The Islamic University of Gaza

Faculty of Engineering
Civil Engineering Department
Environmental Engineering
(ECIV 4324)
Instructor: Dr. Abdelmajid Nassar
Lect. 23 Modified

Water treatment
Disinfection
1

Disinfection
The filtered water may normally contain
some harmful disease producing
bacteria in it. These bacteria must be
killed in order to make the water safe
for drinking. The process of killing these
bacteria is known as Disinfection or
Sterilization.

Disinfection Kinetics
When a single unit of microorganisms is
exposed to a single unit of disinfectant, the
reduction in microorganisms follows a firstorder reaction.
dN/dt=-kN
N=N0e-kt
This equation is known as Chicks Law:N = number of microorganism (N0 is
initial number)
k = disinfection constant
t = contact time

Methods of Disinfection
Boiling: The bacteria present in water

can be destroyed by boiling it for a long

time. However it is not practically
possible to boil huge amounts of water.
Moreover it cannot take care of future
possible contaminations.

Methods of Disinfection
Treatment with Excess Lime: Lime is used in
water treatment plant for softening. But if excess
lime is added to the water, it can in addition, kill
the bacteria also. Lime when added raises the pH
value o water making it extremely alkaline. This
extreme alkalinity has been found detrimental to
the survival of bacteria. This method needs the
removal of excess lime from the water before it
can be supplied to the general public. Treatment
like recarbonation for lime removal should be
used after disinfection.

Methods of Disinfection
Treatment with Ozone: Ozone readily

breaks down into normal oxygen, and

releases nascent oxygen. The nascent
oxygen is a powerful oxidizing agent and
removes the organic matter as well as
the bacteria from the water.

Chlorination

Chlorine can be added in gaseous, Cl2 or solid, Ca(OCl)2;

Na(OCl)
Cl2 + H2 O H+ + HOCl

Hypochlorous acid (neutral)

Ca(OCl)2 Ca2+ + 2OClHypochlorite ion (-ve charge)
NaOCl

Na + OCl-

Hypochlorite ion
The sum of the HOCl and OCl- is call the free residual chlorine
and is the primary disinfectant
Note HOCl is twice as effective as OClNote HOCl <--------> H+ + OCl (Influenced by temp and pH)
HOCl present at lower pH
OCl- - present at higher pH
The free chlorine species is related to pH. Therefore doses
must be increased to compensate for higher pH

Chlorine Reactions in Water

Chlorine mixed with water forms hypochlorous and
hypochlorite ions. The hypochlorous ion is a more
effective disinfectant and is formed in greater
concentration at lower pH values. At pH 7.3, the
hypchlorous and hypochlorite ions will be present
in equal numbers.
The hypochlorite ion predominates above pH 8.3
and is not as effective as a disinfectant. For this
reason, better disinfection occurs at a lower pH.

Forms of Chlorine
Cl2 can be liquefied and compressed and shipped to plant.
Calcium hypochlorite is 70 to 80 % Cl2 . Sodium hypochlorite is 3 to 15 %
Both hypochlorites are more expensive than liquefied Cl2 on an
equivalents basis. Calcium hypochlorite, or sodium hypochlorite, is more
commonly used to treat flows of 100,000 gallons per day or less.
Liquefied Cl 2
the cylinders used for gas or liquid chlorine are made of steel, and the
chlorine is under pressure. Operators must remember that the chlorine
cylinders are never really empty; some gas will remain in the tank. For this
reason, empty chlorine tanks must be carefully stored
- Chlorine is a strong oxidant and is toxic to humans.
- It is heaver than air and spreads slowly on the ground.
- Extreme care is required in the manufacture, shipping and use
- Hypochlorites are therefore recommended in areas of high population
Mechanisms of destruction by chlorine
- At low concentration by penetrating the cell and reacting with the
enzymes and protoplasm
- At high concentration oxidation of cell wall destroys the organism

Chlorine Demand
Chlorine being a strong oxidant will react with
almost any material that is in a reduced state
Fe , Mn , H2 S
Ammonia, NH3
Organic (humic, fulvic) acid form chlorinated
hydrocarbons carcinogens
Phenolic Compounds severe odour and
taste problems

Chlorine Demand
The above reactions are instantaneous, and no disinfection
occurs until the chlorine has combined with the organic
and inorganic substances present in the water.
The substances with which chlorine combines exert a
demand on the chlorine that must be satisfied before a
free-chlorine residual is formed. The free-chlorine residual
produces the most effective form of disinfectant and is a
measure of the hypochlorous and hypochlorite ions.
Chlorine also combines with ammonia that may be present
to form chloroamines. The chloroamines provide
disinfection, but the process is much slower. A longer
contact time is required for complete disinfection to occur.
The chloroamines are part of the combined chlorine
residual and will provide disinfection but at a slower rate
than free chlorine.

Destruction of chlorine residual by easily oxidizable compounds (H2S, Fe2+, etc.) a.

Formation of chloramines (weak disinfectants) .b
NH3 + HOCl NH2Cl (monochloramine) + H2O
NH2Cl + HOCl NHCl2 (dichloramine) + H2O
c. Destruction of chloramines and formation of nitrogen trichloride
NHCl2 + HOCl NCl3,gas (nitrogen trichloride) + H2O
d. Formation of free chlorine

Chloramines (combined residuals) do provide a longer disinfection contact

time and are very beneficial in the distribution system where
monochloramine, dichloramine, and trichloramine continue to kill
microorganisms and extend the effective contact time.
The total residual chlorine is the sum of the combined and free residuals:
Total residual, milligrams per liter (mg/L) = combined residual, mg/L + free
residual, mg/L
For example, if the free chlorine residual is 1.0 mg/L and the combined
residual is 2.0 mg/L, then the total residual is 3.0 mg/L.

Doses of Chlorine
Municipal potable water supplies are usually
chlorinated to provide a residual
concentration of 0.5 to 2.0 ppm.
Contact time must increase under conditions
of low water temperature or high pH
(alkalinity). Complete mixing (to also break up
floc) of chlorine and water is necessary, and
often a holding tank is needed to achieve
appropriate contact time.

 Points of Chlorine Addition

-Prechlorination Chlorine may be added to incoming flow to assist with the oxidation
of inorganics or to arrest biological action that may produce undesirable gases in
the sludge at the bottom of clarifiers.
-Prior to Filtration to keep algae from growing at the medium surface, and large
population of bacteria from developing in the filter.

Chlorination levels

If a system does not allow adequate contact time with normal dosages of chlorine,
superchlorination followed by dechlorination (chlorine removal) may be necessary.

Superchlorination provides a chlorine residual of 3.0-5.0 mg/l, 10 times the

recommended minimum breakpoint chlorine concentration. Retention time for
superchlorination is approximately 5 minutes. Activated carbon filtration removes
the high chlorine residual .

Shock chlorination is recommended whenever a well is new, repaired, or found to

be contaminated. This treatment introduces high levels of chlorine to the water.
Unlike superchlorination, shock chlorination is a "one time only" occurrence, and
chlorine is depleted as water flows through the system; activated carbon
treatment is not required. If bacteriological problems persist following shock
chlorination, the system should be evaluated.

Storing Chlorine

A drinking water system should always have a one- to two-week supply of chlorine
on hand, and many plants keep a 30-day supply. Calcium hypochlorite is more
stable than other forms of chlorine and may be stored for up to a year. Sodium
hypochlorite should not be stored for more than one month. If a system stores
more than 2,500 pounds of chlorine onsite, a risk assessment and an emergency
response plan are required.

A risk assessment requires that the facility determine the worst case scenario for
an accidental release. If the worst-case scenario could affect the general public, a
prevention program must be developed. The prevention program should include
identification of hazards, written operating procedures, training, maintenance, and
accident investigation. If employees from the system respond to a leak, the system
must develop an emergency response plan.

Chlorine tanks should be stored in a separate room and not connected to the
operation room

All doors should be open to the outside and windows provided to for visual
inspection

Safety equipment, masks with air tanks, chlorine detection devices and emergency
repair equipment should be strategically located

Testing for Chlorine

Samples of drinking water should be tested for both free and

combined chlorine residual.
Chlorine samples must be collected and analyzed immediately. No
holding time or sample preservation is acceptable for chlorine
samples. Agitation and sunlight will destroy chlorine in the sample,
so field-testing kits should be used when taking samples from the
distribution system.
Personnel should collect samples from several locations throughout
the distribution system, including the farthest point to ensure that
adequate chlorine residual is maintained. Chlorination provides
good disinfection to protect drinking water supplies from
pathogens.
For small drinking water systems, chlorination is the least expensive
form of disinfection available in either the gaseous, solid, or liquid
form. However, chlorine is a dangerous, corrosive chemical that
requires special handling, storage, and use procedures.