Chapter 5

Reservoir Description
Presenter: Leigh Brooks

Reservoir description
What do we want to do?
Most simply:
1.Estimate the amount of hydrocarbons in place in your field
ie Original Oil in Place (OOIP) and/or
Original Gas in Place (OGIP)
Simply:
OOIP = trap Volume x Net/Gross (N/G) x Porosity () x Oil
Saturation (So) x Oil shrinkage (1/Bo)
OGIP = trap Volume x Net/Gross (N/G) x Porosity () x Gas
Saturation (Sg) x Gas Expansion Factor

Reservoir description
What do we want to do?
2. Estimate how much can be economically recovered.
This (recovery factor) is dependent on:
how the oil and gas is distributed within the field (determined by
structure, sedimentary facies distribution ie distribution of particular
rock types deposited in certain depositional environments, fluid
contacts, porosity () , permeability (k))
the quality of the reservoir ie how fast it can produce (permeability)
the reservoir drive mechanism ie pressure support for producing
(flowing or pumping) the hydrocarbon (determined by the extent and
quality - porosity, permeability - of the connected aquifer (water
bearing rock))
Number of wells and Capital costs of the development

Reservoir description
Both these objectives require a model of the reservoir
OOIP is the first step and may be achieved with a
static model
The second step (estimating recovery and production
performance) requires a dynamic model constructed by
engineers to simulate the flow of fluids through the
reservoir over time. Multiple scenarios are generally
modelled to understand the range of outcomes

Example of an attribute display from a reservoir

simulation model

OOIP = trap Volume x Net/Gross (N/G) x Porosity () x Oil Saturation (S ) x Oil shrinkage (1/B
o

Trap Volume generally determined by geological and geophysical

mapping but may be determined by pressure data obtained during
production
Net / Gross is the ratio of net effective reservoir (that which will
contribute to production) to gross interval. This is generally
determined by permeability and porosity and is a function of the
environment of deposition. It will vary laterally and vertically
Porosity () is the pore vol/gross vol of reservoir lithology
Oil Saturation (So) is the fraction of the pore space occupied by
oil and = (1- Water Saturation (Sw)) This is determined by
permeability and capillary pressure and hydrocarbon column and
density
Oil shrinkage (1/ Formation Volume Factor or Bo) Oil
formation volume factor (Bo ) can be defined as ratio of Oil Volume
at reservoir condition to Volume at the surface condition (at 60F and
14.7psi). As pressure decreases when the oil comes to the surface,
gas bubbles out, reducing the volume of the oil)

OOIP

in millions stock tank barrels (STOIP)

= trap Volume (10 6

cu m) x Net/Gross (N/G) x Porosity () x Oil

Saturation (So) x Oil shrinkage (1/Bo) x 6.2898

OGIP

in Billions cu ft (Bcf)

= trap Volume (10 6

cu m) x Net/Gross (N/G) x Porosity () x

Gas Saturation (Sg) x Gas Expansion Factor x 35.3 x1/1000

A reasonably good approximation to Exp Factor can be simply

calculated from The Ideal Gas Law PV=nRT
and a good estimate can be made by incorporating the z factor
P1V1=z1nRT1 and P2V2=z2nRT2 and calculate V1/V2. T is deg
Kelvin (ie 273 + deg C)

Reservoir description
To achieve this requires a co-ordinated Formation
Evaluation process involving many disciplines
A perspective of scale
ORDER OF
MAGNITUDE (m)
106
105
104
103
102
101
100
101

TECHNIQUE
Satellite imagery
Basin geologic studies
Seismic, gravity, magnetics
Borehole gravimeter
Drillstem tests, seismic
Wireline formation tests
Full-diameter cores

102

Side wall cores, most well logs,

measurement while drilling (MWD)
Micro-focused logs, core plug analysis

103
104
105
106

Cutting analysis (mud logging)

Core analysis
X-ray mineralogy
Scanning electron microscope (SEM)

PURPOSE
Gross structure
''
''
''
''
Local structure
Productivity and reserves
''
''
Local porosity, permeability
and lithology
''
''
''

''

Local hydrocarbon content

Rock properties
Rock and clay typing
Micro pore structure

Formation Evaluation continues but changes through

field life

Formation Evaluation
Log measurements, when properly calibrated by core and test
information, can give the majority of the parameters required.
Most of this information is gathered in open hole, either Logging While
Drilling (LWD) or by wireline. Some information can be gathered
through casing

Specifically, logs can provide either a direct measurement or a good

indication of:
porosity, both primary and secondary (fractures and vugs)
permeability
water and hydrocarbon saturation and hydrocarbon movability
hydrocarbon type (oil, gas, or condensate)
lithology
formation (bed) dip and strike
sedimentary environment (facies)
travel times of elastic waves in a formation

Main reservoir types are sandstones and limestones

Limestones are the most important reservoir lithology by volume of
conventional hydrocarbon stored, by virtue of the huge reserves in the
Middle East and Mexico.
-Carbonate/limestone (CaCO3) deposition requires a relative lack of
clastic sedimentation (sands, silts, muds) and high organic productivity
(being a product of biogenic activity), which increases towards the
equator as solar illumination increases
- Salinity and temperature are the 2 main controls on carbonate
deposition
- porosity and permeability distribution is more complex than in clastics,
due to more common dissolution and cementation
Clastic sandstones are also very important reservoirs and are the
most common.
- We will focus mainly on these as, although the principles are the same,
the factors governing reservoir distribution and performance are
generally easier to understand and are better documented in clastics.

Clearly porosity and permeability are fundamental to

understanding the resource
-

What affects them and how do we measure them?

We will look at and k and then fluid saturations

Depositional facies, another important factor which controls the distribution of
, k and fluid saturations will be addressed in a later lecture

1.Porosity :

ratio of pore space to bulk rock volume

Primary : porosity left after compaction but not considering changes from
chemical action eg dissolution
Secondary : porosity created by chemical changes, dissolution, fractures
Effective : porosity in interconnected pores that fluid can move through
Total : all pore space, but not including water of crystallisation in clays

Porosity can be measured from core and from wireline and Logging While
drilling (LWD) logs. Indirect measurements from logs must be calibrated to
measurements from actual rock ie core
We will discuss
1) physical properties of rocks that affect (and k), mainly for clastics
2) the methods of collecting physical core
3) methods of measuring from core and logs

Thin section of rock under microscope showing porosity in

blue and Mercury Injection Capillary Pressure data showing
pore throat size distribution

1) Physical properties of rocks that affect (and k)

Because carbonates are more

soluble (in slightly acidic waters)
than clastics, porosity is more
commonly secondary, governed
by dissolution and cementation
processes

Microscopic section of an oil-bearing rock

Diagenesis
Primary porosity decreases with
depth due to diagenesis the
compaction under increased burial
pressure, and cementation of the
pores with carbonate, silica, clays
and other cements at increasing
temperature and pressure
This trend may be reversed locally by
the creation of secondary porosity by
- dissolution of unstable grains of
minerals such as feldspar
- dissolution of more soluble
components in carbonates
- dolomitisation of limestone, which
will lead to an increase in porosity
(vol of dolomite is less because it is
more dense)

Diagenesis
Diagenesis depends on
1)rock composition and textures ie mineralogy, grainsize, grain shape and
packing (compaction processes)
2)composition and nature of the pore fluids ie ionic concentrations, rate and
volume of the fluid moving through the pores, pressure and temperature
(cementation processes)
Compaction reduces porosity by crushing brittle rock grains like shells and
feldspars, grain slippage and rotation with their effect on the grain packing,
compression and squeezing of ductile grains like mica into pore spaces, and
pressure solution where mineral grains are dissolved under pressure and
reprecipitate in adjacent pores.
Cementation occurs if the pore fluid is supersaturated in the elements comprising
the precipitate. Cements require clean nucleation sites if the sand is dirty and
contains some clay, cementation may be inhibited.
Secondary porosity can be created by the leaching of unstable compounds

Grainsize

Sandstones (a grainsize term)

are the main clastic reservoirs
They are commonly either
quartz rich (quartz arenite) or
composed of carbonate grains
(calcarenite)
Conglomerates are poorly
sorted and are poor reservoirs
Porosity is not dependent on
grainsize but permeability is
- permeability increases with
increasing grainsize (and
increasing pore throat size)
Grainsize mostly depends on
mineralogy, provenance and
depositional energy (facies)

Diam.

Texture of clastic rocks sorting and angularity affect both

porosity and permeability

Poor porosity and

permeability. when
consolidated

Effect of packing of grains on porosity and permeability

Porosity
47.6%
Grain shape and size
effects on porosity

Range of permeability
High Permeability

47.6%

25.9%

<25.9%

Lower Permeability
(for same porosity)

Grainsize, grain sorting and shape are highly influenced by the

depositional energy and environment in which they were deposited
and the geology of the sediment provenance area.
Sand bodies are often not sheet-like. Orientation and distribution of
sand bodies depends on the depositional environment as is the
quality of the sand.
These will be discussed further in a later lecture.

Effective, Non-effective and Total porosity

Largely non
effective

2. methods of collecting physical core coring

Objectives: definition of porosity, permeability, directional

permeability, relative perm, wettability, ability to predict fluid
saturations, irreducible water saturation, lithology, sedimentary facies,
information to calibrate logs including electrical properties of the
rocks

Conventional full diameter core - cut and recovered during the drilling
process.
- Variable diameter but generally ~4.5 diameter.
- expensive, so comprehensive planning to maximise recovery
- non rotating inner core barrel / liner of Al, fibreglass or PVC plastic to maximise
recovery and minimise damage
- liners preserve even unconsolidated core for high quality analyses in the laboratory
- can cut > 50m continuous core
- new bit techology allows coring without pulling drill bit out of hole and running in
with core bit and barrel. Plug in bit is retrieved by wireline and liners run by wireline
- a gamma ray log of the core is recorded through the liner

Rotary sidewall core cut and recovered on wireline after drilling the section
of hole
- mechanical rotary coring tool run on wireline
- can take up to 60 small coreplugs in one run
- rock fabric remains intact so plugs are suitable for permeability and

full diameter core

Rig floor sampling- in the old days we dont usually do this now.
Cores are preserved in liners and sleeves for transport to the laboratories to minimise the chance of
damage to the core

13

Usually half of each core, sliced lengthwise (slabbed), is preserved intact as the
archive section, and the other half is extensively sampled and described.
Alternatively the core is slabbed, into 1/3 (for the geologist) and 2/3 (for the
petroleum engineer who has to take plugs for testing
15

Rotary sidewall coring tool run into the wellbore on wireline

cuts 1 or 1.5 diameter cores

In addition to full diameter and rotary sidewall cores,

percussion sidewall cores can also be collected

Percussion sidewall coring.

- wireline core gun that uses a percussion charge to shoot a hollow
cylinder into the wellbore. This core barrel captures formation material
and holds the material in place during retrieval to surface.
- a maximum of 74 samples can be taken per run at specified depths
- rock fabric is damaged so not suitable for porosity and permeability but
samples suitable for hydrocarbon show identification, lithology, mineralogy,
age dating

Sidewall
coring
bullet
after
leaving
the gun

3. Measurement
Lab measurement of porosity usually by He injection
Pore volume measured using a porosimeter and Boyles Law
P1V1 = P2V2
and = Pore vol/bulk vol
P1 = 0 psig and V1= vol reference chamber
Valve between sample chamber and ref chamber opened and final P2 pressure
measured. V2 = vol sample chamber Vg (which is vol of grains)
Vb measured by displacement or linear measurement

Lab measurement of porosity at ambient conditions needs to be

corrected to represent (slightly lower) porosity at the higher
pressures present at actual formation depth

Illustration of the decrease in porosity of some samples with

increasing OB pressure

Thin section showing porosity in blue and Mercury Injection

Capillary Pressure data showing pore throat size distribution,
which determines permeability

But firstly what are logs and how are they acquired?
Logs are made by:
Moving a tool string with various tools attached at a
certain logging speed, and recording data at certain
intervals called sampling rate
The log is the recording of each of these data
samples at a recorded depth
We usually record logs by lowering the logging
tools to the lowest point in the well and then moving
the tools upward while acquiring data.

Different tools at different depths and different volumes of investigation (yellow shapes)

Vertical resolution
dependent on logging
speed

Data Acquisition Depth Measurement

The first well logs were recorded in 1927

Modern Logging Truck

Inside a wireline logging shack

Standard Logging String

- allows an evaluation of reservoir
and fluid in a single run
Formation Gamma Ray
Neutron Porosity
Density (Porosity)
Caliper (hole size)
Pad Resistivity (good vertical resolution)
Resistivity (good depth of investigation)
Spontaneous Potential
Mud Resistivity

Conveyance methods
Wireline Logging
Logging through pipe
Logging on Drill Pipe (Tough
Logging Conditions)
Logging Using Tractor

Wireline

Logging-While-Drilling

TLC

Tractor

Log readings are not

following the same path
in vertical and horizontal
wells

Interpretation of logs
Interpret lithology
Identify objective reservoir seal pairs
Use to evaluate potential source intervals
Correlate logs to interpret sequence stratigraphy to give sedimentary facies
of important intervals
Interpret rock properties such as porosity and permeability, and fluid
saturations
Interpret fluid systems, OWC, GWC, GOC etc
Tie to seismic data
Use to model seismic response for possible rock properties and fluid types to
understand seismic data
Remember the best interpretation is achieved by calibrating to core

Cross-over of density& neutron log traces in good rock indicates gas

slower

high

Density log (b) good estimate of T in absence of gas

= (matrix- b )/ (matrix- fluid )

Neutron measures H so sees H in water in pores and bound in shales

Sonic

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance- measures phi and k

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance- measures phi and k. Good

indicator of mobile fluid ie rock that can produce fluid vs that
which is tight and cannot

Large pores
mobile fluid
ie producible

Small pores
irreducible
water ie will
not flow

Other logs commonly used for

complete reservoir evaluation:
Mudlog/lithologic log (lith, fluid)
Gamma ray (lithology)
Resistivity (Sw)
Borehole caliper (k if mudcake)
Spontaneous Potential (lith,k)
Image logs eg microresistivity tool FMI
(Formation Micro-Imager) (lith, dips,
fractures,fault)
Photoelectric absorption (lith)
Pressure and formation fluid sampling tools
(fluid, k)
Vertical Seismic Profiler/seismic checkshot
(seismic welltie)
MWD drilling parameters
Permeability probe in lab (k)

(Volume of clay bound water)

Important summary

logs

Egs of other logs Gamma Ray (GR) and Resistivity (RES) and
computed reservoir properties in right hand tracks

Extensive formation Evaluation

for development decision
Yolla 4. Extensive coring, MDT
(fluid sampling and formation
pressures) & testing prog. in Y-3
and Y-4 to improve data set

Depositional facies
The observable attributes of a sedimentary rock body that reflect the depositional
processes or environments that formed it.

Walthers Law of Facies

Facies that succeed each
other vertically without a
time break were
originally deposited
adjacent to each other

Facies

Facies association or model

series of facies everywhere found together
represent deposition of sediment in various parts of a single
depositional environment

Depositional facies interpreted from logs such as these recorded over fluviodeltaic sands help predict reservoir distribution and quality

Grainsize
increasing

Facies
Beach-Foreshore

1ST
ANGLE_OF_REPOSE
CROSS BEDDING

Grainsize increasing

Mid to Upper Shoreface:

Convex-up Hummocks rarely preserved (loosely
termed swaly)

Lower Shoreface: HCS

Hummocky Cross-Stratification

Upper Offshore:
Turbidites

Lower Offshore
73

Muds, shales

A Typical vertical
Shoreface
Sequence
- formed as the beach
progrades (moves
laterally) into the basin
due to continued
sediment supply and
younger beach
sediments are
deposited on top of
older shoreface and
offshore sediments

Eg of different sedimentary facies that are deposited at the same time in

different locations ie they are equivalent. The change in facies may occur
within the field and they will have different /k relationships

GRay

GRay

GRay

Datumed Cross Section through Pohokura Field

Datum: KA-00

TVD
MD

MD
MD

MD

Upper shoreface
Lower shoreface

Lagoon/coastal plain

The geometry of sediment distribution (depositional facies patterns and

preserved sediment) will vary with the balance between sediment supply and
sea level

Reservoir vs non
reservoir/waste
zone vs seal
-waste zones, as the term
implies, are where low
permeability non effective
reservoir are present in the
trap.
-They are important to
recognise as they reduce
effective reservoir volume

Different sedimentary facies have

different /k relationships
These must be factored in to an
effective reservoir model

High energy
fluvio-deltaic
sands

k
Low energy
marine sands

Clearly porosity and permeability are fundamental to

understanding the resource
- What affects them and how do we measure them?

2. Permeability (k): is a measure of how easily a fluid

flows through the rock. Unit is Darcy, although a more
commonly used unit is the milliDarcy (mD), which is 1D/1000.
It is a function of the size and shape of the pore channels and
their distribution.
Absolute k : permeability when only one fluid is present in the rock (measured
by core analysis)
Effective k : permeability of each phase when more than one fluid is present
(measured by well tests)
Relative k (kr) : is the ratio of effective to absolute k for each phase present. As
there are always more than one phase present in the reservoir, formation
flow is governed by kr (measured by core analysis)

Permeability can be measured from core and estimated from wireline

Formation Testers and Well Tests. It can also be calculated from wireline and
LWD logs. Indirect measurements from logs must be calibrated to
measurements from actual rock ie core
We will discuss
1.physical properties of rocks that affect k, mainly for clastics
2.methods of measuring k from core and estimating from logs and tests

ORDER OF
MAGNITUDE (m)

TECHNIQUE

PURPOSE

102

Drillstem tests

101

Wireline formation tests

100

Full-diameter cores

Local porosity,
permeability
and lithology

101

Side wall cores, most well

logs, Measurement While
Drilling (MWD)

102

Micro-focused logs, core

plug analysis

Local porosity,
permeability
and lithology
Local porosity,
permeability
and lithology

The most essential section of the table for us

Productivity and
reserves, k
Productivity and
reserves, k

Texture of clastic rocks sorting and angularity

affect both porosity and permeability

Texture of clastic rocks grainsize affects k while sorting

and angularity affect both and k

Used in the lab to

estimate k

Wireline Formation Testers record formation pressures and

take formation samples, including PVT samples. Permeability can be estimated
from the mobility using drawdown and buildup pressures
Downhole fluid analyser can be used to monitor phase of fluid
entering the tool

Wireline Formation StraddleTesters record

formation pressures and take formation samples from an interval between
2 packers set against the sides of the wellbore. Permeability can be
estimated. Good in thinly bedded sediments

Principles of Drillstem Testing: (a) Running in Hole (b) Setting Packer

(c) Opening Flow Valve (d) Fluids to surface

31

Permeability can be estimated from Well Test data.

The depth of investigation is much larger than either core, logs

or wireline testers and therefore is more representative of
formation permeability.

Depending on the length of the test (and the amount of fluid

withdrawn from the formation) barriers within and boundaries of
the reservoir can sometimes be seen.

Permeability, reservoir pressure and skin can be calculated

from all the data recorded during a test (pressure drawdown,
production rates, pressure buildup vs time etc), using
sophisticated software such as Saphir by Kappa and Harmony
by Fekete

Relative permeability
phases present in the pores

flow of one phase is affected by other fluid

Log analysis
(petrophysics)
Log analysis of k (using Coates
Free Fluid equation) and log
computed calibrated to core
analysis data (red circles)

Egs of other logs Gamma Ray (GR) and Resistivity (RES) and
computed reservoir properties in right hand tracks

Role of Initial Fluid Saturation in Modeling

There is a general relationship between the amount of interstitial water and porosity, permeability
and grain size in the reservoir. As a general rule in formation evaluation, as the percentage of
reservoir water increases, the permeability, porosity and grain size decreases.
The amount of recoverable hydrocarbons is directly based on the amount of water in the pore
spaces. Therefore water volumes are a necessary calculation before any hydrocarbon production
calculation takes place.
Initial fluid saturation distribution of reservoir fluid phases is required for:
Static modeling through definition of initial hydrocarbon in-place;
Dynamic modeling, which aims to predict hydrocarbon production and recovery

March 6, 2012

PTRL3001 - N. Beliakova

95

Log analysis
Calculation of Water Saturation Sw (Sw + So =1 and so Oil and Gas
Saturation = 1-Sw) is an essential part of defining OOIP and OGIP
The basic relationship used in fluid saturation estimations from logs is the
empirical Archies Law, although many variations and refinements have
been developed.
Archies Law: Sw = n Rw/Rt.m
Rw is resistivity of formation water, from sample or calculated from logs
Rt is true formation resistivity measured from deep investigation resistivity tool
m is the cementation exponent and is derived from core analysis
(commonly ~ 2). Related to pore geometry
n is the saturation exponent and is derived from core analysis (commonly ~
2). Related to wettability
The Law enables Sw to be calculated from resistivity measured from logs.
Sw deceases ie So increases with increasing formation resistivity at any
given/constant

The Law enables Sw to be calculated from resistivity measured from logs.

It assumes that electrical conduction in rocks results from the transport of
ions in the pore filling brine. How easily these ions traverse a pore system
determines the rocks resistivity. In rocks with well connected open pores
filled with brine, ion flow occurs easily and the resistivity is low. Rocks with
sinuous constricted pore paths, however, restrict ion flow and have high
resistivity
In either case, ion flow paths become tortuous and resistivity increases
correspondingly when some of the brine is replaced by nonconducting hydrocarbon.
Water saturation and hence oil or gas saturation can be estimated from
logs provided they have been calibrated with core data.
Values from log analysis can be further calibrated against capillary
pressure data

Remember the Traps lecture:

Seals are any rocks capable of holding a hydrocarbon column. They can
do so because they have low permeability and very small pore throats.
The quality of a seal is determined by the minimum pressure (due to
buoyancy of the hydrocarbon) required to displace connate water (normal
wetting phase) from the largest pores or fractures in the seal, allowing
leakage.
Capillary pressure, which determines seal capacity (and reservoir
quality), increases as the throat radius of the largest connected pores
decreases, as the wettability decreases and as the hydrocarbon- water
interfacial tension increases.
Poor seal
Good seal

What is it? Capillary Pressure Definition

When two immiscible fluids (such as oil and water) coexist at equilibrium in a capillary tube,
there is a difference in pressure across their interface. This "Capillary Pressure" is caused by
the preferential wetting of the capillary walls by one of the fluids and gives rise to the familiar
curved meniscus.

Pc = Pnw - Pw
Pc = Capillary pressure
Pnw = Pressure of the non-wetting phase
Pw = Pressure of the wetting phase

Continuum: an Oil Blob in a Water Tank - buoyancy

<
water

oil
Gravity (down)
Buoyancy (up)

Recall
school
physics

Buoyancy force = weight of displaced water = upward force

Gravity force = weight of an oil blob
= downward force
The rise of an oil blob is due to inequality between gravity and buoyancy: net resulting force is upward.
Larger density difference between oil and water corresponds to larger net resulting force.
Larger weight of displaced water corresponds to larger net resulting force.
March 6, 2012

PTRL3001 - N. Beliakova

101

Continuum: Stable Equilibrium

In the absence of porous medium, a
stable static equilibrium:
is achieved by a balance between
gravity and buoyancy;
results in the vertical segregation of
oil and water with oil (lighter fluid) on
top of water (heavier fluid). Two
immiscible fluids are fully segregated!
On the oil-water interface, the following
conditions will be satisfied:
Poil=Pwater
Pc = Poil-Pwater = 0
(flat interface -> zero curvature)

p0-wgh1- ogh2

oil

h2

p0-wgh1

seawater

h1

an oil filament
p0
seafloor

In the subsurface, pores and capillary pressures blur this

boundary
to give a transition zone
March 6, 2012
PTRL3001 - N. Beliakova

102

Quartz Sst, fri, f-m grain, part calc cmtd. Core

phi=20%; Kair=~1D
Loose qtz sand in ctngs, m-crs, (rnd)-rnd,

Oil zone (high

resistivity)with
sharp OWC ie v
thin transition zone
due to high k
resistivity in
water zone

 What is it? Capillary Pressure Definition

When two immiscible fluids (such as oil and water) coexist at equilibrium in a capillary tube,
there is a difference in pressure across their interface. This "Capillary Pressure" is caused by
the preferential wetting of the capillary walls by one of the fluids and gives rise to the familiar
curved meniscus.

Pc = Pnw - Pw
Pc = Capillary pressure
Pnw = Pressure of the non-wetting phase
Pw = Pressure of the wetting phase

Capillary pressure characteristics of reservoir rocks affect

the flow and distribution of fluids within the reservoir. It is one
of the most important measurements that can be made because it relates
reservoir rock and reservoir fluid properties. The magnitude of capillary
pressure reported in laboratory tests relates to the height above the free water
level in the reservoir.

The relationship between capillary pressure and water saturation

is dependant upon grain size, grain shape, packing, sorting and
cementation (environment of deposition and diagenesis). These all affect the
pore throat diameter distribution, often referred to as the pore size

distribution (PSD) within the rock. The relationship is also

dependant upon the interfacial tension between the two
immiscible phases present, the contact angle between the
wetting phase and the rock surface and the density
difference between the fluids.

 Capillary Pressure (Pc)

Well

Pressure

Gas

GOC

Depth

Oil

Gas pressure
gradient

Pc = Po - Pw = g.h.(w-o)

Oil pressure
gradient

OWC
Free Water Level

Water

Water pressure
gradient
Static pressures in a homogeneous reservoir

Effect of Texture & Pore Geometry - 1

Pore size and distribution influence the magnitude of irreducible

water and the height of the transition zone.

Height Above Water Level

Smaller pores mean lower permeability and higher Sw

B
A

Rock-type A
Good reservoir

Water Saturation

Rock-type B
Poor reservoir

Effect of Texture & Pore Geometry - 2

As hydrocarbons accumulate, the largest pores are drained of water first
(water is pushed out by buoyancy force of the hydrocarbon).
Smaller pores are drained of water and displaced by hydrocarbon as the
HC column (height or buoyancy pressure) increases

B
A

Capillary Pressure is measured in the lab by several

methods. eg A brine saturated sample is displaced by a non wetting
phase such as air through a porous plate at increasing pressures. This
mimics the displacement of water (in a water wet reservoir) by hydrocarbon

Capillary Pressure curves

Irreducible Sw
(Swirr)

Capillary
pressure
directly related
to ht above
FWL

Rock S is a
seal due to
high entry
pressure

Capillary Pressure curves from various

facies , Wheatstone-1

 If you know the FWL from pressure data and have a family
of cap pressure curves for various permeabilities and a
measurement (or estimate from logs) of the permeability
in the formation you can calculate an Sw profile (to
calibrate your log analysis)

(each for different k)

SSw

These
porosities
each have an
assumed k
(from /k
relationship)

Fluid Contacts can be estimated

from pressure data

Fluid Contacts can be estimated from pressure data : eg

pressure data through gas pay, Wheatstone-1