-wide access to the internet, ensuring data
integrity and regular training for staff and students.

CONCLUSION
This aspect of the study indicates that even with differences in age, experience and training,
interactive perception of an environment could provide the same opportunity for assessing the level
of engagement with an environment (Layne, 2009; Dainoff & Mark, 2007) thus, the needs
perceived could be the same as in the universal recognition of dedicated college email by
participants. However, findings also indicate that perception and needs derived could also be
influenced by experience and training (Norman, 1988) as shown in the diverse perception across
the population segments.

13

The practical implications for the college include the need for a strategic IT policy and
comprehensive training programme for the college. While future research needs to widen the
population base and scope to be more representative.

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