Transformer Modeling for Low-Frequency Simulations

R. A. Walling
GE Power Systems Energy Consulting
One River Road
Schenectady, NY 12345

Summary
This presentation is on models and model parameters for representation of transformers in
electromagnetic transient simulations for phenomena having frequencies far below the lowest internal
winding resonance frequency. In this frequency range, which extends up to a few kHz, the transformer
characteristics of relevance are winding resistances, leakage impedances, and excitation characteristics.
Included in excitation characteristics are saturation characteristics and core losses. In some cases,
winding and bushing capacitances can also be important in this frequency range.
The relationships between transformer physical design and model parameters are discussed. Various
modeling approaches are compared.
WINDING RESISTANCE
The dc resistance of a transformer winding is easily obtainable from the transformer test report or by
simple measurement. Series winding losses, however, are frequency dependent due to eddy currents
induced in the winding and in other other transformer components. A simple approach for representing
winding resistance frequency dependence is provided in the presentation.
LEAKAGE INDUCTANCE
The presentation describes transformer winding configurations and how they relate to leakage
inductance. A particular winding does not have a leakage inductance; leakage inductance is defined as
being from one winding to another. For a two winding transformer, inductance represenation is rather
simple. For three winding transformers, a star representation is often used. The node point of this
model is a mathematical artifice, and there is often a negative inductance from one terminal to this node.
Connection of the core representation to this node is often done by many modelers, but this
compromises accurate representation of saturation characteristics.
SATURATION REPRESENTATION
Transformer saturation is an important component of many low frequency electromagnetic transient
phenomena, including ferroresonance, temporary overvoltages during load rejection, and transformer
inrush. Many modelers are unduly concerned with the details of the transformer saturation curve. For
most phenomena, the critical transformer saturation parameters are the slope (air-core inductance) and
zero-current intercept of the saturation curve.

The location of the saturation representation in the transformer model topology is also important. This
will be related to the physical configuration of the transformer windings. For three-phase transformers,
the core configuration may also be important for some simulations. Three-leg, five-leg (stacked core),
five leg (wound core), and shell-form configurations are discussed along with their models.
Core losses can also be critically important in some low-current phenomena involving saturation, such
as ferroresonance. The components of core losses, hysteresis and core eddies, are discussed along with
the difficulties in their modeling. The fallacy of non-linear resistance represention of excitiationdependent core loss is also described.
Transformer saturation data is particularly difficult to obtain. Guidelines for estimation of parameters is
provided.
TRANSFORMER CAPACITANCES

While generally thought of as being important to high-frequency phenomena, transformer winding and
bushing capacitances can be of critical importance to phenomena such as ferroresonance. These
capacitances can also confound measurements of transformer excitation characteristics.
The various capacitances are described with respect to their relationship with transformer physical
design, and their relevance to various low-frequency phenomena. Sources of transformer capacitance
data are discussed.