Republic of the Philippines

Pangasinan State University

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Research No. 1
PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

JEMUEL G. MADAYAG
JULY 11, 2014

ENGR. MARVIN DARIUS LAGASCA

INSTRUCTOR

DEFINITION
Pressure is the amount of force applied normal to a surface divided by the area of that surface. As
an example of varying pressures, a finger can be pressed against a wall without making any lasting
impression; however, the same finger pushing a thumbtack can easily damage the wall. Although the
force applied to the surface is the same, the thumbtack applies more pressure because the point
concentrates that force into a smaller area.
More formally, pressure (symbol: p) is defined as the magnitude of the normal force divided by
the area over which the normal force acts.
p=F/A
where p is the pressure, F is the normal force, and A is the area. Pressure is transmitted to solid
boundaries or across arbitrary sections of fluid normal to these boundaries or sections at every point.
Unlike stress, pressure is defined as a scalar quantity.
The gradient of pressure is force density.

IMPORTANT TERMS
Absolute Pressure
The absolute pressure - pabs - is measured relative to the absolute zero pressure - the pressure
that would occur at absolute vacuum. All calculation involving the gas laws requires pressure (and
temperature) to be in absolute units.

Gauge Pressure
A gauge is often used to measure the pressure difference between a system and the surrounding
atmosphere. This pressure is often called the gauge pressure and can be expressed as
Pg = Ps - Patm
where:
Pg = gauge pressure
Ps = system pressure
Patm = atmospheric pressure

Atmospheric Pressure
Atmospheric pressure is pressure in the surrounding air at - or "close" to - the surface of the
earth. The atmospheric pressure vary with temperature and altitude above sea level.

Negative Pressure
Pressure is defined as force per unit area, and usually means the force exerted by a fluid, such as
air or water on a uniform surface. As such, it is always positive, but the term "negative pressure" is
often used in physics and engineering to refer to a situation in which an enclosed volume has lower
pressure than its surroundings. Any compromise in the divide between this area and the more highly
pressurized area around it would cause substances to flow inwards. It is useful for a number of
applications, including the prevention of oil spills, quarantine of highly contagious patients, and in the
household vacuum cleaner.

Standard Atmospheric Pressure

Standard Atmospheric Pressure (atm) is used as a reference for gas densities and volumes. The
Standard Atmospheric Pressure is defined at sea-level at 273oK (0oC) and is 1.01325 bar or 101325 Pa
(absolute). The temperature of 293oK (20oC) is also used.
In imperial units the Standard Atmospheric Pressure is 14.696 psi.

1 atm = 1.01325 bar = 101.3 kPa = 14.696 psi (lb f/in2)= 760 mmHg =10.33 mH2O = 760 torr =
29.92 inHg = 1013 mbar = 1.0332 kgf/cm2 = 33.90 ftH2O

Fluid Pressure
Fluid pressure is the pressure at some point within a fluid.
Bernoulli's equation can be used in almost any situation to determine the pressure at any point in
a fluid. The equation makes some assumptions about the fluid, such as the fluid being ideal and
incompressible.[7] An ideal fluid is a fluid in which there is no friction, it is inviscid, zero viscosity. The
equation is written between any two points a and b in a system that contain the same fluid.

where:
p = pressure of the fluid
= g = densityacceleration of gravity = specific weight of the fluid.[7]
v = velocity of the fluid
g = acceleration of gravity
z = elevation

= pressure head

= velocity head

Stagnation Pressure
Stagnation pressure is the pressure a fluid exerts when it is forced to stop moving.
Consequently, although a fluid moving at higher speed will have a lower static pressure, it may have a
higher stagnation pressure when forced to a standstill. Static pressure and stagnation pressure are related
by the Mach number of the fluid. In addition, there can be differences in pressure due to differences in the
elevation (height) of the fluid. See Bernoulli's equation.

The pressure of a moving fluid can be measured using a Pitot probe, or one of its variations such
as a Kiel probe or Cobra probe, connected to a manometer. Depending on where the inlet holes are
located on the probe, it can measure static pressure or stagnation pressure.

UNITS OF PRESSURE
The SI unit for pressure is the pascal (Pa), equal to one newton per square metre (Nm-2 or kgm1

s-2). This special name for the unit was added in 1971; before that, pressure in SI was expressed in units

such as N/m.
Non-SI measures (still in use in some parts of the world) include the pound-force per
square inch (psi) and the bar.
The cgs unit of pressure is barye (ba). It is equal to 1 dyncm-2
Pressure is still sometimes expressed in kgf/cm or grams-force/cm (sometimes as kg/cm and
g/cm without properly identifying the force units). But using the names kilogram, gram, kilogram-force,
or gram-force (or their symbols) as a unit of force is expressly forbidden in SI; the unit of force in SI is
the newton (N). The technical atmosphere (symbol: at) is 1 kgf/cm
Some meteorologists prefer the hectopascal (hPa) for atmospheric air pressure, which is
equivalent to the older unit millibar (mbar). Similar pressures are given in kilopascals (kPa) in practically
all other fields, where the hecto prefix is hardly ever used. In Canadian weather reports, the normal unit is
kPa. The obsolete unit inch of mercury (inHg) is still sometimes used in the United States.
Blood pressure is still measured in millimetres of mercury in most of the world, and lung
pressures in centimeters of water are still common. These obsolete manometric units of pressure are based
on the pressure exerted by the weight of some "standard" fluid under some "standard" gravity. They are
effectively attempts to define a unit for expressing the readings of a manometer. When millimetres or
inches of mercury are used today, they have precise definitions that can be expressed in terms of SI units.
The water-based units depend on the density of water, a measured, rather than defined, quantity.
The standard atmosphere (atm) is an established constant. It is approximately equal to typical air
pressure at earth mean sea level and is defined as follows.
standard atmosphere = 101325 Pa = 101.325 kPa = 1013.25 hPa

A rule of thumb commonly used by scuba divers is that one atmosphere is approximately equal to
the pressure exerted by ten metres of water.
Non-SI units presently or formerly in use include the following:

Atmosphere.
Manometric Units:
Centimeter, inch, and millimeter of mercury (Torr).
Millimeter, centimeter, metre, inch, and foot of water.
Imperial Units:
Kip, ton-force (short), ton-force (long), pound-force, ounce-force, and poundal per
square inch.
Pound-force, ton-force (short), ton-force (long) per square foot.
Non-SI Metric Units:
Bar, millibar.
Kilogram-force, or kilopond, per square centimeter (technical atmosphere).
Gram-force and tonne-force (metric ton-force) per square centimeter.
Barye (dyne per square centimeter).
Kilogram-force and tonne-force per square metre.
Sthene per square metre (pieze).

Conversion Table
pascal

MPa

bar

kp/m2

at

atm

Torr

1 Pa (N/m2) =

10-6

10-5

0.102

0.10210-4

0.98710-5

0.0075

1 MPa (N/mm2) =

106

10

1.02105

10.2

9.87

7501

1 bar (daN/cm2) =

105

0.1

10200

1.02

0.987

750

1 kp/m2 =

9.81

9.8110-6

9.8110-5

10-4

0.96810-4

0.0736

1 at (kp/cm2) =

98100

0.0981

0.981

10000

0.968

736

1 atm (760 Torr) =

101325

0.1013

1.013

10330

1.033

760

1 Torr (mmHg) =

133

1.3310-4

0.00133

13.6

0.00132

0.00132

Some popular pressure units and conversion factors

Since 1 Pa is a small pressure unit, the unit hectoPascal (hPa) is widely used, especially in
meteorology. The unit kiloPascal (kPa) is commonly used design of technical applications like HVAC
systems, piping systems and similar.

1 hectoPascal = 100 Pascal = 1 millibar

1 kiloPascal = 1000 Pascal

Some Pressure Levels

10 Pa - the pressure below 1 mm of water

1 kPa - approximately the pressure exerted by a 10 g of mass on a 1 cm2 area

10 kPa - the pressure below 1 m of water, or the drop in air pressure when moving from sea level
to 1000 m elevation

10 MPa - nozzle pressure in a "high pressure" washer

10 GPa - pressure enough to form diamonds

Some Alternative Units of Pressure

1 bar - 100,000 Pa

1 millibar - 100 Pa

1 atmosphere - 101,325 Pa

1 mm Hg - 133 Pa

1 inch Hg - 3,386 Pa

A torr (often used in vacuum applications) is named after Torricelli and is the pressure produced by a
column of mercury 1 mm high - equals to 1 / 760th of an atmosphere.

1 atm = 760 torr = 14.696 psi

Pounds per square inch (psi) was common in U.K. but has now been replaced in almost every country
except in the U.S. by the SI units. Since atmospheric pressure is 14.696 psi - a column of air on a area of
one square inch area from the Earth's surface to the space - weights 14.696 pounds.
The bar (bar) is common in the industry. One bar is 100,000 Pa, and for most practical purposes can be
approximated to one atmosphere even if

1 Bar = 0.9869 atm

There are 1,000 millibar (mbar) in one bar, a unit common in meteorology and weather applications.
1 millibar = 0.001 bar = 0.750 torr = 100 Pa

HISTORY OF PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

1594
Galileo Galilei, born in Pisa (Italy), obtains the patent for a machine to pump water from a river
for the irrigation of land. The heart of the pump was a syringe. Galileo Galilei found that 10 meters was

the limit to which the water would rise in the suction pump, but had no explanation for this phenomenon.
Scientists were then devoted to find the cause for this.

1644
Evangelista Torricelli, Italian physicist, filled a tube 1 meter long, hermetically closed at one
end, with mercury and set it vertically with the open end in a basin of mercury. The column of mercury
invariably fell to about 760 mm, leaving an empty space above its level. Torricelli attributed the cause of

the phenomenon to a force on the surface of the earth, without knowing, where it came from. He also
concluded that the space on top of the tube is empty, that nothing is in there and called it a "vacuum".

1648
Blaise Pascal, French philosophei physicist and mathematician, heard about the experiments of
Torricelli and was searching for the reasons of Galileo's and Torricelli's findings. He came to the
conviction that the force, which keeps the column at 760 mm, is the weight of the air above. Thus, on a

mountain, the force must be reduced by the weight of the air between the valley and the mountain. He
predicted that the height of the column would decrease which he proved with his experiments at the
mountain Puy de Dome in central France. From the decrease he could calculate the weight of the air.
Pascal also formulated that this force, he called it "pressure", is acting uniformly in all directions.

1656

Offo von Guericke, born in Magdeburg/Germany. Torricellis conclusion of an empty space or

"nothingness" was contrary to the doctrine of an omnipresent God and was thus attacked by the church.
Guericke developed new air pumps to evacuate larger volumes and staged a dramatic experiment in
Magdeburg by pumping the air out of two metal hemispheres which had been fitted together with nothing
more than grease. 8 horses at each hemisphere were not strong enough to separate them.

1661
Robert Boyle. an Anglo-Irish chemist, used "J"-shaped tubes closed at one end to study the
relationship between the pressure and volume of trapped gas and stated the law of x V = K (P: Pressure,
V: Volume, K: Constant) which means that if the volume of a gas at a given pressure is known, the
pressure can be calculated if the volume is changed, provided that neither the temperature nor the amount
of gas is changed.

1820
Almost 200 years later, Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac. French physicist and chemist, detects that the
pressure increase of a trapped gas at constant volume is proportional to the temperature. 20 years later,
William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) defines the absolute temperature.

Mechanical Measurement Technologies

1843

Lucien Vidie, French scientist, invented and built the aneroid barometer, which uses a spring
balance instead of a liquid to measure atmospheric pressure. The spring extension under pressure is
mechanically amplified on an indicator system. Employing the indicator method of Vidie, Eugene
Bourdon (founder of the Bourdon Sedeme Company) patented 1849 the Bourdon tube pressure gauge for
higher pressures.

Electrical Measurement Technologies

1930

The first pressure transducers were transduction mechanisms where the movements of
diaphragms, springs or Bourdon tubes are part of an electrical quantity. Pressure diaphragms are part of a
capacitance. The indicator movement is the tap of a potentiometer.
1938
The bonded strain gauges were independently developed by E. E. Simmons of the California
Institute of Technology and AC. Ruge of Massachuseffs Institute of Technology. Simmons was faster to
apply for a patent.

1955

The first coil strain gauges came up with an integrated full resistor bridge, which, if bonded on a
diaphragm, see opposite stress in the center and at the edge.

1965
The bonding connection of the gauges to the diaphragm was always the cause for hysteresis and
instability. In the 1960's, Statham introduced the first thin-film transducers with good stability and low
hysteresis. Today, the technology is a major player on the market for high pressure.

1973

William R. Poyle applied for a patent for capacitive transducers on glass or quartz basis, Bob Bell
of Kavlico on ceramic basis a few years later in 1979. This technology filled the gap for lower pressure
ranges (for which thin film was not suited) and is today, also with resistors on ceramic diaphragms, the
widest spread technology for non-benign media.

The Sensor Age

1967

Honeywell Research Center, Minneapolis/USA, 1967: Art R. Zias and John Egan applied for
patent for the edge-constrained silicon diaphragm. 1969. Hans W. Keller applied for patent for the batchfabricated silicon sensor. The technology is profiting from the enormous progresses of IC-technology.

A modern sensor typically weighs 0.01 grams. If all non-cristalline diaphragms have inherent
hysteresis, the precision limit of this item is not detectable by todays means.

2000
The piezoresistive technology is the most universal one. It applies for pressure ranges from 100
mbar to 1500 bar in the absolute, gauge and differential pressure mode. The slow spread of the technology
in high volume applications for non-benign media resulted from the inability of US-companies to develop
a decent housing. In 30 years, KELLER has perfected it at costs comparable to any other technology.

Types of Pressure Measurements

Pressure measurement can either be relative to a reference value or on an absolute scale.
1. Absolute Pressure Measurement: Pressure measured relative to perfect vacuum is termed as
absolute pressure. Perfect vacuum is a condition where there is no matter present in the atmosphere and
hence, nil air pressure exists in that region. Absolute pressure sensors have limited usage because it is
impossible to attain a state of perfect vacuum. Hence, sensors based on absolute pressure measurement
require strict specifications for precise outputs. Sensors based on this type of measurement are used in
barometric or altitude related pressure measurements.

2. Differential Pressure Measurement: In differential pressure measurement, pressures of two distinct

positions are compared. For example, pressure difference calculated by measuring it at different floors of
a tall building will give us differential pressure. Differential pressure measurements, typically taken in
pound per square inch differential (psid), are applied when high amount of pressure is to be measured.
These types of measurements are used for feed pressure monitoring purposes where the pressure with
which the fluid is flowing in a medium is monitored, so that homogeneity in the flow can be maintained.

Differential pressure measurements find an important application in monitoring filters in various types of
purification systems. They take the reference of the normal pressure with which the filters clean the fluid.
Whenever the filters face the problem of clogging due to contaminants, these pressure sensors give a
reading relative to the normal pressure. This helps in keeping the filter clean and operational.
3. Gauge Pressure Measurement: It can be defined as a subtype of differential pressure measurement
where we compare pressure at any point to the current atmospheric pressure. Gauge pressure
measurement is used in applications like tire pressure or blood pressure measurement. There is no
consistency in gauge pressure measurements because atmospheric pressure does vary with altitude and
hence its applications are limited to non-critical measurements.

INSTRUMENTS FOR MEASURING PRESSURE

Manometer
A manometer is a pressure measuring instrument, or pressure gauge, often limited to measuring
pressures near to atmospheric. Manometers come in two types: Analog Manometers and Digital
manometers.

Types of Manometers
Analog Manometers
An analog manometer is a U-tube shaped glass tube partially filled with liquid. It has no moving
parts and requires no calibration. Measurements are a function of gravity and the liquids density, these
physical properties make the U-tube analog manometer very accurate. An analog manometer can be used
for measuring the elastic pressure of fluids by balancing their pressure against a column of liquid
(typically, but not limited to the following fluids: Mercury, Water, Red or Blue Oils, Unity Oily, Red
Fluid, Blue Fluid, Green Fluid), and the difference indicated on a calibrated scale.

Although probably the oldest method of measuring low pressures, the simple U tube has much to
commend it.
If a U shaped glass tube is half filled with a liquid, e.g. water, and a pressure is applied to one end
of the limb, the other being open to atmosphere, the liquid will move to balance the pressure. The weight
of liquid so displaced will be proportional to the pressure applied. As the difference in height of the two
columns of liquid and the density are known the pressure can be calculated. Each millimetre height
difference of water column represents approximately 10 Pascals.
A disadvantage of the U tube is that the scale has to be constantly moved to line up with the
moving zero
Alternatively with zero taken at the centre point the scale length is halved with subsequent loss of
resolution.

Digital Manometers
Digital manometers are microprocessor based instruments that can be stationary or mobile. They
have a output capabilities that can be used for process control or transferring the measurement data.
Digital manometers are excellent for in-the-field measurement and process control tasks because they can
be networked.
Microprocessor technology allows for the pressure readings to be converted into velocity
readings when using a pitot static tube. In some instances the probe calibration factor may be inputted
separately allowing other pressure measuring probes to be used with direct velocity readout.
Several readings can be stored, with MIN, MAX and AVE functions. In some instances, duct area
can be inputted to allow direct volume flow measurement.

Barometer
Barometers are instruments to measure the pressure of the atmosphere. We think of air as "very
light", but in fact it weighs a lot when a column several kilometers high presses down upon the earth [and
us]. That pressure [force per unit area] is measured in a number of unit but the one you usually hear on the
TV weather is:" millimeters of mercury (mm Hg)."
The barametric pressure tell us the weight of air pushing down. This can be affected by several
things: 1. How cold or hot the air is -- remember hot air rises because it is less dense than cold air. Cold
air is denser and pushes down harder. 2. How high the column of air is -- the height of the atmosphere is
not the same everywhere, and changes by the hour. If the readings from several locations are marked on a
map, there is often one part of the map where all the readings are higher than on others. The line that
separates the high readings and the low readings is traced on the map and is called a "front". It is a "cold
front" if that line of demarcation moves approximately north to south. It is a "warm front" if the line of
pressure differences moves south to north.
Because atmospheric pressure changes with distance above or below sea level, a barometer can
also be used to measure altitude.
Barometers serve several very important purposes. First, knowing the atmospheric pressure at
different levels in the atmosphere allows us to track weather systems, such as high and low pressure, and
therefore make good weather forecasts. Secondly, a form of barometer, called an altimeter, allows
airplane pilots to know what height they are in the air; this is crucial to their ability to maintain the
altitude that they need to fulfill their flight plan, and to land in poor visibility (by knowing their altitude in
comparison to the altitude of the airport runway).

Types of Barometers
Mercury Barometer
In the mercury barometer, atmospheric pressure balances a column of mercury, the height of
which can be precisely measured. To increase their accuracy, mercury barometers are often corrected for
ambient temperature and the local value of gravity. Common pressure units include pounds per square
inch; dynes per square centimetre; newtons per square metre (the SI unit called the pascal); inches,
centimetres, or millimetres of mercury; and millibars (1 millibar equals 1,000 dynes per square
centimetre, or 0.75 millimetre of mercury). Normal atmospheric pressure is about 14.7 pounds per square
inch, equivalent to 30 inches (760 millimetres) of mercury, 1,013.2 millibars, or 101,320 pascals. Of the

many different varieties of mercury barometers, most variations arise from different techniques for
measuring the height of the mercury column. Though other liquids can be used in a barometer, mercury is
the most common. Its density allows the vertical column of the barometer to be of manageable size. If
water were used, for instance, the column would have to be 34 feet high.

Aneroid Barometer
A nonliquid barometer called the aneroid barometer is widely used in portable instruments and in
aircraft altimeters because of its smaller size and convenience. It contains a flexible-walled evacuated
capsule, the wall of which deflects with changes in atmospheric pressure. This deflection is coupled
mechanically to an indicating needle. A mercury barometer is used to calibrate and check aneroid
barometers. Calibration can be, for example, in terms of atmospheric pressure or altitude above sea level.
A barometer that mechanically records changes in barometric pressure over time is called a barograph.
Though mercury barographs have been made, aneroid barographs are much more common. The motion of
the aneroid capsule is magnified through levers to drive a recording pen. The pen traces a line on a graph
that is usually wrapped around a cylinder driven by a clockwork mechanism.

Aneroid Barometer

Mercury Barometer

Pressure Sensors
A pressure sensor is a device that senses pressure and converts it into an analog electric
signal whose magnitude depends upon the pressure applied. Since they convert pressure
into an electrical signal, they are also termed as pressure transducers.

Types of Pressure Sensors

Based on the type of applications they are used in, pressure sensors can be categorized into many
types. However, following are most common types of pressure sensors that have been widely used:

Strain Gauge Type

These sensors are similar to a wheat stone bridge in their working. In wheat stone bridge, the ratio
of resistances of two adjacent arms connected to one end of the battery should be equal to that of other
two arms connected to another end of battery. When the two ratios are equal, no output is generated from
the wheat stone bridge. In the case of a strain gauge, one arm of the wheat stone bridge is connected to a
diaphragm. The diaphragm compresses and expands due to the pressure applied. This variation in the
diaphragm causes the output in the bridge to vary. A voltage would be generated proportional to every
deviation from the normal balanced condition, so every single compression or expansion movement of the
diaphragm will produce an output indicating a change in pressure conditions. Since resistance change is
the main cause for potential difference, these sensors are also termed as piezo-resistive type of pressure
sensors.

Capacitive Pressure Sensor

A capacitor has two metal plates and a dielectric sandwiched between them. In capacitive
pressure sensor, one of these metal plates is permitted to move in and out so that the capacitance between
them changes due to varying distance between the plates. The movable plate is connected to a diaphragm
which senses the pressure and then expands or compresses accordingly. The movement of the diaphragm
would affect the attached metal plates position and capacitance would vary.
These sensors, though much ineffective at high temperatures, are widely used at ambient temperature
range due to their linear output.

Piezoelectric Pressure Sensor

Piezoelectric crystals develop a potential difference (i.e. voltage is induced across the surfaces)
whenever they are subjected to any mechanical pressure. These sensors have the crystal mounted on a
dielectric base so that there is no current leakage. Attached to the crystal is a horizontal shaft to which a
diaphragm is connected. Whenever the diaphragm senses pressure, it pushes the shaft down which
pressurizes the crystal and voltage is produced.

Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge

The Bourdon tube pressure gauge, named after Eug ne Bourdon, is probably the most popular
pressure sensor.
The Bourdon pressure gauge uses the principle that a flattened tube tends to change to a more
circular cross-section when pressurized. Although this change in cross-section may be hardly noticeable,
the displacement of the material of the tube is magnified by forming the tube into a C shape or even a
helix, such that the entire tube tends to straighten out or uncoil, elastically, as it is pressurized.

In practice, a flattened thin-wall, closed-end tube is connected at the hollow end to a fixed pipe
containing the fluid pressure to be measured. As the pressure increases, the closed end moves in an arc,
and this motion is converted into the rotation of a (segment of a) gear by a connecting link which is
usually adjustable. A small diameter pinion gear is on the pointer shaft, so the motion is magnified further
by the gear ratio. The positioning of the indicator card behind the pointer, the initial pointer shaft position,
the linkage length and initial position, all provide means to calibrate the pointer to indicate the desired
range of pressure for variations in the behaviour of the Bourdon tube itself.
Bourdon tubes measure gage pressure, relative to ambient atmospheric pressure, as opposed
to absolute pressure; vacuum is sensed as a reverse motion. When the measured pressure is rapidly

pulsing, such as when the gauge is near a reciprocating pump, an orifice restriction in the connecting pipe
is frequently used to avoid unnecessary wear on the gears and provide an average reading. When the
whole gauge is subject to mechanical vibration, the entire case including the pointer and indicator card
can be filled 3 with an oil or glycerin. Typical high-quality modern gauges provide an accuracy of 2% of
span, and a special high-precision gauge can be as accurate as 0.1% of full scale.

APPLICATIONS AND LATEST INNOVATIONS

Manometers
The manometer has many advantages in this age of technology. Containing no mechanical
moving parts, needing nothing but the simplest of measurements, the primary standard manometer is
readily available at modest cost. The principle of the manometer has not changed since its inception,
however great strides have been made in its arrangement and the application of the instrument to various
industrial measurement requirements. Whereas formerly the manometer was considered a laboratory
instrument, today we find the manometer commonly used to measure pressures ranging from as high as
600 inches of mercury to space vacuums.
Throughout history, mercury-filled manometer has been an very important device needed in the
construction of aqueducts, bridges, installing of swimming pools, and other engineering applications. The
said measuring instrument has also been implemented for a number of industrial applications like for
visual monitoring of air and gas pressure in compressors as well as in vacuum equipment and specialty
tank applications. The manometer is also necessary in avionics and climate forecasting. It principally
study the stress of fluid at the same time measure the speed at which a stream of air is flowing.
In healthcare field, the manometer is essential too. Healthcare professionals mainly use this
pressure measuring device in determining the blood stress of a particular person. The patients blood
stress can be identified by merely observing the movement of mercury in the glass tubing whilst the user
releases the air stress employing the handle valve of a . Other use of manometer in medicine is to monitor
the stress in the patients airways.
Along with technological innovations, designs of manometer are then improved.
A great deal of mercurial manometers are now becoming replaced with digital manometers
considering that of the hazards brought by mercury element not just to the environment but also to human
overall health. Mercury toxicity can have an effect on the central nervous method and other vital organs
of the physique such as kidneys and liver.

Since digital manometers are safer to use than mercury filled pressure measuring device, this
certain style of manometer for industrial, engineering, avionics, climate forecasting, and clinical
applications are now broadly presented in local marketplace as properly as via over the internet stores.

Barometers
In addition to forecasting the weather by indicating changes in atmospheric pressure, an aneroid
barometer can measure altitude. Barometers with this type of scale are called altimeters. Atmospheric
pressure decreases with altitude because there's less air pressing downward the higher up you are, so an
altimeter can measure altitude above sea level.

Digiquartz Barometric Applications

Accuracy, stability, and reliable performance under difficult environmental
conditions
are
key
performance
requirements
for
meteorological
instrumentation. Accuracy and stability are required to assure quality. Instrumentation
reliability directly affects data network integrity as well as operating costs.
Barometers employing quartz crystal resonator technology were developed and
commercially introduced over 28 years ago by Paroscientific, Inc. The design and
performance requirements include: (1) Inherently digital outputs, (2) Accuracy
comparable to the primary standards, (3) Highly reliable and simple design,
(4) Minimum size, weight and power consumption, (5) Insensitivity to environmental
factors, and (6) Long-term stability.
These barometers are used in laboratory and field pressure standards of
remarkable resolution, stability, and accuracy. Other meteorological applications include
use on marine data buoys, atmospheric wave and turbulence detectors, and altimetersetting indicators. More recently, the technology has been incorporated into automated
surface observation systems that estimate atmospheric precipitable water vapor in
conjunction with GPS (Global Positioning System) geodetic networks.

Other Applications: Paroscientific Barometers and the MET3 have been used in a number
of other applications where their Performance (<0.1 hPa) and Stability <0.1 hPa per year )
are important. Examples include:

Drifting Buoys: Numerous buoys instrumented with Paroscientific barometers have been
deployed by ships and aircraft to measure weather parameters under difficult
environmental conditions. The National Hurricane Center in Florida air-deployed three
buoys in the paths of Hurricane Louis and Marilyn. The buoys survived both storms and
provided reliable, accurate information even under 100 knot wind conditions.
Intercomparison Testing: An International Calibration Intercomparison initiated by the
Norwegian Meteorological Institute, DNMI, was performed on a Digiquartz Model 1016B
Barometric Standard over a 5-year interval. It was compared with two primary pressure
standards at the Paroscientific Calibration Laboratory. The Intercomparison Report shows
that the five-year stability of the device was -1.0 Pa per year (-0.01 hPa/yr). The
conformance (linearity) as found from 600 to 1100 hPa was +/- 1.0 Pa on a DH
Instrument Standard dead weight tester and +/- 1.2 Pa (Bell & Howell Standard). Both
results are 2-sigma values including measurement errors.
High Altitude Ballooning: Barometric pressure measurements are made at altitudes up to
130,000 feet where accuracy is essential for these record setting attempts.
GPS Surveying and Mapping: Elevation information is calculated through the changes in
barometric pressure associated with variations in altitude and coordinated with the GPSbased latitude and longitude locating system.
Missile & Satellite Laser Tracking: Improved tracking accuracy is accomplished through
the computation of atmospheric delays similar to the GPS Meteorology techniques used to
compute Precipitable Water Vapor.
Laboratory and Field Portable Barometric Standards: Portability and ease of use, in
addition to the high accuracy, stability and resolution of the Digiquartz Barometers, make
these instruments ideal asPortable Barometers.
Meteorological Measurement Systems: The Model 216B transducer is used to measure
barometric pressure in the MET4 and MET4A systems.
http://www.paroscientific.com/digibaroapp.htm
2007 Paroscientific, Inc

Pressure Sensors
The $2.5 Billion rover of NASA, Curiosity is all set to take the tiniest detail of the planet Mars.
The rover is designed to be highly precise in observing its ambient conditions including atmospheric
pressure and the gravitational force. For this purpose, its Instrumental Control Unit or the ICU has been

equipped with pressure sensors. These sensors will help in detecting the Dust Devils that are a
characteristic of the planet and will also detail with the concentration of various gases in the atmosphere
at various points. Lets have a look on what makes a pressure sensor capable enough to perform such
specific tasks and where else it can be used.
Since a long time, pressure sensors have been widely used in fields like automobile,
manufacturing, aviation, bio medical measurements, air conditioning, hydraulic measurements etc. A few
prominent areas where the use of pressure sensors is inevitable are:

1. Touch Screen Devices

The computer devices and smart phones that have touch screen displays come with pressure
sensors. Whenever slight pressure is applied on the touch screen through a finger or the stylus, the sensor
determines where it has been applied and accordingly generates an electric signal that informs the
processor. Usually, these sensors are located at the corners of the screen. So when the pressure is applied,
usually two or more such sensors act to give precise location information of the location.

2. Automotive Industry
In automotive industry, pressure sensors form an integral part of the engine and its safety. In the
engine, these sensors monitor the oil and coolant pressure and regulate the power that the engine should
deliver to achieve suitable speeds whenever accelerator is pressed or the brakes are applied to the car.
For the purpose of safety, pressure sensors constitute an important part of anti-lock braking system
(ABS). This system adapts to the road terrain and makes sure that in case of braking at high speeds, the
tires dont lock and the vehicle doesnt skid. Pressure sensors in the ABS detail the processor with the
conditions of the road as well as the speed with which the vehicle is moving.
Air bag systems also use pressure sensors so that the bags get activated to ensure the safety of the
passengers whenever high amount of pressure is experienced by the vehicle.

3. Biomedical Instrumentation

In instruments like digital blood pressure monitors and ventilators, pressure sensors are needed to
optimize them according to patients health and his requirements.

4. Industrial Uses
Pressure sensors are used to monitor gases and their partial pressures in industrial units so that the
large chemical reactions take place in precisely controlled environmental conditions. In oil industry,
sensors detail with the depth that the oil rig has reached while exploring.

5. Aviation
In the airplanes, these sensors are needed to maintain a balance between the atmospheric pressure
and the control systems of the airplanes. This not only protects the circuitry and various internal
components of the airplane but also gives exact data to the system about the external environment. Also,
particular levels of air pressure need to be maintained in the cockpit and the passengers lobby to provide
nominal ground like breathing conditions.
6. Marine Industry
For ships and submarines, pressure sensors are needed to estimate the depth at which they are
operating and for detailing the marine conditions so that the electronic systems can remain safe. Oxygen
requirements of under water projects are also regulated by the pressure sensors.

SUMMARY
Pressure is the amount of force applied normal to a surface divided by the area of that surface.
Mathematically, it is stated as:

p=F/A
where p is the pressure, F is the normal force, and A is the area.
Its common unit is the Pascal, 1 Pa = 1 N/m2. The pressure relative to absolute vacuum is called
the absolute pressure, and the difference between the absolute pressure and the local atmospheric
pressure is called the gage pressure. Pressures below atmospheric pressure are called vacuum pressures.
The absolute, gage, and vacuum pressures are related by:

pgage = pabs - patm

pvac = patm - pabs

There are three ways of measuring pressure: absolute, differential, and gauge pressure
measurements. Pressure measured relative to perfect vacuum is termed as absolute pressure. In
differential pressure measurement, pressures of two distinct positions are compared. Gauge pressure

measurement can be defined as a subtype of differential pressure measurement where we compare

pressure at any point to the current atmospheric pressure.
Many physicists and mathematicians highly contributed in the discovery and development of
pressure. This elite group of people includes the famous Galileo Galilei, Evangelista Torricelli, Blaise
Pascal, Offo von Guericke, Robert Boyle, Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac, and many others.
Also, different pressure-measuring devices have vastly evolved through centuries of studies and
research. From the ordinary manometers and barometers people used to work with, we now have the so
called pressure sensors as a result of technology advancements. These are devices that sense pressure
and convert it into an analog electric signal whose magnitude depends upon the pressure applied. With
these, touch screen gadgets came to life. A conservative estimate would be that there may be over 50
technologies and at least 300 companies making pressure sensors worldwide.
Whether we like it or not, pressure is inevitable and plays a vital role in our lives.