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Abstract
285
Birgit Reissland
Netherlands Institute for Cultural Heritage
Gabriel Metsustraat 8
1071 EA Amsterdam
E-mail: Birgit.reissland@icn.nl
Bart J W Grob
Museum Boerhaave
Lange St. Agnietenstraat 10
2312 WC Leiden
The Netherlands
E-mail: research@museumboerhaave.nl
Eva Goetz
Kunsthistorisches Museum Vienna
Burgring 5
A-1010 Vienna
Austria
E-mail: eva.goetz@khm.at
*Author for correspondence
Keywords
papier-mch, anatomical models, 19th century, flaking, binding media, sturgeon glue,
corrosion, DNA-research
Introduction
In the 19th century, Dr Auzoux (17971880) made a legendary invention: he
developed anatomical models made from papier-mch that could be taken
apart simulating the dissection of a corps (Figure 1). In comparison to
existing models made from wax, wood or plaster, these new models had
several advantages: they were constructed from individual pieces that could
be taken apart, the models were less sensitive to temperature, wear and tear,
were easier to make and cheaper.
Worldwide several collections possess anatomical models made by the
factory of Dr Auzoux, for instance the Smithsonian National Museum of
American History (NMAH, Washington, USA), and quite a few University
collections all over the world1. In 1980 the Boerhaave Museum in Leiden
(The Netherlands) purchased a large collection of Auzoux models from the
zoological laboratory of the University of Leiden. In total, their collection
consists of 73 items: 25 human and 48 zoological models. The models were
in bad condition. (Figure 2) Their surfaces were covered with ingrained dirt
and showed severe flaking causing losses of the paint layers. On the contrary,
the interior surface of the models was still in good condition, revealing the
exquisiteness and precision of their original appearance.
In 2004, a Dutch government subsidy enabled a four-year conservation
program for the entire collection. In order to define a suitable conservation
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Production methods
Valuable sources for understanding how the models were made are a short
film made in 1986 under the supervision of Bernard Barral, the last director
of the company, and a note of his hand dating from 19902.
Papier-mch forms were prepared in two ways: the hollow pieces were
made by sticking torn strips of paper3 in a plaster mould, up to twelve layers
of thickness, with paste. The same was done with the contra mould. When
dry, the two parts of the papier-mch piece were sown together with iron
thread. A final layer of paper strips was adhered to cover up the fixing
threads. For the solid parts, heavy moulds made of an antimony-lead-tin alloy
in a wooden frame were used. First, several layers of paper strips were pasted
into the mould. On top, elastic papier-mch pulp was hammered down into
the details of the mould. This pulp comprised strips of torn paper, starch
paste, hemp fibre, chalk and ground cork blended in proportions that were
kept strictly confidential. The pulp was mixed in a sort of stamper beater
driven by a horse. The top-part of the mould was positioned on top of the
bottom-part and placed in a cider press to allow for drying.
The internal support of larger models consisted of an iron construction. It
remains unclear during which production step this construction was fitted into
the papier-mch model. In 1992, X-ray examination of a large male model
and a turkey by Richard Barden (Barden 1999) and a horse leg model
(Karlson 1998) revealed the inner construction.
For special effects, imitating e.g. lenses, lung alveoli and wings, other
materials such as glass bulbs, lichen (moss), and transparent membranes were
applied. The large arteries were added as braids consisting of ferrous wires
that branched out to thin arteries and veins, and were tapped into position
with iron nails. To cover the iron veins, hemp and coloured paper strips were
wrapped around.
In the next step, the models were delicately painted to give the illusion of
skin, flesh and muscles. While the film shows the use of an ordinary paint,
probably alkyd based, the sources mention the original use of pigmented
Russian fish glue. A final varnish layer was applied. After 1917 however,
wood varnish was used instead of Russian fish glue according to Barral2.
Mulder carried pigment analysis out applying SEM EDX. The results
however are inconclusive (Mulder 1981).
Removable pieces were kept in place by a system of straight and curved
ferrous pins and copper-alloy sleeves, or ferrous eyes. Smaller parts were
fastened with copper hooks and eyes. Hinges were made of two ferrous eyes
locked to each other.
Finally, little printed hands and corresponding numbers were pasted onto
the model. Directions for dissecting in correct order were provided through
a printed Tableau Synoptic. Most synoptic tables were dated, listed the name
of each piece and included numbers and letters to specify the anatomic accurate
nomenclature4. After quality control, the models though unfortunately not
all were signed and dated with pen and brown ink. It is remarkable that
available information on signatures to aid dating or authentication is negligible.
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Experimental
More than 100 Auzoux models, including the entire Boerhaave collection of
73 models, ca. 20 models owned by other Dutch institutes and 10 models
from the NMAH collection were assessed in normal light. Special attention
was paid to signatures and dates.
Samples for microscopic analysis were taken from two models: three samples
of a turkey (1856, 2 exterior, 1 interior sample) and three samples of a sea bream
(nd). The samples were studied under a stereomicroscope. Layer characterization
was done on cross-sections (embedding in Polypol polyester resin, grinding on
Micro-mesh silicon-carbon paper) on a Zeiss Axioplan 2 microscope with
incident normal light (up to 1000 magnification) and UV (Zeiss filter set UV
H365 with excitation BP 365/12, beam splitter FT 395 and emission LP 397).
Results
Visual investigation of the Boerhaave collection verified that only 13 models
contain a signature with a date. Close examination revealed a noteworthy
change after Auzoux decease in 1880. While the signatures before 1880 read
Auzoux doct. fecit anno 18.. (Figure 4), between 1880 and at least 19146 they
read Anatomie Clastique du doct. Auzoux 18 (Figure 5). To date the
remaining models, the synoptic tables were expected to be revealing since
they specified a year and described the depicted anatomical details of the
model. One of the three eye models of the collection contained a signature
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Figure 4. Signed and dated models made before 1880, signed with: Auzoux doct. fecit anno dato
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
(k)
(l)
large male, 1843, Universiteitmuseum, Groningen (NL), Auzoux facultatis medecinae parisiensis doctor fecit anno 1843;
ear, 1844, Boerhaave Museum Leiden (NL);
eye, 1849, Universiteitmuseum Utrecht (NL);
female, 1852, Boerhaave Museum Leiden (NL);
small male, 1852, American History Museum Washington (USA);
male, 1856, Anatomisch Museum Leiden (NL);
cross-section eye, 1856, American History Museum Washington (USA);
turkey, 1856, Boerhaave Museum Leiden (NL);
eye, 1858, Boerhaave Museum Leiden (NL);
eye, 186?, Boerhaave Museum Leiden (NL);
eye, 1870, Boerhaave Museum Leiden (NL);
male, 1873?, Muse de lEcorch dAnatomie Le Neubourg (FR)
Figure 5. Dated models made after 1880, signed with: Anatomie clastique du Dr Auzoux
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
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with an indecipherable date, while the other two were signed and dated.
(Figure 6) Only one original synoptic table of an eye from 1863 is present in
the Boerhaave collection (Auzoux 1863). It indicated five different
microscopic layers, only present at the undecipherable dated eye model,
suggesting that eye and table belong together. Comparative studies prove to
be an interesting approach for dating the models, as could chronological data
on the use of materials be. It became apparent that the colour scheme of the
models gradually changed to less transparent and more opaque, indicative of
a change of detailing the materials.
Microscopic analysis of cross sections revealed a characteristic multi-layer
structure of the samples: (1) papier-mch, (2) a thin layer of covering paper,
(3) one ground layer, (4) a transparent coating on top of the ground layer,
(5) superimposing, medium-rich paint layers of varying thickness, and (6) varnish
layer(s) with ingrained dirt on top (Figure 7).
Some cross sections showed more than 10 paint layers, consisting of
pigments sparsely mixed within the binding media, providing a deep,
translucent colour impression. Pigments were not identified with exception of
zinc white, the presence of which was proved in the ground and paint layers
due to its characteristic fluorescence.
Binding media analysis confirmed the use of a protein. Further DNAanalysis verifying if fish was indeed the protein source proved to be not
successful. The DNA in the protein adhesive was already too degraded either
during preparation or natural ageing (e.g. UV or light), the sample size was
too small, the samples were contaminated or finally, the protein source was
no fish, but for instance cattle. No non-proteinous material like shellac or
natural resin was found by GC-MS analysis.
Condition
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Conservation treatment
Surface cleaning was determined by the thickness of paint layers. Thin flakes
and few ingrained dirt were cleaned and polished with an eraser gum (Pentel,
zer4-1) containing calcium carbonate. A glass fibre pen was used on thick
flakes. Using iced demi-water as suggested by Barden (Barden 1999) to delay
swelling of the binding media during cleaning proved to be effective.
Corroded iron wires (e.g. blood vessels) were treated with calcium phytate,
a chelating agent effective for iron ions. Spot tests for iron ions (Batophenanthroline indicator paper) confirmed a decreased amount of soluble iron(II)
ions. The treated areas were coated with Paraloid B-72, 10% w/v in ethanol.
Re-adhering of flakes depended mainly on the size and thickness of flakes
and the separation interface. Preliminary tests showed that application of
several adhesives and application techniques was required for an optimal
result. The smallest flakes were humidified, covered with silicone paper and
gently pressed with a Teflon spatula. Smaller flakes were consolidated with
fish gelatine (3 per cent), larger flakes with Evacon R. Large but thin flakes
were re-adhered with sturgeon glue. The thickest flakes were secured with
pieces of BEVA film applied with a hot spatula at 120 C. On the female
model the flaking was consolidated with a mix of Evacon R and
methylcellulose7. It was of primary concern that the flakes dried thoroughly
under heavy weights of flexible lead-bags. Edges of flakes were coated with
coloured cellulose-fibre paste8 to prevent lifting.
Surface defects, due to insect damage or lost flakes, were filled with
cellulose-fibre paste.
Missing parts gave an impression contrary to the purpose of anatomical
models. Disturbingly lacking elements were reconstructed. Different materials
required individual solutions. Missing papier-mch parts were reconstructed
by modelling cellulose-fibre paste around a ferrous wire (female model,
fingers). To reconstruct missing membranes, several translucent materials
were tested: parchment, alum tanned gut, placenta, and peritoneum. The
peritoneum of a cow, prepared with potash by a parchment specialist and
stretched to dry, gave the best result.
The feelers of the silk moth were in complete disorder. A strand of
ferrous treads branching out in multiple little feeler-ends, were all wrapped in
painted hemp. 25 per cent of the metal cores was broken. A curled steel wire
(from the core of a guitar string) pasted between Japanese paper (Kozo
16 gr/m2) was used as a splint to connect the broken feeler-ends and restored
its elasticity. (Figure 8)
Large areas of lost paint posed a dilemma that depended on the
perspective taken: keeping the model authentic or improving the reading of
anatomical functions by retouching. The collection keeper decided for the
latter. Paraloid B-72 was used as interface between old and new pigment
layers. Re-creating the effect of multi-layered paint with just one layer was
challenging. Watercolours (Aquarel, Winsor and Newton) were applied with a
brush in a crosshatching technique, leaving the edge of the flake untouched,
creating a pleasant shimmering effect. To reduce the susceptibility to
environmental changes, most of the models were coated with Paraloid
B-72 (5 per cent w/v in ethanol) applied with brush.
Conclusion
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Acknowledgements
We would like to thank Dr G Veeneman, former director of Museum
Boerhaave for providing the opportunity to carry out the project. We want to
express our sincere thanks to Docteur Francois Dubosc (Muse de
Lanatomie, Le Neubourg, France), Kees Grooss and Paul Steenhorst
(Boerhaave Museum) for providing relevant information. We are thankful to
Klaas Vrieling and Marcel Eurlings (DNA Marker Point, University of Leiden),
to Henk van Keulen (ICN, Amsterdam), to Verena Mller (painting
conservator, Restauratieatelier Amsterdam), Z H de Groot (parchment
specialist, Rotterdam), Herre de Vries, Hilde Schalkx and Eliza Jacobi
(Opleiding Restauratoren, Amsterdam) for their collegial support. Above all,
we want to thank Emanuela Giaccone (Mooie Boeken, Amsterdam). With
her skillful hands the quality of the models was regained.
Notes
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2
3
4
5
6
7
8
References
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2th ed., Paris.
Auzoux, Dr. 1863. Tableau Synoptique de loeil complet, Paris.
Barden, R. 1999. Conservation Report, http://americanhistory.si.edu/anatomy/
preservation/nma03_preser_ct_1.html, accessed 10 December 2007.
Davis, A B. 1975. Louis Thomas Jerme Auzoux and the papier-mch anatomical
model, Rivista di Storia delle Scienze Mediche e Naturali. Review of the History of the
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Grob, B W J. 2004. The anatomical models of Dr. Louis Auzoux, a Descriptive Catalogue,
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ICN 2004, Report 3092: Papier-Mch anatomical models (Fish, Turkey) by Dr. Auzoux
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