Moges 1

ToWhatExtentDidaVictorianandEdwardianRedefinitionofMasculinityAffectBritain's
ImperialisticMissionintheLateNineteenthandEarlyTwentiethCenturies?

Eyob Moges
Candidate Number: 002840-0032
Adviser: Mr. Joe Nelson
Focus Area: History
20 May 2014
Word Count: 3938

Moges 2

Abstract
ThisessayinvestigatesthequestionTowhatextentdidaVictorianandEdwardian
redefinitionofmasculinitysupportBritainsimperialisticmissioninthemid19thandearly
20thcenturies?.
Inordertoadequatelyevaluateandrespondtothisquestion,socialandpoliticalevents
willbetakenintoconsiderationthroughoutthediscussionwiththeintentoffindingunderlying
connectionsbetweenthetwo,thereforedefiningexactlyhowthisnewmanfitintoBritains
greaterpoliticalambition.Todiscovertheseunderlyingrelations,studiesofgreater
macropoliticalshifts,suchasthenotionofaBigEnglandwhicharguedthatBritainshould
takealeadingroleincolonizationwereresearchedaswellassubtlesocialshiftssuchaschurch
attendanceandtheroleofthechurchinthisnewVictorianera.
Thisinvestigationwillbedissectedintofoursections,firstdiscussingtheseveralaspects
ofthisnewVictorianmasculinityincluding:1)whowasthisnewman,2)whatarehis
religiousorigins,3)whatroledoessportsandphysicalityplay,and4)hisnationalistsentiments.
Theconclusionreachedfromthisessayisthatalthoughtheremaybesomedefinite
correlationsthatsuggesttheusefulnessofthisnewdefinitiontoBritainsimperialism,there
seemstobesomebidirectionalambiguitymeaningthatitisunclearwhetherthesubtlesocial
changescausedthemajorpoliticalshifts,orviceversa,andassuch,itisonlysafetosaythatthe
extenttowhichthisredefinitionaffectedtheimperialisticmissionisthatitdidnotdeterit,but
rather,supplieditwithgenerationsofyoungBritishmeninsupportoftheirnation.
(WordCount:279)

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TableofContents
Introduction..................................................................................................................................13
Investigation...............................................................................................................................315
WhoWasThisNewMan..............................................................................................35
UseofReligion...............................................................................................................510
UseofSportsandPhysicality.......................................................................................1116
Conclusion................................................................................................................................1617
WorksCited.............................................................................................................................1819

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EyobMoges
CandidateNumber:
Advisor:Mr.JoeNelson
FocusArea:History
20August2014
WordCount:3938
ToWhatExtentDidaVictorianandEdwardianRedefinitionofMasculinityAffectBritain's
ImperialisticMissionintheLateNineteenthandearlyTwentiethCenturies?
Introduction
DuringQueenVictoriaandKingEdwardsreignthroughoutthe19thCenturyandearly
20thcentury,Britain,duetothechangingpoliticalandeconomicallandscapeofthetime,
underwentagreatsocialshiftstemmingnotonlyfromtheturbulentIndustrialRevolution,but
alsotheexpansiveimperialismthatextendedconsumermarketsandsupportedtheburgeoning
economy.Besidestheeconomicandpoliticalideologicalshiftsthatoccurredduringthistime,
suchastherebirthofcommunismandgrowthofnationalism,onesocialshiftthatbecamea
definingfactorofthiseraforBritainwastheredefinitionoftheconceptofmasculinity.Victorian
masculinity,aswellasmodernBritishmasculinitieswereyokedtonotionsofsocial
responsibilityandcharacterizedbyenergy,virilityandstrength,refinedbymoralnotionsof
decisiveness,courageandendurance(Semple1).Granted,masculinityisanamorphousideal
thatisdifficulttodefinegivenitsindividualisticnatureduetononstandardfactorssuchas

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socioeconomicstatus,but,ingeneral,therewasashiftintheideaofmasculinityfromthe
philosophesleftoverfromtheEnlightenmentoreventheknightinshinningarmorofthe
feudalperiod,toanewdefinition.Theformer,thephilosophe,wasaprincipallyFrenchideal
thatfocusedonreason,secularism,individualism,andintellect.Thephilosophesofthiseraspent
theirtimethinkingtothemselvesanddebating,butneverreacting,whichwasadefiniteshift
fromtherobustknightsinshiningarmorofthepreviousera.Thisknightsinshiningarmorideal
ratherfocusedonphysicalachievementsanddutytocountryandGod.ThenewVictorian
masculinitywasratherahybridoftheaforementioned,creatingagenerationofChristian,
familymindedimperialistswhokeptboththeirmindandtheirbodyinthehighestquality,andat
alltimeswerereadytoactatamomentsnoticefortheircountry.
Thisisatopicthatisimportantbecauseitfirstofalldepictsthecontinuedrelationship
anddynamicthatexistsbetweensociety,culture,economy,andpolitics.Itshowsthatasone
changes,theotherstoowillbeaffected.Secondly,muchlikeothersocialstudiessuchas
womensstudiesorarthistory,thistopiclooksathistorywithamuchmoreholistic,
interdisciplinaryviewthatintegratespolitics,theory,literature,sociology,andevenpsychology
tothisveryimportantera.ByansweringTowhatextentdidaVictorianandEdwardian
redefinitionofmasculinityaffectBritain'simperialisticmissioninthelate19thandearly
20thcenturies?,agreaterunderstandingoftheperiodthatestablishedthemodernworldwould
beacquired.Thisunderstandingwill,inturn,enableustofurtherinterpretandmakesenseofthe
environmentfromwhichsuchdefiningmomentsasWorldWarIandWorldWarIIwereborne
outof,aswellasallowingustounderstandhowandwhythereissuchdisparitybetween
developinganddevelopednationsasaresultofimperialism.Granted,inthisdiscussionIwont

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directlybediscussingtheseissues,butIllbeanalyzingthecultureofoneoftheleadingnations
oftheperiodthatmadeitallpossible.Byinvestigatingthistopic,wecanfurtherunderstandthe
country,theculture,andthepeoplethatdefinedthemodernworld.
Toproperlyinvestigatethisseeminglyexpansivetopic,itisnecessarytofirstdefinewhat
thisnewimageofmasculinitylookedlike.Muchlikeapuzzle,thisimageofmanlinesshasbeen
brokendownintosmallerfacetsandcharacteristicsthatwillthenculminateintothegreater
representation.Ineachoftheseaspects,directcorrelationstopreviousnormshavebeenmade,as
wellasanattempttofindsourcesforeachofthesechangestounderstandexactlywhythis
definitionofmasculinitywascreated.Throughoutthesediscussions,exemplificationfrom
literature,art,andnotableindividualsofthetimeperiodwillbeusedtogeneratethegreatest
understandingofwhatthisnewdefinitionofmasculinitytrulyentailed.Furthermore,withineach
aspect,anargumenttohowitcouldhavepotentiallyaffectedimperialismwillbemade.Finally,
thisnewmanwillbeanalyzedtohypothesizeandconcludewhateffecthehadifanyon
Britainsimperialism.
Investigation:
WhoWasThisNewMan?
AsIalludedtoearlier,itisdifficult,ifnotimpossibletofindahardandfastdefinitionfor
masculinitygiventhehighlyindividualisticnatureofeachmanandhisownplaceinsociety.
Questionsofwhetheramaniswelleducatedorilliterate,religiousorirreverent,apatricianora
plebiancanallplayintohisversionofmanliness.Giventhedividingfactorsthatexistwithina
society,itisillogicalandincorrecttoapproachtheideaofmasculinitywithaonesizefitsall
mindset,forthatwouldonlyservetodisregardtheintricaciesthatexistwithinsuchadense

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subject.11Withthatbeingsaid,andhavingconsideredtheeccentricvaluesthatcouldbefound
withinapopulation,therestillexistedanideathat,althoughmayneverbeachieved,wouldbe
understoodasthebenchmarkorgoldstandardformenthroughoutthecountry2.Whetherornot
anindividualwasabletoperfectlyexemplifythesemasculinevalueswasnotimportant,but
rather,itwasunderstoodthatthesevalueswerethegoaltowardwhichallmenstriveto
implementintheirownlives.So,withthisinmind,theonlyremainingquestionsarewhat
exactlydidthisidealmanlooklike,andwhatexactlywerehisvalues,morals,and
characteristics.Manyhistoriansfocusonspecificaspectsofthisnewman,somequoting
nationalisticvaluessupportedbymilitaristicandimperialisticgoals,whileothershighlighted
religiousdevotion,andothersstilldescribeonlythephysicaldedicationsthatpermeated
throughoutthesociety,butImovethatitwasratherasynthesisofallthesevalueswhich
coexistedandintermingledtoredefinemasculinityandcreatetheholisticimageofmanliness.As
farasthephysicalityofthisnewmanPaulDeslandesexplainsinhisbookOxbridgeMen:
BritishMasculinityandtheUndergraduateExperience,18501920,thenewdefinitionof
manlinessdemandedagenerationofimperialleaderswhowouldbeaudaciousphysical
1 Oneillustrationofthisfactexistsinthecontrastingmasculinevaluesheldbythoseindifferent
socioeconomicspheres,withthoseinthelowesttiersrevertingtoavaluesystemsimilartothat
inthefeudalsociety,arguingthatintellectualabilitywasinconsequential,butphysicalprowess
andtheabilitytoprovideforonesfamilybythesweatofhisbrowwastrulythemeasureofa
man,whilethoseinthehighestsocioeconomicrankssawhardworksuchasworkingthefields
beneaththemandvaluedintellectualcapacities,andsittinginbetween,themiddleclassman
foundmanlyvalueinonesabilitytotrainforaprofession,beemployedaccordingtohisown
strengths,andprovideforhislovedones(Semple398).
2 ThisuseofidealisticexemplificationiscomparabletothewayinwhichtheancientRoman
RepublicpromotedtheideasofservicetoRomeaboveallelse,usingLuciusQuinctius
Cincinnatus,aRomanaristocratwhoservedasconsulanddictatorduringaforeigninvasionand
promptlyreturnedthepowertotherepublicassoonasthewarwasover,asthemodelcitizen
andhero.InthisRomanexample,itwasntimportantwhetherornotacitizenwasputinthe
samepositionasCincinnatus,butrather,itwastheidealsandvaluesthatwerepromoted,andas
suchwasthenarrativeusedinthepromotionofVictorianmasculinity.

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specimensinpossessionofathleticprowess(6).Inconsiderationtothereligiousangleofthis
newman,individualswhoembodiedanewmuscularChristianity,asopposedtotheprevious
evangelicalChristianmodelbasedonaltruismandbenevolence,wereregardedasfuture
guardiansofEmpirewhosesuperioritywouldprovidethejustificationforcontinualcolonial
expansion.Thisnewmanwasenshroudedinprinciplesofmilitarism,civility,andelitism
whichallculminatedintoanewmindsetofmasculinitythatfosteredasetofattitudesand
behaviorsthatfitintoaframeworkofimperiallegitimacyandracialascendancy(Deslandes32).
Withthisbasicdefinitionofmasculinity,itisimportanttodelvedeeperintoeachofitsaspects
andanalyzehowtheycameaboutandwhatpurposetheyservedinBritainsgreaterimperialistic
mission.
UseofReligion
Asthetypicalhistoricalnarrativegoes,EnglandsVictorianperiodwassubjectedtoandshaped
bytheblindforcesoftheincreaseinpopulation,theIndustrialRevolution,andtheturbulent
politicalforcesofthetime.But,therewasalsoanotherpoweratworkinthecountryalmost
equallydynamic:thereligiousrevival(Clark147).Asthewordrevivalsuggests,this
movementwasdoneinordertoresuscitatetheflailingreligiousculturethatpervadedthe
previousera.But,thisfalteringreligiouscultureexistedunbeknownsttothenation,asitscitizens
clungtothenotionthatBritainwasaveryreligiousnation.
Inthe1800sandearlytomid1900s,theprevailingmindsetofthetimewas,asInoted
earlier,thatBritainwasaveryreligiousnation.AsGeorgeClark,anEnglishhistorianwho
specializedinthenineteenthcentury,notes,muchpublicdiscussionwasreligious,oratleast,
pietistic,intone,andpopularliteratureanddramahadaratherobtrusive,ifsentimental,

Moges 9
Christianbackground(148).Furthermore,thepopularheroesofthetimefromLivingstonethe
Africanexplorer,toGeneralGordonthesoldierphilanthropist,toLordShaftesburyand
ChancellorGladstonewerereligiousmenfirstandforemost.Regardlessofhowdifferentthese
fourmenwerefromoneanotherandtherestofthenation,everyonewasalltiedtogetherbya
lifeofservicetoGod(Trevelyan563).Fromthehighestranks,tothecommon,unexceptional
discourseofthepublicforum,religionpermeatedintothesocialfibersofBritishculture,creating
apious,churchgoingnation.Atleastthatwaswhatthepublicthought.
ThetruththatBritainwasfarfromareligiouslydevotenationcametolightwiththe
religiouscensusof1851.Inthiscensus,conductedbythenationalofficeofthecensus,the
worshipperswhowenttochurchonSunday30thMarch1851
werecountedateachoftheservicesmorning,afternoon,andevening
Fromthesefiguresanestimatewasmadetomakeallowanceforthosewho
hadattendedtwice,orthreetimes,andatotalwasmadetocomparewiththe
numberofthewholepopulationItwascalculatedthatthepopulationof
EnglandandWaleswasin185117,927,609[people,yet]only7,261,032had
attendedsomeservice(Clark1489).
Ofcourse,therewereobviouslythosewhowereunabletogotochurchsuchasthesick,the
veryyoungandtheircaretakers,etc.andevenwhenmakingallowancesontheirbehalf,itwas
concludedthattherestillremained5,288,294peoplewhocouldhavegonetochurch,butsimply
chosenotto(Mann,Horace,andGraham624).
ThisresultwasprofoundlystartlingtotheBritish,andwhilesomesurelyattackedthe
reliabilityofthecensus,itwasgenerallyacceptedthat,onawhole,thecensuswasareliable

Moges 10
guidetothereligiousconditionofthecountryatthehalfcentury.Uponfurtherinspection,it
becameclearthatthereasonfortheselacklusternumberswasnotthatpeoplehadacceptedother
ideologiesorturnedtheirbackontheChristianfaith,butrather,themainreasonwasthatmany
peoplehadnoreligiousinstructionandnocontactwithanyChristianbodyatall(Clark149).
ThisrealizationpushedBritishchurchesintotherevivalthatwetodayassociatewith
Victorianism.Thisrevivalbecomesclearlyevidentbythestatisticsofchurchgrowthatthe
time.3Now,despitetheimpressivestructuralandstatisticalgrowthofBritainsChristiansects,
thequestionstillremainsastohowandifthepeoplerespondedinsuitwithequalreligious
fervorandfire,andClarknotes,inmanycases,firewasgranted(177).Thisrebirthnotonly
supportsthenotionthatreligionwasadefiningcharacteristicoftheVictorianEra,butalso
separatesanddistinguishesthisasadistinctlyVictorianidea.Withthisrevivalalsocamea
renovationofwhatitmeanttobeChristian,birthingtheideaofmuscularChristianity,which

3 In 1858 it was asserted that 3,150 churches had been built in the last half
century (11,000,000 worth was paid by voluntary subscription to support
these expansions) (The Present State Correction 168). Then, later in 1876,
it was noted that in less than 40 years 7,144 churches had been restored and
1,727 new churches were built and founded, all of which was supported with
25,548,703, more than half of which came from voluntary offerings
(Parliamentary PapersVolume 84 578). To support these new churches, the
numbers of Church of England clergymen increased from 17,320 in 1851, to
21,663 in 1881. Furthermore, to support this rapid increase in clergymen, no
less than 8 theological colleges were founded between 1836 and 1876 (Clark
170). This all speaks to the impressive support of energy, money, and
devotion Victorian England poured into the recovery of the Church. But, this
recovery was not specific to the Church of England, it affected the Anglicans
(who added 2,698 churches with 1,028,032 sittings), to the
Congregationalists (who added 2,330 churches with 767,968 sittings), to the
Baptists (who added 2,137 churches with 575,651 sittings), and especially
the Methodists (who added a stunning 10,182 churches with 2,029,298
sittings) (Halvy pg.340-341 and Religious Census 1851 149).

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directlyreconciledmasculinitywithreligionandirrevocablytiedthetwotogetheruntilthelate
20thandearly21stcenturies.
ThisnewideaofmuscularChristianityactedastheconnectingforcethatmadereligious
devotionacornerstonetoVictorianmasculinity.Astoitsorigins,thephrasemuscular
ChristianitywasfirstconnectedtoCharlesKingsley,anineteenthcenturyAnglicanwriterand
memberoftheclergy.ThemovementaroseduringtheIndustrialRevolutionwhenpeoplewere
flockingtourbancentersforjobsandstrugglingagainstthesqualor,pollution,andunhealthy
environsofcitylife(Nantais44).Afteritsinception,muscularChristianityspreadthroughout
thenation,establishinganesteemedrolethroughoutBritisheducation,literature,andculture;
furthermore,itplayedacentralroleintheconstructionofgenderidentitiesinthelateNineteenth
century(ManganandHickey671).
Yet,despitethefactthatthenewrevivalofChristianity,andtheideaofmuscular
Christianitywhichitthenbirthed,weredistinctlyVictorian,thequestionstillremainsastoits
effectsonimperialism.Forthis,itisimportanttonotethatthecreationofmuscularChristianity
wasdoneinisolationofanyimperialisticdreams,yet,oncecreated,itendedupbeingatoolthat
sometimessupported,sometimespropelled,butalwayslegitimizedBritainsimperialpower.
ThissupportisnotedinTheDevelopmentofMuscularChristianityinVictorianBritainand
Beyond,stating:
theintelligentsiasawtheneedtoprotecttheBritishEmpireandproduceleaders
thatwerewelleducatedandmanly(Haley).KingsleyandHughes,amongst
otherProtestantelite,sawMuscularChristianityasanappropriatevehiclefor
advancingBritishimperialism(Watson,Weir,andFriend2).

Moges 12
ThemostnoteworthysupportthatmuscularChristianityproposedtoimperialismwasits
emphasisonmissionarywork.Theimportanceofmissionworkisonethatiswellfounded
throughoutChristianity,butitreachednewheightsintheVictorianEra.LeonardElliottBinns
notesthisexactdevelopment,saying:
ToCarryouttheLordscommandtopreachthegospeltoallnationswas,for
thefirstdisciples,astupendoustask;butitsfullextentcouldnotbeknownto
manNowtheextentoftheworldthathastobewonisfullyknownButthis
onlycametopassintheVictorianEraItsawthegreatestadvancein
propagatingthegospelandthewidestdiffusionofthemissionaryspiritthat
Christendomhaseverknown(375).
WiththisextensivesystemofmissionsthroughoutEnglandandScotland,missionarydiscourse
playedavitalroleinthemoraljustificationoftheempire(Carey325).
Thisapproachofusingreligionasajustificationofimperialismisonethathasbeenused
fornearlyaslongastheideaofimperialismexisted.EvenasfarbackastheSpanish
Conquistadors,imperialistswouldcheerforGod,Country,andKing.Atleastinthemindsof
theearlyimperialists,byspreadingtheirempire,theywerecompletingtheLordsworkby
spreadingChristianity.Britainwassurelynoexceptiontothisidea,andattheheightofthe
VictorianagetheempirewasconceivedasonevastfieldforChristianenterprise,Englands
missionas[ChancellorWilliamEwart]Gladstonetermeditin1878(Carey325).Bystudying
theartandliteratureatthetime,itbecomesclearthattheideaofreligionatthecenterof
imperialismwasdeeplyrootedintheBritishsocialpsyche.InhisiconicpaintingTheSecretof
EnglandsGreatness,ThomasJonesBarkerfullyendorsesreligionastheheartofBritains

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imperialisticmission.Inhispainting,BarkerdepictsanAfricanchiefgratefullyreceivingacopy
oftheBiblefromtheyoungQueenVictoria(Figure1)

Figure1.TheSecretofEnglandsGreatness,byThomasJonesBarker(c.1863)
Barker,ThomasJones.TheSecretofEnglandsGreatness.1863.Oilofcanvas.
NationalPortraitGallery,London.<http://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/
portrait/mw00071/TheSecretofEnglandsGreatnessQueenVictoriapresentinga
BibleintheAudienceChamberatWindsor>.

Infigure1,BarkerdirectlytiesthegreatimperialisticsuccessofBritaintoitsreligiousbeliefs.
Althoughitcanneverbehistoricallyverified,itwasregularlyreportedthatthescenedepicted
byBarker[included]aconversationinwhichQueenVictoriadescribedtheBibleasthesecret
ofEnglandsgreatness(Carey324).

Moges 14
Throughallofthis,itseemsfairtoassessthattheredefinitionofVictorianvaluesaltered
masculinityandsetoffadominoeffectthat,intime,camebacktosupportBritainsimperialistic
mission.Britainfirstunderwentareligiousrevival,relocatingChristianityatthecenterofsocial
life.Withthat,Christianitybecameafoundationalelementofmasculinity,andunderwenta
rebrandingthatthenbirthedmuscularChristianity.Atthispoint,thevaluesofmuscular
Christianity,whichincludedactivemissionwork,helpedlegitimizeimperialismandthespread
ofBritishpowerthroughouttheempire.So,itseemsthattheextenttowhichthisaspectofthe
redefinitionofVictorianmasculinityaffectedBritainsimperialismisthatithelpedmorally
legitimizetheintenttotherestofthecountry

UseofSportsandPhysicality:
Inthewinterof1906,theSouthAfricannationalrugbyteam,namedtheSpringboks,
traveledtoBritainforatwentyfivegameseriesinwhichtheywonallbutthree.4Thesedefeats
especiallybeinginthewakeoftheperceivedpoorshowingoftheBritishArmyintherecently
concludedAngloBoerWarinSouthAfrica,acolony,rangawarningbellamongEnglish
commentatorswhointerpreteditasanomenofthefuturedeclineoftheBritishEmpire.Whether
ornottheselossestrulywereportentsofthedeterioratingstrengthofBritainthatspoketoits
futureinabilitytomaintainitsempireis,atleastforthisdiscussion,unimportant.Whatis
4 After their series concluded, the Springboks final record was two losses,
one tie, and twenty-two wins, overwhelming their opponents with an
aggregate score of 553 to 79 (McDevitt 1). Now, just one year previous, a
similar series took place when the New Zealand All Blacks lost just one of
their 32 game stint in Britain, then outscoring their British opponents 830 to
39 (2). Within a year, two teams from the colonies came to the Britainthe
nation Sir Charles Tennyson identified as the mother of modern sports
[who] taught the world to play and defeated the colonial power rather
fittingly (Renson 5)

Moges 15
importantisthatitwasperceivedtomeanthesethings.Theveryfactthattheseresounding
defeats[led]theBritishmedia...toquestionwhethereliteBritishmenhaddegenerated,andifso,
whatthatdegenerationwouldmeanforthefutureoftheEmpiredirectlyspeakstothe
correlationheldbetweensportsandphysicalitywithvitalityandmanliness.Thesecultural
associationsbetweenthevitalityoftheBritishmenandtheirsportscompetenceclearlydepict
thenationalevaluationofsportsasacentralpointinmanlinessandmanhood.PatrickMcDevitt
continuesonthispointbynotinginhisbookMaytheBestManWin,thatthephrasefromwhich
hisbooktakesitsnamewasnotsimplyapaeantofairplayandcleansport.Itwasalsoan
expressionofaworldviewwhichheldthatparticipationinandsuccessatathleticendeavorswere
primarymeasureoftheworkthofamanasaman(McDevitt2).Sosuccessinsportsnotonly
spoketophysicalprowess,butalsotoonesqualityasamanandhisabilitytofulfillthecallof
manhood.Beyondjustthemusingsofafewhistorians,thisviewmakessensegiventhegreater
historicalcontextofthetime.WiththeriseofSocialDarwinismclearlydescribingthefateof
thosewhowerenotthefittest,thepublichadaninvestedinterestinensuringthatitsmenthe
sameoneswhowouldfightinwarsandcarryBritainsimperialisticmissionontheirbackwere
ofthehighestphysicalcaliber,andwhenitappearedthattheydidnotreachthisstandard,many
wereconcernedaboutthesurvivaloftheEmpire.Yet,afewquestionsremain,namely:1)was
sportandphysicalityadistinctlynewaspectofthedefinitionofmanliness,and2)howcould/did
thisaffectimperialism.
First,delvingdeeperintotheassociationbetweensportsandmanliness,thequestionof
whetherthecentralityofsportswasanewaspectofmasculinityorwhetheritwasratheratrite
notionleftoverfrompreviouserasstillneedstobedecided.Tomany,theconnectionbetween

Moges 16
manlinessandsportsmayseemobvious,especiallysinceitstillexiststoday;however,
McDevittnotes,sportandmasculinityarenotnecessarilyinherentlyconnectedandthemeaning
attachedtoconstructionofathleticmasculinityarenotselfevident(2).Oneonlyhastolookat
theprominenceofsportscultureinpopularwomanhoodtounderstandthehistoricalinclusivity
ofsportsbeyondmanhood.5Sincesportswaspopularinbothmensandwomensculture,it
couldntpossiblybeafacetofmasculinity,butrather,justapopularpastime.Itwasonlyover
thecourseofthenineteenthcenturythat,alongsidethedomesticationofwomenandremovalof
womenfromthepublicsphere,werewomanpushedoutoftheworldofrecreationalsports,
allowingforittobecomeasolelymasculineendeavor.Withthistransformation,sportsbecamea
definitedifferencebetweengendersthatunderlinedwhatitmeanttobeaman.Simply,aman
becamesomeonewhotookpartinsports.Granted,physicalitywasatraitthathasbeenrevered
formuchofEnglishhistory,yet,thatwasonlybecauseitfollowedtheideaofhealthyliving.It
wasonlyduringthemidtolate1800sthatsportsgainedamasculinefacettoitsappeal.
Anotherdevelopmentthatarguesthatsportswasspecificallypartofaredefinitionof
manlinessoccurredintheEighteenthcenturybeforetheVictorianera,withtwomovementsthat
evensoughttocondemnandremovesports:utilitarianismandevangelicalism.Utilitarianism
believedthatthegreatestgoodishappinessforthegreatestnumberofpeople.Inordertoachieve
thishappiness,utilitarianismadvocatedforastrictmoralcodeofselfcontrol,arguingthathard
workratherthanplay[would]producehappinessinthedistantfutureDuringtherapid
5 For example, in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, non elite
women took part in the free-for-alls that comprised various popular
traditional games of football played throughout Europe. Furthermore, women
also played bat and ball games (i.e. cricket) and ran competitive races as
well. Even in the upper and middle class, women challenged and fought with
other women to settle disputes of honor, while others engaged in archery.

Moges 17
industrializationthatdefinedthe1700s,thenewlyformedindustrialmiddleclass,whowanted
hardworking,disciplinedemployeesworkingintheirfactories,readilyandwidelyacceptedthis
utilitariancodeofselfcontrol6(Anderson26).Asforevangelicalism,areligiousmovement
foundedinthemideighteenthcenturybytheAnglicanclergymanJohnWesley,onestringent
beliefthatactedasacentraldogmawasthenotionthatfrivolities,suchasgamesandsport,
shouldbepurgedfromoneslifetomakeroomforatotaldedicationtospreadingGodsWord.
Giventhatthesewerebothpopularideologiesthatbothdenouncedsports,thenitwouldbe
completelycontradictorytobelievedthatthesameculturethatvaluedtheseideologieswould
alsoholdsportsasacentralpointofmanliness;therefore,entailingthatthecentralityofsportsto
manlinesswasadevelopmentthatoccurredafterthe1700s,specificallyintheVictorianperiod
oftheNineteenthcentury.Essentially,itseemsthatduringtheVictorianperiod,achangemust
haveoccurredthatallowedpeopletomoveawayfromtheidealsofutilitarianismand
evangelicalismtoallowsportstoincreaseinpopularity,whichmakessensegiventhatduringthe
midtolateNineteenthcentury,theseideologiesunderwentasharpdecline,thereforeallowing
Victorianidealstomoveawayfromtherestrictivetenetsofutilitarianismandevangelicalism.
Thedeclineinthesephilosophiescoincidedwithanincreaseinleisuretimeasaresultofthe
plannedandstructuredworkscheduleusedbythenewlyformedindustrialmiddleclass.With
thisfreetime,recreationalactivitiessuchassportscouldgrowinstatusandbecomeafacetof
popularmasculineculturesincewomenwerenolongeracceptedinsports.Itseemsthatthe
declineofutilitarianismandevangelicalismaftertheEighteenthcenturycreatedacultural
6 This became popular during the rapid industrialization that defined the
1700s as the newly formed industrial middle class of factory owners readily
and widely accepted this utilitarian code of self control because it would
produce hardworking, disciplined employees to work in their factories
(Anderson 26).

Moges 18
vacuumthatallowedforthenewvaluesofsportsandphysicalitytogrowinpopularityand
becomeacentralaspectofVictorianideals.
NowthatwehaveestablishedthatsportwasaVictorianvaluethatwasconsidered
necessarytoensurethevitalityoftheempire,theonlyquestionthatremainsishowcould/did
thisaffectimperialism?Initially,itseemsthattheresasenseofbidirectionalambiguityasto
whetherimperialismsupportedsportsorviceversa,butthroughanalysis,itseemsthat
imperialismwasinitiallyacrutchthatsupportedsports,buteventually,sportstoobecamea
supporttoimperialism.Ingeneral,theBritishdevelopmentofmodernsportswascloselytiedto
idealsofmilitarism,imperialismandhegemonicformsofmasculinity,clearlydemonstrated
throughattemptstocultivatemuscularChristiangentlemen.Thisrationalebelievedthatasmen
learnedthestruggleofcompetitionthroughsport,itwouldpreparethemforthestruggleof
militarycampaigns.Asecondrationalwasthattheaddedemphasisonphysicalfitness,which
grewfromnewevolutionaryidealssuchassurvivalofthefittest,servedasascientificbasisto
supportBritishimperialistambitions(Renson8,GiulianottiandArmstrong382).Essentially,
sincesportscreatedmorephysicallyadeptmen,andsincemorephysicallyfitmenwasnecessary
forthesurvivaloftheEnglishracebasedonevolutionaryideals,thensportswasindirectly
necessaryforthesurvivaloftheEmpire.Althoughthiswastheinitialrelationshipbetween
imperialismandsports,sportseventuallygrewtoapointwhereit,inturn,supported
imperialism.Sportsbroughttogetherandblendedbiological,political,andsocialcompetition,
allowingforimperialistpowerstofightwithoneanother,aswellaswiththenativepeoplein
theirempire,withoutgoingtowar.RichardGiulianottiandGaryArmstronghitonthispointin
theirarticleSport,theMilitaryandPeacemaking:historyandpossibilitiesstating:

Moges 19
Duringthisperiodsportwasakeyelementwithinwidercolonialprojects,in
theEuropean(especially,British)colonisationofland,andthe
exterminationandcontrolofindigenouspeoplesacrossnonEuropean
territories.Inthiswaymodernsportplayedkeypoliticoideologicaland
socioculturalrolesintheconstructionofEmpire(382).
Althoughitisunauthenticatedandcouldpossiblybefictitiouswhetherornothe
actuallysaidthis,theDukeofWellingtonwascreditedwithdeclaringoftheEton
oneoftheschoolinwhichmodernsportswascreatedplayingfields,Itwashere
thattheheBattleofWaterloowaswon,astatementthat,althoughmadebeforethe
inceptionofVictorianmasculinity,cametoepitomizethepresidingmindsetin
Britishimperialideology.Itspecificallyarguedthatsportingpracticescontributeand
definemasculinemilitarypedagogy(Renson10).Essentially,whatsportscametobe
knownaswasanotherformofwarfare,onedonewithoutshellsandgunfire,so
peoplebelievedthatasanationssportsteamsucceeded,sotoowillitsmilitary.
Warfarebecameequatedwithrugbymatches,andifanationsteamwon,thenthere
wasnoreasontothinkthattheirarmywouldntaswell.

Conclusion:
ThisdiscussionwasmeanttoinvestigatethequestionTowhatextentdidaVictorianand
EdwardianredefinitionofmasculinitysupportBritainsimperialisticmissioninthemid
19thandearly20thcenturies?Inansweringthisquestion,Ispecificallyfocusedonreligious
devotionandsportandphysicalitytoleadmetoaconclusion.Althoughtherearecertainlyother

Moges 20
aspectsofthisredefinition(i.e.morality,militarism,andnationalism)theireffectsseemedeither
slightincomparisontothechosencriteria,orIdeemedthattheyoriginallystemmedfromoneof
thechosenfacets.Ininvestigatingthisquestionandstudyingtheevidence,theconclusionthatI
havebeenleftwithissimplythattheVictorianandEdwardianredefinitionofmasculinity
legitimizedandendorsedmanyimperialisticideals.Therfore,theextenttowhichitaffected
Britishimperialismwascertainlynoteworthyandnotable,notonlybecauseitillustrateshowthe
socialaspectofgenderrolessupportedimperialism,butitalsoexplainswhypeoplesupported
imperialismandlendsitselftoexplainingthementalityofthetime.
IfwelookatthegrowthofChristianityanditsinfusionwithmasculinity,weseethatit
supportedimperialismbyofferingtheargumentthatextendingtheempireaidsandencourages
missionarywork.Withthisinmind,imperialismwasnotonlytolerable,butalsonecessaryto
completetheLordscommand.Asfortheemphasisonsportsandphysicality,itsupported
imperialismbynotonlycreatinggenerationsofhealthymencapableofgoingtowar,butalsoby
affirmingtheidealsofstruggleandcompetitionasvaluablequalities,qualitiesthatcaneasilybe
refiguredtofitamilitaristicmold.
Onequestionthatremains,anditseemsitisimpossibletoanswer,isifthisredefinition
ofmasculinitywasonethatwasorchestratedbypoliticalleaderssuchastheQueenorKingor
leadersoftheHouseofCommonslikeBenjaminDisraeliandWilliamGladstone.Apointof
viewsuchasthisseemstolenditselftoaconspiracytheoryofsorts,onethatIamskepticalof.
Althoughitseemsimpossibletoprove,Iwouldassessthatanypoliticalsupportofthis
redefinitionwasnotdoneinordertocreateanewsocialorder,butrather,wasdoneby
politicianswhorealizedburgeoningaspectsofsociallifethatcouldpotentiallysupportany

Moges 21
politicalambitions,suchasimperialism,andinturnendorsedthesessocialaspectsinorderto
generatesupportforpoliticalagendas.Althoughthisconjecturecantbeprovenforcertain,it
seemslikethemostlikelyexplanation.

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